Saadawi, Nawal El
Saadawi, Nawal El (Nawal al-Sa'dawi) (b. October 27, 1931, Kafr Tahlah, Egypt). Egyptian doctor, author and feminist. Saadawi’s works deal with the Arab female psyche, which she perceives as difficult and troubled. She has set out to liberate the mind of the Arab woman, her sexuality, as well as her legal position. Saadawi has been a prolific writer, both of books and of articles. Her writings were, for a long time, considered dangerous for the society, and she had her works published in Beirut, Lebanon, as these were banished in here native Egypt.
Saadawi was prevented from working as a medical doctor, and she was jailed from 1981 to 1982. After incarceration, she worked in rural Egypt, with information work directed at women, in order to liberate them economically from male dominance.
Saadawi is especially famous for the book Women at Point Zero (‘Al-Wajhu al-‘ariyy lil-mar’ati al-‘arabiyya) which was published in 1977.
Nawāl al-Saʿdāwī was an Egyptian public health physician, psychiatrist, author, and advocate of women’s rights. Sometimes described as “the Simone de Beauvoir of the Arab world,” El Saadawi was a feminist whose writings and professional career were dedicated to political and sexual rights for women.
El Saadawi was educated at Cairo University (M.D., 1955), Columbia University in New York (M.P.H., 1966), and ʿAyn Shams University in Cairo (where she performed psychiatric research in 1972–74). In 1955–65 she worked as a physician at Cairo University and in the Egyptian ministry of health, and in 1966 she became the director-general of the health education department within the ministry. In 1968 she founded Health magazine, which was shut down by Egyptian authorities several years later, and in 1972 she was expelled from her professional position in the ministry of health because of her book Al-marʾah wa al-jins (1969; Women and Sex), which was condemned by religious and political authorities. El Saadawi was jailed in September 1981, and during the two months of her imprisonment she wrote Mudhakkirāt fī sijn al-nisāʾ (1984; Memoirs from the Women’s Prison) on a roll of toilet paper using a smuggled cosmetic pencil.
In 1982 El Saadawi founded the Arab Women’s Solidarity Association (AWSA) and later served as editor of the organization’s publication, Al-nūn. In 1991 the government closed down Al-nūn and then, several months later, AWSA itself. Due to her outspoken views, El Saadawi continued to face frequent legal challenges from political and religious opponents, including accusations of apostasy. In 2002 a legal attempt was made by an Islamist lawyer to forcibly divorce her from her husband, and in May 2008 she won a case that had been brought against her by al-Azhar University, the major center of Islamic learning, that included charges of apostasy and heresy.
El Saadawi’s novels, short stories, and nonfiction deal chiefly with the status of Arab women, as in Mudhakkirāt tabībah (1960; Memoirs of a Woman Doctor), Al-khayt wa al-jidār (1972; The Thread and the Wall), Al-wajh al-ʿarī lī al-marʾah al-arabiyyah (1977; The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World), Al-ḥubb fī zaman al-nafṭ (1993; Love in the Kingdom of Oil), and Al-riwāyah (2004; The Novel). The oppression of women by men through religion is the underlying theme of El Saadawi’s novel set in a mental institution, Jannāt wa Iblīs (1992; Jannāt and Iblīs). The female protagonists are Jannāt, whose name is the plural of the Arabic word for paradise, and Iblīs, whose name refers to the devil.
Saadawi has written prolifically, placing some of her works online. Her works include:
* Memoirs of a Woman Doctor (1960, 1980; translated by Catherine Cobham, 1989)
* Searching (1968; translated by Shirley Eber, 1991)
* The Death of the Only Man in the World (1974; translated by Sherif Hetata, 1985) Published in English under the title God Dies by the Nile
* The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World (1977; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1980)
* The Circling Song (1978; transl. by Marilyn Booth, 1989)
* Death of an Ex-Minister (1980; transl. by Shirley Eber, 1987)
* She Has No Place in Paradise (1979; transl. by Shirley Eber)
* Woman at Point Zero (1979)
* Two Women in One (1983; transl. by Osman Nusairi and Jana Gough, 1985)
* The Fall of the Imam (1987; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1988)
* Memoirs from the Women's Prison (1984; transl. by Marilyn Booth, 1994)
* The Innocence of the Devil (1994; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1994)
* North/South: The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (1997)
* A Daughter of Isis
* Dissidenza e scrittura (2008)
* L'amore ai tempi del petrolio, translated by Marika Macco, introduction by Luisa Morgantini, Editrice il Sirente, Fagnano Alto, 2009.
Nawal El Saadawi see Saadawi, Nawal El
Nawal al-Sa'dawi see Saadawi, Nawal El
Sa'dawi, Nawal al- see Saadawi, Nawal El
Saadawi, Nawal El (Nawal al-Sa'dawi) (b. October 27, 1931, Kafr Tahlah, Egypt). Egyptian doctor, author and feminist. Saadawi’s works deal with the Arab female psyche, which she perceives as difficult and troubled. She has set out to liberate the mind of the Arab woman, her sexuality, as well as her legal position. Saadawi has been a prolific writer, both of books and of articles. Her writings were, for a long time, considered dangerous for the society, and she had her works published in Beirut, Lebanon, as these were banished in here native Egypt.
Saadawi was prevented from working as a medical doctor, and she was jailed from 1981 to 1982. After incarceration, she worked in rural Egypt, with information work directed at women, in order to liberate them economically from male dominance.
Saadawi is especially famous for the book Women at Point Zero (‘Al-Wajhu al-‘ariyy lil-mar’ati al-‘arabiyya) which was published in 1977.
Nawāl al-Saʿdāwī was an Egyptian public health physician, psychiatrist, author, and advocate of women’s rights. Sometimes described as “the Simone de Beauvoir of the Arab world,” El Saadawi was a feminist whose writings and professional career were dedicated to political and sexual rights for women.
El Saadawi was educated at Cairo University (M.D., 1955), Columbia University in New York (M.P.H., 1966), and ʿAyn Shams University in Cairo (where she performed psychiatric research in 1972–74). In 1955–65 she worked as a physician at Cairo University and in the Egyptian ministry of health, and in 1966 she became the director-general of the health education department within the ministry. In 1968 she founded Health magazine, which was shut down by Egyptian authorities several years later, and in 1972 she was expelled from her professional position in the ministry of health because of her book Al-marʾah wa al-jins (1969; Women and Sex), which was condemned by religious and political authorities. El Saadawi was jailed in September 1981, and during the two months of her imprisonment she wrote Mudhakkirāt fī sijn al-nisāʾ (1984; Memoirs from the Women’s Prison) on a roll of toilet paper using a smuggled cosmetic pencil.
In 1982 El Saadawi founded the Arab Women’s Solidarity Association (AWSA) and later served as editor of the organization’s publication, Al-nūn. In 1991 the government closed down Al-nūn and then, several months later, AWSA itself. Due to her outspoken views, El Saadawi continued to face frequent legal challenges from political and religious opponents, including accusations of apostasy. In 2002 a legal attempt was made by an Islamist lawyer to forcibly divorce her from her husband, and in May 2008 she won a case that had been brought against her by al-Azhar University, the major center of Islamic learning, that included charges of apostasy and heresy.
El Saadawi’s novels, short stories, and nonfiction deal chiefly with the status of Arab women, as in Mudhakkirāt tabībah (1960; Memoirs of a Woman Doctor), Al-khayt wa al-jidār (1972; The Thread and the Wall), Al-wajh al-ʿarī lī al-marʾah al-arabiyyah (1977; The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World), Al-ḥubb fī zaman al-nafṭ (1993; Love in the Kingdom of Oil), and Al-riwāyah (2004; The Novel). The oppression of women by men through religion is the underlying theme of El Saadawi’s novel set in a mental institution, Jannāt wa Iblīs (1992; Jannāt and Iblīs). The female protagonists are Jannāt, whose name is the plural of the Arabic word for paradise, and Iblīs, whose name refers to the devil.
Saadawi has written prolifically, placing some of her works online. Her works include:
* Memoirs of a Woman Doctor (1960, 1980; translated by Catherine Cobham, 1989)
* Searching (1968; translated by Shirley Eber, 1991)
* The Death of the Only Man in the World (1974; translated by Sherif Hetata, 1985) Published in English under the title God Dies by the Nile
* The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World (1977; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1980)
* The Circling Song (1978; transl. by Marilyn Booth, 1989)
* Death of an Ex-Minister (1980; transl. by Shirley Eber, 1987)
* She Has No Place in Paradise (1979; transl. by Shirley Eber)
* Woman at Point Zero (1979)
* Two Women in One (1983; transl. by Osman Nusairi and Jana Gough, 1985)
* The Fall of the Imam (1987; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1988)
* Memoirs from the Women's Prison (1984; transl. by Marilyn Booth, 1994)
* The Innocence of the Devil (1994; transl. by Sherif Hetata, 1994)
* North/South: The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (1997)
* A Daughter of Isis
* Dissidenza e scrittura (2008)
* L'amore ai tempi del petrolio, translated by Marika Macco, introduction by Luisa Morgantini, Editrice il Sirente, Fagnano Alto, 2009.
Nawal El Saadawi see Saadawi, Nawal El
Nawal al-Sa'dawi see Saadawi, Nawal El
Sa'dawi, Nawal al- see Saadawi, Nawal El
Saba’
Saba’ (Sheba) (Sh'va). Name of a people and kingdom in southwestern Arabia (Yemen) in the first millennium B.C.T. At the period of the rise of Islam, Saba’ was beginning to disappear from the memory of the Arab world. The most valuable items of information about Saba’s geography, history and architecture are given by Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani. The legendary Queen of Sheba (in Arabic, Bilqis) is said to have reigned in Saba’.
Sheba is a kingdom in pre-Islamic southwestern Arabia, frequently mentioned in the Bible (notably in the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba) and variously cited by ancient Assyrian, Greek, and Roman writers from about the 8th century B.C.T. to about the 5th century. Its capital, at least in the middle period, was Maʾrib, which lies 75 miles (120 km) east of present-day Sanaa, in Yemen. A second major city was Ṣirwāḥ.
The Sabaeans were a Semitic people who, at an unknown date, entered southern Arabia from the north, imposing their Semitic culture on an aboriginal population. Excavations in central Yemen suggest that the Sabaean civilization began as early as the 10th–12th century B.C.T. By the 7th–5th century B.C.T., besides “kings of Sabaʾ” there were individuals styling themselves “mukarribs of Sabaʾ,” who apparently either were high priest–princes or exercised some function parallel to the kingly function. This middle period was characterized above all by a tremendous outburst of building activity, principally at Maʾrib and Ṣirwāḥ, and most of the great temples and monuments, including the great Maʾrib Dam, on which Sabaean agricultural prosperity depended, date back to this period. Further, there was an ever-shifting pattern of alliances and wars between Sabaʾ and other peoples of southwestern Arabia—not only the important kingdoms of Qatabān and Ḥaḍramawt but also a number of lesser but still independent kingdoms and city-states.
Sabaʾ was rich in spices and agricultural products and carried on a wealth of trade by overland caravan and by sea. For centuries it controlled Bāb el-Mandeb, the straits leading into the Red Sea, and it established many colonies on the African shores. That Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was peopled from South Arabia is proved linguistically; but the difference between the Sabaean and Ethiopian languages is such as to imply that the settlement was very early and that there were many centuries of separation, during which the Abyssinians were exposed to foreign influences. New colonies, however, seem occasionally to have followed, and some parts of the African coast were under the suzerainty of the Sabaean kings as late as the 1st century B.C.T.
Toward the end of the 3rd century, a powerful king named Shamir Yuharʿish (who seems incidentally to be the first really historical personage whose fame has survived in the Islamic traditions) assumed the title “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān and of Ḥaḍramawt and Yamanāt.” By this time, therefore, the political independence of Ḥaḍramawt had succumbed to Sabaʾ, which had thus become the controlling power in all southwestern Arabia. In the mid-4th century ad, it underwent a temporary eclipse, for the title of “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān” was then claimed by the king of Aksum on the east African coast. At the end of the 4th century, southern Arabia was again independent under a “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān and Ḥaḍramawt and Yamanāt.” But within two centuries the Sabaeans would disappear as they were successively overrun by Persian adventurers and by the Muslim Arabs.
Sheba see Saba’
Sh'va see Saba’
Saba’ (Sheba) (Sh'va). Name of a people and kingdom in southwestern Arabia (Yemen) in the first millennium B.C.T. At the period of the rise of Islam, Saba’ was beginning to disappear from the memory of the Arab world. The most valuable items of information about Saba’s geography, history and architecture are given by Abu Muhammad al-Hamdani. The legendary Queen of Sheba (in Arabic, Bilqis) is said to have reigned in Saba’.
Sheba is a kingdom in pre-Islamic southwestern Arabia, frequently mentioned in the Bible (notably in the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba) and variously cited by ancient Assyrian, Greek, and Roman writers from about the 8th century B.C.T. to about the 5th century. Its capital, at least in the middle period, was Maʾrib, which lies 75 miles (120 km) east of present-day Sanaa, in Yemen. A second major city was Ṣirwāḥ.
The Sabaeans were a Semitic people who, at an unknown date, entered southern Arabia from the north, imposing their Semitic culture on an aboriginal population. Excavations in central Yemen suggest that the Sabaean civilization began as early as the 10th–12th century B.C.T. By the 7th–5th century B.C.T., besides “kings of Sabaʾ” there were individuals styling themselves “mukarribs of Sabaʾ,” who apparently either were high priest–princes or exercised some function parallel to the kingly function. This middle period was characterized above all by a tremendous outburst of building activity, principally at Maʾrib and Ṣirwāḥ, and most of the great temples and monuments, including the great Maʾrib Dam, on which Sabaean agricultural prosperity depended, date back to this period. Further, there was an ever-shifting pattern of alliances and wars between Sabaʾ and other peoples of southwestern Arabia—not only the important kingdoms of Qatabān and Ḥaḍramawt but also a number of lesser but still independent kingdoms and city-states.
Sabaʾ was rich in spices and agricultural products and carried on a wealth of trade by overland caravan and by sea. For centuries it controlled Bāb el-Mandeb, the straits leading into the Red Sea, and it established many colonies on the African shores. That Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was peopled from South Arabia is proved linguistically; but the difference between the Sabaean and Ethiopian languages is such as to imply that the settlement was very early and that there were many centuries of separation, during which the Abyssinians were exposed to foreign influences. New colonies, however, seem occasionally to have followed, and some parts of the African coast were under the suzerainty of the Sabaean kings as late as the 1st century B.C.T.
Toward the end of the 3rd century, a powerful king named Shamir Yuharʿish (who seems incidentally to be the first really historical personage whose fame has survived in the Islamic traditions) assumed the title “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān and of Ḥaḍramawt and Yamanāt.” By this time, therefore, the political independence of Ḥaḍramawt had succumbed to Sabaʾ, which had thus become the controlling power in all southwestern Arabia. In the mid-4th century ad, it underwent a temporary eclipse, for the title of “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān” was then claimed by the king of Aksum on the east African coast. At the end of the 4th century, southern Arabia was again independent under a “king of Sabaʾ and the Dhū Raydān and Ḥaḍramawt and Yamanāt.” But within two centuries the Sabaeans would disappear as they were successively overrun by Persian adventurers and by the Muslim Arabs.
Sheba see Saba’
Sh'va see Saba’
Sabaens
Sabaens (in Arabic, al-Sabi’a). The name has been given to two quite distinct sects. One is that of the Mandaeans or Subbas, a Judeo-Christian sect practicing the rite of baptism in Mesopotamia, the so-called Christians of John the Baptist. The other is that of the Sabaeans of Harran, a pagan sect which survived for a considerable time under Islam. The Sabaeans mentioned in the Qur’an are apparently the Mandaeans. The Sabaeans of Harran believed in a creator of the world, who is reached through the intermediary of astral spirits. They were persecuted by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Qahir bi-‘llah. After the middle of the eleventh century all traces of the Sabaeans of Harran are lost. Some great scholars belonged to this sect, among them Thabit ibn Qurra and Sinan ibn Thabit, the physician of the Caliph al-Muqtadir (r. 908-932).
The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in the south west of the Arabian Peninsula. Some Sabaeans also lived in D'mt, located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, due to their hegemony over the Red Sea.
Some scholars suggest a link between the Sabaeans and the Biblical land of Sheba.
The ancient Sabaean Kingdom lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century B.C.T. In the 1st century B.C.T. it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and Dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century. Its capital was Ma'rib. The kingdom was located along the strip of desert called Sayhad by medieval Arab geographers and that is called now Ramlat al-Sab`atayn.
The Sabaean people were South Arabian people. Each of these had regional kingdoms in ancient Yemen, with the Minaeans in the north along the Red Sea, the Sabeans on the south western tip, stretching from the highlands to the sea, the Qatabanians to the east of them and the Hadramites east of them.
The Sabaeans, like the other Yemenite kingdoms of the same period, were involved in the extremely lucrative spice trade, especially frankincense and myrrh. They left behind many inscriptions in the monumental Musnad (Old South Arabian) alphabet, as well as numerous documents in the cursive Zabur script.
Sabaens (in Arabic, al-Sabi’a). The name has been given to two quite distinct sects. One is that of the Mandaeans or Subbas, a Judeo-Christian sect practicing the rite of baptism in Mesopotamia, the so-called Christians of John the Baptist. The other is that of the Sabaeans of Harran, a pagan sect which survived for a considerable time under Islam. The Sabaeans mentioned in the Qur’an are apparently the Mandaeans. The Sabaeans of Harran believed in a creator of the world, who is reached through the intermediary of astral spirits. They were persecuted by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Qahir bi-‘llah. After the middle of the eleventh century all traces of the Sabaeans of Harran are lost. Some great scholars belonged to this sect, among them Thabit ibn Qurra and Sinan ibn Thabit, the physician of the Caliph al-Muqtadir (r. 908-932).
The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in the south west of the Arabian Peninsula. Some Sabaeans also lived in D'mt, located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, due to their hegemony over the Red Sea.
Some scholars suggest a link between the Sabaeans and the Biblical land of Sheba.
The ancient Sabaean Kingdom lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century B.C.T. In the 1st century B.C.T. it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and Dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century. Its capital was Ma'rib. The kingdom was located along the strip of desert called Sayhad by medieval Arab geographers and that is called now Ramlat al-Sab`atayn.
The Sabaean people were South Arabian people. Each of these had regional kingdoms in ancient Yemen, with the Minaeans in the north along the Red Sea, the Sabeans on the south western tip, stretching from the highlands to the sea, the Qatabanians to the east of them and the Hadramites east of them.
The Sabaeans, like the other Yemenite kingdoms of the same period, were involved in the extremely lucrative spice trade, especially frankincense and myrrh. They left behind many inscriptions in the monumental Musnad (Old South Arabian) alphabet, as well as numerous documents in the cursive Zabur script.
Sabah
Sabah(al-Sabah) (as-Sabah). Ruling clan of Kuwait since 1752.
The Āl Ṣabāḥ (the “Ṣabāḥ family”) is the ruling family of Kuwait since 1752. In that year the Banū ʿUtūb, a group of families of the ʿAnizah tribe living in what is now Kuwait, appointed a member of the Ṣabāḥ family, Ṣabāḥ ibn Jābir (r. c. 1752–64), to be their ruler. The dynasty frequently depended politically or militarily on outsiders but maintained its autonomy. Its dependence on the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century was subsequently a cause for Iraq to claim hegemony over Kuwait. It later enjoyed the patronage of the United Kingdom and, more recently, the support of the United States. Despite the existence of deliberative institutions in modern Kuwait, the dynasty retains absolute power.
A chronology of the al-Sabah reads as follows:
In 1710, the first members of the Sabah clan, which belonged to the Amarat tribe, arrived on the shores in the inner part of the Persian Gulf and established Kuwait. As one of three leading families they took charge of administration and defense.
In 1752, the Sabah clan developed its power into becoming rulers of the society. The first ruler, Sabah I as-Sabah took the title “shaykh”.
In 1899, Shaykh Mubarak I gave the British exclusive rights over trade and foreign relations, in return of an annual subsidy of 1,500 pounds.
In 1917, Shaykh Jaber III was deposed by the British as a retaliation of his sympathieswith the Ottomans during World War I.
In 1921, after the death of Shaykh Salim I, the Jaber branch and the Salim branch, agreed to share power.
In 1965, the title of the ruler changed from shaykh to emir.
The Sabah clan rests its power on traditions, and great presence in, and control over, Kuwaiti society. While all of the inhabitants (even immigrant workers) of Kuwait have benefits from the country’s high oil revenues, Kuwait remains a divided society economically and politically. Recent decades have seen the Sabar rulers reducing popular influence on politics, rather than extending it. This has resulted in great dissatisfaction in Kuwait, even among the traditional supporters of the Sabah clan. All indications show that the Sabah clan would have been wiped out if there were democratic elections in Kuwait.
The ruler of Kuwait is called emir. There are two branches of the Sabah clan, Jaber and Salim, that have agreed to share power. Each clan should have second each emir, while the head of the brannch not holding the throne, shall act as crown prince and prime minister.
The Emir of Kuwait is the head of the executive branch. He is nominated by a family council headed by the most senior and prominent members of the Al-Sabah. The leadership is not strictly hereditary and although many Emirs have succeeded their fathers, the family chooses the leader from each succeeding generation. For example, the late Sheikh Jaber Al-Sabah appointed his cousin, Sheikh Sheikh Saad, as heir apparent.
The Kuwaiti parliament has a say in the appointment of the emir. Although customs prohibit the use of such measures, the parliament (per article 3 of the constitution) has a constitutional right to approve or disapprove of an emir's appointment. The parliament effectively removed then crown prince Sheikh Saad after the death of Sheikh Jaber Al-Sabah in early 2006 due to Saad's inability to rule because of illness.
All members of the ruling family receive a monthly stipend from the Amiri Diwan and a year-end bonus. The prime minister is selected by the emir and has to be a member of the ruling family. Precedents dictate that the Al-Sabahs hold key cabinet posts such as the ministry of defense, the foreign ministry, the ministry of interior, the oil ministry and, most importantly, the office of prime minister. With an estimated trillion dollar fortune, mainly from oil revenues, the Al-Sabahs are known for aiding other royal houses in the region who have little or no natural resources like oil for nothing in return.
All members of the Al Sabah family regardless of gender receive special passports (royal passports) which differ from regular passports by color and also mean they are treated like diplomats. They have a monthly income, the Diwan Al Amiri salary (maash Al Diwan Al Amiry), that varies depending on the person's age. The Al Sabah family are known to have weaker salaries than the other royal families in the region. The family also has access to a royal area at Kuwait International Airport. They have immunity in Kuwait against arrests and some other issues, but only the emir and crown prince are immune and inviolable. It is frowned upon for any member of the Al Sabah family to run for or vote for parliament. The Al Sabah family are very well respected even with the problems between some ministers from the family and some of the parliament members.
The emir of Kuwait holds family meetings and gatherings every year during which they discuss a lot of important issues. The emir holds meetings with the head people of the Al Sabah family who are 40 years old or older.
Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah was removed by parliamentary action after a prolonged stalemate following the death of the previous emir, Jaber, on January 15, 2006. He was earlier offered the chance to abdicate after taking power provisionally as stipulated by the constitution, but his inability to recite the oath of office prevented his ratification by parliament.
The then prime minister, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, was nominated for the post of emir by invoking Article 3 of the Kuwaiti constitution. He was sworn in on January 29, 2006.
The emir appointed his brother, Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, as crown prince. The emir also appointed his nephew, Sheikh Nasser Al-Sabah, as prime minister.
On May 13, 2008 the former emir, Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, died after battling health problems for years. He was buried the following day in accordance with Muslim tradition. He was 78 years old.
Sabah, al- see Sabah
Sabah, as- see Sabah
Sabah(al-Sabah) (as-Sabah). Ruling clan of Kuwait since 1752.
The Āl Ṣabāḥ (the “Ṣabāḥ family”) is the ruling family of Kuwait since 1752. In that year the Banū ʿUtūb, a group of families of the ʿAnizah tribe living in what is now Kuwait, appointed a member of the Ṣabāḥ family, Ṣabāḥ ibn Jābir (r. c. 1752–64), to be their ruler. The dynasty frequently depended politically or militarily on outsiders but maintained its autonomy. Its dependence on the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century was subsequently a cause for Iraq to claim hegemony over Kuwait. It later enjoyed the patronage of the United Kingdom and, more recently, the support of the United States. Despite the existence of deliberative institutions in modern Kuwait, the dynasty retains absolute power.
A chronology of the al-Sabah reads as follows:
In 1710, the first members of the Sabah clan, which belonged to the Amarat tribe, arrived on the shores in the inner part of the Persian Gulf and established Kuwait. As one of three leading families they took charge of administration and defense.
In 1752, the Sabah clan developed its power into becoming rulers of the society. The first ruler, Sabah I as-Sabah took the title “shaykh”.
In 1899, Shaykh Mubarak I gave the British exclusive rights over trade and foreign relations, in return of an annual subsidy of 1,500 pounds.
In 1917, Shaykh Jaber III was deposed by the British as a retaliation of his sympathieswith the Ottomans during World War I.
In 1921, after the death of Shaykh Salim I, the Jaber branch and the Salim branch, agreed to share power.
In 1965, the title of the ruler changed from shaykh to emir.
The Sabah clan rests its power on traditions, and great presence in, and control over, Kuwaiti society. While all of the inhabitants (even immigrant workers) of Kuwait have benefits from the country’s high oil revenues, Kuwait remains a divided society economically and politically. Recent decades have seen the Sabar rulers reducing popular influence on politics, rather than extending it. This has resulted in great dissatisfaction in Kuwait, even among the traditional supporters of the Sabah clan. All indications show that the Sabah clan would have been wiped out if there were democratic elections in Kuwait.
The ruler of Kuwait is called emir. There are two branches of the Sabah clan, Jaber and Salim, that have agreed to share power. Each clan should have second each emir, while the head of the brannch not holding the throne, shall act as crown prince and prime minister.
The Emir of Kuwait is the head of the executive branch. He is nominated by a family council headed by the most senior and prominent members of the Al-Sabah. The leadership is not strictly hereditary and although many Emirs have succeeded their fathers, the family chooses the leader from each succeeding generation. For example, the late Sheikh Jaber Al-Sabah appointed his cousin, Sheikh Sheikh Saad, as heir apparent.
The Kuwaiti parliament has a say in the appointment of the emir. Although customs prohibit the use of such measures, the parliament (per article 3 of the constitution) has a constitutional right to approve or disapprove of an emir's appointment. The parliament effectively removed then crown prince Sheikh Saad after the death of Sheikh Jaber Al-Sabah in early 2006 due to Saad's inability to rule because of illness.
All members of the ruling family receive a monthly stipend from the Amiri Diwan and a year-end bonus. The prime minister is selected by the emir and has to be a member of the ruling family. Precedents dictate that the Al-Sabahs hold key cabinet posts such as the ministry of defense, the foreign ministry, the ministry of interior, the oil ministry and, most importantly, the office of prime minister. With an estimated trillion dollar fortune, mainly from oil revenues, the Al-Sabahs are known for aiding other royal houses in the region who have little or no natural resources like oil for nothing in return.
All members of the Al Sabah family regardless of gender receive special passports (royal passports) which differ from regular passports by color and also mean they are treated like diplomats. They have a monthly income, the Diwan Al Amiri salary (maash Al Diwan Al Amiry), that varies depending on the person's age. The Al Sabah family are known to have weaker salaries than the other royal families in the region. The family also has access to a royal area at Kuwait International Airport. They have immunity in Kuwait against arrests and some other issues, but only the emir and crown prince are immune and inviolable. It is frowned upon for any member of the Al Sabah family to run for or vote for parliament. The Al Sabah family are very well respected even with the problems between some ministers from the family and some of the parliament members.
The emir of Kuwait holds family meetings and gatherings every year during which they discuss a lot of important issues. The emir holds meetings with the head people of the Al Sabah family who are 40 years old or older.
Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah was removed by parliamentary action after a prolonged stalemate following the death of the previous emir, Jaber, on January 15, 2006. He was earlier offered the chance to abdicate after taking power provisionally as stipulated by the constitution, but his inability to recite the oath of office prevented his ratification by parliament.
The then prime minister, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, was nominated for the post of emir by invoking Article 3 of the Kuwaiti constitution. He was sworn in on January 29, 2006.
The emir appointed his brother, Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, as crown prince. The emir also appointed his nephew, Sheikh Nasser Al-Sabah, as prime minister.
On May 13, 2008 the former emir, Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, died after battling health problems for years. He was buried the following day in accordance with Muslim tradition. He was 78 years old.
Sabah, al- see Sabah
Sabah, as- see Sabah
Sabah
Sabah (Arabic: صباح; born Jeanette Gergis Al-Feghali) (b. November 10,1927 – d. November 26, 2014) was a Lebanese singer and actress. Considered a "Diva of Music" in the Arab World, (the same title often given to Oum Kalthoum, Warda Al-Jazairia and Fairuz), she released over 50 albums and acted in 98 movies as well as over 20 stage plays. She had a reported 3,500 songs in her repertoire. She was one of the first Arabic singers to perform at Olympia in Paris, Carnegie Hall in New York, Piccadilly Theatre in London and the Sydney Opera House in Sydney. She was considered one of the four Lebanese icons along with Fairus, Wadih El Safi and Zaki Nassif and was nicknamed "Empress of the Lebanese Song" (Arabic: إمبراطورة الأغنية اللبنانية) for it. Sabah, known locally as “Al-Sabbouha” was born in Bdadoun, Lebanon. Her father was severe towards her, even beating her sometimes. When she started making a small amount of money out of her movies, he used to take it away from her. She married early to leave her father’s overbearing financial control. Her brother killed her mother because he believed she was seeing someone outside marriage. She began singing and acting in the 1940s in Egyptian movies when Egyptian filmmaker Henry Barakat recognized her talent. Her first featured film was El-Qalb Louh Wahid (El Alb Laho Wahed) produced by Asia Dagher. Although a Lebanese national, the majority of her films were co-produced with or focused on Egypt. She starred with many famous actors, such as Abdel Halim Hafez, Kamal El Chenawi, Ahmad Mazhar, Rushdy Abaza and Hussein Fahmy.
She released her first song in 1940 at just 13 years of age. The singer soon caught the eye of Egyptian film producer Asia Dagher, who immediately signed her for three films. The first of these, El-Qalb Louh Wahid (The Heart Has Its Reasons), made her a star - and she was known by her character's name - Sabah, which is Arabic for morning - thereafter. She also acquired several other affectionate nicknames, including "Shahroura", Arabic for "singing bird", and "Sabbouha," a diminutive of Sabah. Among her most popular films were Soft Hands (1964), Ataba Square (1959) and The Second Man (1960), in which she played a cabaret singer who vows to avenge her brother's death at the hands of a smuggling ring. In her parallel music career, she recorded more than 3,000 songs, working with a string of legendary Egyptian composers, including the late Mohammed Abdul-Wahhab. She specialized in a Lebanese folk tradition called the mawal, and her most famous songs included Zay el-Assal (Your Love is Like Honey on my Heart) and Akhadou el-Reeh (They Took the Wind). The star held Egyptian, Jordanian and United States citizenship as well as Lebanese, and continued to perform and make television appearances into her 80s.
Sabah released over 50 albums and acted in 98 films during her career. She married nine times, most most notably to Egyptian actor Roshdi Abaza (Rushdy Abaza) and Lebanese author-director Wassim Tabbara. Her last marriage, to Lebanese artist Fadi Lubnan, lasted 17 years. She had two children, Dr. Sabah Shammas and actress Howayda Mansy, both of whom live in the United States.
- Iyam El Loulou written by Karim Abou Chakra (As well as Nousi Nousi a play written and directed by Karim Abou Chakra)
- Kanat Ayyam (1970)
- Nar el shawk (1970)
- Mawal (1966)
- El Aydi el naema (1963) aka Soft Hands
- El Motamarreda (1963)
- Jaoz marti (1961)
- El Rajul el thani (1960)
- El Ataba el khadra (1959)
- Sharia el hub (1958)
- Salem al habaieb (1958)
- Izhay ansak (1956)
- Wahabtak hayati (1956)
- Khatafa mirati (1954)
- Lahn hubi (1953)
- Zalamuni el habaieb (1953)
- Khadaini abi (1951)
- Ana Satuta (1950)
- Sabah el khare (1948)
- Albi wa saifi(1947)
- lubnani fi al gamiaa (1947)
Sabah, Abdullah III ibn Salim as-
Sabah, Abdullah III ibn Salim as- (Abdullah III ibn Salim as-Sabah) (1895- November 24, 1965). Ruler of Kuwait (r. 1950-1965). He was born the son of Salim, who later became shaykh of Kuwait.
In July of 1938, Abdullah became president of the first elected Kuwaiti parliament. In December of the same year, Shaykh Ahmad I had the parliament dissolved.
In 1950, Ahmad I died, and Abdullah became the new shaykh of Kuwait.
In 1956, Abdullah demanded more freedom from the British to act in internal affairs.
In June of 1961, the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreementof 1899 was abrogated and the United Kingdom recognized Kuwait as an independent country. Shortly after the independence, Iraq claimed that Kuwait was Iraqi territory. The United Kingdom sent 6,000 troops to Kuwait to prevent Iraq from intervening.
In November of 1962, a constitution was drafted. According to this document, a National Assembly should be elected by a selection of the male population, that only represented five percent of the total adult population in the country.
In 1965, Abdullah died, and was succeeded by Sabah III ibn Salim, who belonged to the same branch as himself.
Abdullah was the son of Salim I (r. 1917-1921). He, therefore, belonged to the Salim branch. During his reign, Kuwait first gradually liberated itself from British dominance, but this eventually led to independence for the country. There were several reasons for this development: Large oil revenues had given Kuwait much more power than before, the Suez- Sinai War of 1956 made the population of Kuwait more anti-British, and the fall of the pro-Western monarchy of Iraq in 1958 dwarfed the British power in the region. The arrival of independence came in a peaceful way.
Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah was the last Sheikh and first Emir of Kuwait from January 29, 1950 until his death, and the eldest son of Salem Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah. As the eleventh ruler of the al-Sabah dynasty in Kuwait, he took power after the death of his cousin Sheikh Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah. He also ruled as regent upon the death of his father until the election of Sheikh Ahmad.
Unlike his predecessors, he was more pro-Arab than pro-British. He effectively ended the British "protectorate" status of Kuwait by signing a treaty with the British on June 19, 1961. As a man he was known to be modest, of considerable intelligence and for having a keen interest in matters of the intellect. His reign coincided with turbulent times in the middle-east as well as the rest of the third world. He introduced the Constitution of Kuwait in 1962, followed by the parliament in 1963. He also declared himself as “Emir” and head of state.
Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim died two years later after suffering a heart attack and was succeeded by his half-brother, Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah. He was also the father of Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who ruled briefly in January 2006.
Abdullah III ibn Salim as-Sabah see Sabah, Abdullah III ibn Salim as-
Sabah, Abdullah III ibn Salim as- (Abdullah III ibn Salim as-Sabah) (1895- November 24, 1965). Ruler of Kuwait (r. 1950-1965). He was born the son of Salim, who later became shaykh of Kuwait.
In July of 1938, Abdullah became president of the first elected Kuwaiti parliament. In December of the same year, Shaykh Ahmad I had the parliament dissolved.
In 1950, Ahmad I died, and Abdullah became the new shaykh of Kuwait.
In 1956, Abdullah demanded more freedom from the British to act in internal affairs.
In June of 1961, the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreementof 1899 was abrogated and the United Kingdom recognized Kuwait as an independent country. Shortly after the independence, Iraq claimed that Kuwait was Iraqi territory. The United Kingdom sent 6,000 troops to Kuwait to prevent Iraq from intervening.
In November of 1962, a constitution was drafted. According to this document, a National Assembly should be elected by a selection of the male population, that only represented five percent of the total adult population in the country.
In 1965, Abdullah died, and was succeeded by Sabah III ibn Salim, who belonged to the same branch as himself.
Abdullah was the son of Salim I (r. 1917-1921). He, therefore, belonged to the Salim branch. During his reign, Kuwait first gradually liberated itself from British dominance, but this eventually led to independence for the country. There were several reasons for this development: Large oil revenues had given Kuwait much more power than before, the Suez- Sinai War of 1956 made the population of Kuwait more anti-British, and the fall of the pro-Western monarchy of Iraq in 1958 dwarfed the British power in the region. The arrival of independence came in a peaceful way.
Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah was the last Sheikh and first Emir of Kuwait from January 29, 1950 until his death, and the eldest son of Salem Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah. As the eleventh ruler of the al-Sabah dynasty in Kuwait, he took power after the death of his cousin Sheikh Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah. He also ruled as regent upon the death of his father until the election of Sheikh Ahmad.
Unlike his predecessors, he was more pro-Arab than pro-British. He effectively ended the British "protectorate" status of Kuwait by signing a treaty with the British on June 19, 1961. As a man he was known to be modest, of considerable intelligence and for having a keen interest in matters of the intellect. His reign coincided with turbulent times in the middle-east as well as the rest of the third world. He introduced the Constitution of Kuwait in 1962, followed by the parliament in 1963. He also declared himself as “Emir” and head of state.
Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim died two years later after suffering a heart attack and was succeeded by his half-brother, Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah. He was also the father of Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who ruled briefly in January 2006.
Abdullah III ibn Salim as-Sabah see Sabah, Abdullah III ibn Salim as-
Sabah, Ahmad I ibn Jaber as-
Sabah, Ahmad I ibn Jaber as- (Ahmad I ibn Jaber as-Sabah) (Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah) (1885 - 29 January 1950). Shaykh of Kuwait (1921-1950). He was born in Kuwait, the son of Jaber, who became shaykh of Kuwait from 1915 until 1917.
In 1921, Ahmad became shaykh of Kuwait.
In 1934, Ahmad granted the first oil concessions to Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), which had Western owners. Ahmad considered fees and advance royalties as his personal income, something that angered the Kuwaiti notables.
In 1938, after much popular pressure, Ahmad accepted that much of his power is transferred to a parliament with fourteen chosen by limited popular elections. In July of 1938, the parliament elected a president, Abdullah as-Sabah, who came to succeed him as shaykh. In December, with support from KOC and the British, Ahmad had the parliament dissolved, and he started a campaign to suppress opposition.
From 1939 to 1945, contrary to the popular sentiments, Ahmad sided with the British during World War II.
In 1950, Ahmad died, and was succeeded by Abdullah III ibn Salim.
During his reign, Kuwait went from being a poor nation making some limited revenue from pearl fishing and exports, into becoming a growing oil exporting nation. His rule was also one of great changes, since the old forms of government could not survive a time of enormous economic growth. Due to changes wrought by Ahmad, there were small revolutionary tendencies. However, Ahmad had these stopped with the help from the British. Nevertheless, even though oil revenues improved the lives of all Kuwaitis, Ahmad never managed to become a popular ruler.
Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was sheikh of Kuwait from March 29, 1921 until January 29, 1950, and the 10th ruler of the Al-Sabah dynasty of Kuwait.
Ahmad was the eldest son of Jabir II Al-Sabah, who was shaykh of Kuwait between 1915-17. Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah rose to power after the death of his uncle Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah in 1921. During his reign, the borders of Kuwait were re-drawn at a meeting in 'Uqayr by Percy Cox. Ahmad and many Kuwaitis were angry over the new borders, because approximately one-third of Kuwait's territory was ceded to 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd al-Rahman, the ruler of Najd (and later, Saudi Arabia).
Ahmad died at Kuwait's Dasman Palace in 1950. His son Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was the Emir of Kuwait from 1977 to 2006. His son Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became emir in 2006.
Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah see Sabah, Ahmad I ibn Jaber as-
Sabah, Ahmad I ibn Jaber as- (Ahmad I ibn Jaber as-Sabah) (Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah) (1885 - 29 January 1950). Shaykh of Kuwait (1921-1950). He was born in Kuwait, the son of Jaber, who became shaykh of Kuwait from 1915 until 1917.
In 1921, Ahmad became shaykh of Kuwait.
In 1934, Ahmad granted the first oil concessions to Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), which had Western owners. Ahmad considered fees and advance royalties as his personal income, something that angered the Kuwaiti notables.
In 1938, after much popular pressure, Ahmad accepted that much of his power is transferred to a parliament with fourteen chosen by limited popular elections. In July of 1938, the parliament elected a president, Abdullah as-Sabah, who came to succeed him as shaykh. In December, with support from KOC and the British, Ahmad had the parliament dissolved, and he started a campaign to suppress opposition.
From 1939 to 1945, contrary to the popular sentiments, Ahmad sided with the British during World War II.
In 1950, Ahmad died, and was succeeded by Abdullah III ibn Salim.
During his reign, Kuwait went from being a poor nation making some limited revenue from pearl fishing and exports, into becoming a growing oil exporting nation. His rule was also one of great changes, since the old forms of government could not survive a time of enormous economic growth. Due to changes wrought by Ahmad, there were small revolutionary tendencies. However, Ahmad had these stopped with the help from the British. Nevertheless, even though oil revenues improved the lives of all Kuwaitis, Ahmad never managed to become a popular ruler.
Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was sheikh of Kuwait from March 29, 1921 until January 29, 1950, and the 10th ruler of the Al-Sabah dynasty of Kuwait.
Ahmad was the eldest son of Jabir II Al-Sabah, who was shaykh of Kuwait between 1915-17. Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah rose to power after the death of his uncle Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah in 1921. During his reign, the borders of Kuwait were re-drawn at a meeting in 'Uqayr by Percy Cox. Ahmad and many Kuwaitis were angry over the new borders, because approximately one-third of Kuwait's territory was ceded to 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd al-Rahman, the ruler of Najd (and later, Saudi Arabia).
Ahmad died at Kuwait's Dasman Palace in 1950. His son Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was the Emir of Kuwait from 1977 to 2006. His son Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became emir in 2006.
Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah see Sabah, Ahmad I ibn Jaber as-
Sabah, Jaber II ibn Ahmad as-
Sabah, Jaber II ibn Ahmad as- (Jaber III al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah) (June 29, 1926 – January 15, 2006). Became the emir of Kuwait in 1977. He was born in Kuwait as the son of Shaykh Ahmad I. In May of 1966, Jaber was appointed prime minister by Emir Sabah III. In 1977, with the death of Emir Sabah III, Jabeh became the new emir of Kuwait.
In 1979, following the Islamic revolution in Iran, and demonstrations among the Shi‘a of Kuwait, Jaber put more restrictions on press freedom in Kuwait than before.
In 1980, changes were made to the constituion that allowed for slightly more democracy. In February of 1981, there were elections for fifty seats in the National Assembly. None of the parties opposing Jaber won many seats (only the Islamists had some success with six seats.)
In September of 1982, the stock exchange of Kuwait collapgsed, damaging the image of Jaber’s regime.
In 1985, Nationalists and Islamists won far more seats than in the last elections, proving growing dissatisfaction with Jaber’s regime. On May 25, 1985, there was an attempt to assassinate Jaber, much as a reaction to his support of Iraq in the war against Iran. On July 3, 1985, Jaber dissolved the National Assembly, and imposed hard censorship on the press.
In 1988, Jaber introduced the National Council, which would be an advisory body without legislative powers, instead of restoring the National Assembly.
In June of 1990, elections for the National Council were boycotted by the opposition.
After much discussion of a border dispute between Kuwait and Iraq, Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor on August 2, 1990 with the stated intent of annexing it. Apparently, the task of the invading Iraqi army was to capture or kill Sheikh Jaber. However, the Iraqi army was never able to accomplish this goal because Sheikh Jaber and his government escaped to Saudi Arabia within hours of the invasion. In Saudi Arabia, they ran the Kuwaiti government from exile in a hotel in Dhahran. The Kuwaiti government-in-exile was one of the most effective governments to ever operate in exile. From the mountain city of Taif resort in Saudi Arabia, Sheikh Jaber set up his government so that its ministers were still in control and were in constant communication with the people still in Kuwait. The government was able to direct an underground armed resistance made up of both military and civilian forces and was able to provide public services to the Kuwaiti people who remained, such as emergency care through the funds that it had saved from oil revenues. Sheikh Jaber also received help from a United Nations mandated coalition led by the United States.
Jaber and his government lobbied hard and supported military action against Iraq before and during the Gulf War. Five billion dollars were given from Jaber’s own funds to the military campaign to liberate Kuwait. When the war ended on February 28, 1991, Sheikh Jaber remained in Saudi Arabia while declaring three months of martial law, leading to the accusation that he was trying to monopolize too much power for the small constitutional monarchy. By declaring martial law, those who were appointed to government positions were able to ensure the safety of the people. By imposing martial law, government officials were able to ensure that there were no Iraqis still in Kuwait who may have attempted to once again overthrow the government. They were also tasked with making sure that the country was safe enough for Sheikh Jaber and his government to return, which they eventually did on March 15, 1991. Sheikh Jaber held additional advantages in comparison to most leaders who have been forced to deal with invasions, as he had the loyalty of the Kuwaitis who were both in the country and those who had fled. After a great deal of international sponsored post-war diplomacy, in 1994, Iraq accepted the UN-demarcated boarder with Kuwait on the basis of the 1932 and 1963 agreements and United Nations Security Resolutions.
While in exile during the Persian Gulf War, Sheikh Jaber promised women the right to vote and run for office after Kuwait was liberated. However, it was not until May 15, 2005 that the parliament passed the law allowing women to vote and hold office after long years of pressure was placed on Jaber’s Prime Minister, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah. It had taken many tries before the law was passed. The movement started when Sheikh Jaber took the opportunity of having a dissolved parliament to issue a decree allowing women to vote in the 2003 election. He then suffered from a backlash from the parliament when they rejected the 1999 measure that would have given women the right to vote and run for office. Lawmakers claimed that it was not that they opposed the measure rather it was out of protest because it was legislated by decree. Following the passage of the law, women were able to vote and run for office for the first time in June 2006. More than 195,000 women voted and twenty-eight ran for seats in the parliament.
The family of Jaber was quite complex. It is unclear how many wives and children he had. It is believed that he had over forty wives, only maintaining four at a time as dictated by Muslim law. He also sired at least forty children.. In September 2000, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah suffered from a stroke and went to the United Kingdom for treatment. He died on January 15, 2006, aged 79, from a cerebral hemorrhage. He was succeeded by the Crown Prince Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah. The government announced a 40-day period of mourning and closed for three days.
The rule of Jaber was one of dramatic events. There were many internal battles over democratization of the society and press freedom. Although the economy saw much instability, there were demonstrations and assassination attempts on Jaber’s life. But most dramatic was the invasion by Iraq in 1990, where Jaber was driven out of the country for a period of seven months.
Jaber III al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah see Sabah, Jaber II ibn Ahmad as-
Sabah, Jaber II ibn Ahmad as- (Jaber III al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah) (June 29, 1926 – January 15, 2006). Became the emir of Kuwait in 1977. He was born in Kuwait as the son of Shaykh Ahmad I. In May of 1966, Jaber was appointed prime minister by Emir Sabah III. In 1977, with the death of Emir Sabah III, Jabeh became the new emir of Kuwait.
In 1979, following the Islamic revolution in Iran, and demonstrations among the Shi‘a of Kuwait, Jaber put more restrictions on press freedom in Kuwait than before.
In 1980, changes were made to the constituion that allowed for slightly more democracy. In February of 1981, there were elections for fifty seats in the National Assembly. None of the parties opposing Jaber won many seats (only the Islamists had some success with six seats.)
In September of 1982, the stock exchange of Kuwait collapgsed, damaging the image of Jaber’s regime.
In 1985, Nationalists and Islamists won far more seats than in the last elections, proving growing dissatisfaction with Jaber’s regime. On May 25, 1985, there was an attempt to assassinate Jaber, much as a reaction to his support of Iraq in the war against Iran. On July 3, 1985, Jaber dissolved the National Assembly, and imposed hard censorship on the press.
In 1988, Jaber introduced the National Council, which would be an advisory body without legislative powers, instead of restoring the National Assembly.
In June of 1990, elections for the National Council were boycotted by the opposition.
After much discussion of a border dispute between Kuwait and Iraq, Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor on August 2, 1990 with the stated intent of annexing it. Apparently, the task of the invading Iraqi army was to capture or kill Sheikh Jaber. However, the Iraqi army was never able to accomplish this goal because Sheikh Jaber and his government escaped to Saudi Arabia within hours of the invasion. In Saudi Arabia, they ran the Kuwaiti government from exile in a hotel in Dhahran. The Kuwaiti government-in-exile was one of the most effective governments to ever operate in exile. From the mountain city of Taif resort in Saudi Arabia, Sheikh Jaber set up his government so that its ministers were still in control and were in constant communication with the people still in Kuwait. The government was able to direct an underground armed resistance made up of both military and civilian forces and was able to provide public services to the Kuwaiti people who remained, such as emergency care through the funds that it had saved from oil revenues. Sheikh Jaber also received help from a United Nations mandated coalition led by the United States.
Jaber and his government lobbied hard and supported military action against Iraq before and during the Gulf War. Five billion dollars were given from Jaber’s own funds to the military campaign to liberate Kuwait. When the war ended on February 28, 1991, Sheikh Jaber remained in Saudi Arabia while declaring three months of martial law, leading to the accusation that he was trying to monopolize too much power for the small constitutional monarchy. By declaring martial law, those who were appointed to government positions were able to ensure the safety of the people. By imposing martial law, government officials were able to ensure that there were no Iraqis still in Kuwait who may have attempted to once again overthrow the government. They were also tasked with making sure that the country was safe enough for Sheikh Jaber and his government to return, which they eventually did on March 15, 1991. Sheikh Jaber held additional advantages in comparison to most leaders who have been forced to deal with invasions, as he had the loyalty of the Kuwaitis who were both in the country and those who had fled. After a great deal of international sponsored post-war diplomacy, in 1994, Iraq accepted the UN-demarcated boarder with Kuwait on the basis of the 1932 and 1963 agreements and United Nations Security Resolutions.
While in exile during the Persian Gulf War, Sheikh Jaber promised women the right to vote and run for office after Kuwait was liberated. However, it was not until May 15, 2005 that the parliament passed the law allowing women to vote and hold office after long years of pressure was placed on Jaber’s Prime Minister, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah. It had taken many tries before the law was passed. The movement started when Sheikh Jaber took the opportunity of having a dissolved parliament to issue a decree allowing women to vote in the 2003 election. He then suffered from a backlash from the parliament when they rejected the 1999 measure that would have given women the right to vote and run for office. Lawmakers claimed that it was not that they opposed the measure rather it was out of protest because it was legislated by decree. Following the passage of the law, women were able to vote and run for office for the first time in June 2006. More than 195,000 women voted and twenty-eight ran for seats in the parliament.
The family of Jaber was quite complex. It is unclear how many wives and children he had. It is believed that he had over forty wives, only maintaining four at a time as dictated by Muslim law. He also sired at least forty children.. In September 2000, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah suffered from a stroke and went to the United Kingdom for treatment. He died on January 15, 2006, aged 79, from a cerebral hemorrhage. He was succeeded by the Crown Prince Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah. The government announced a 40-day period of mourning and closed for three days.
The rule of Jaber was one of dramatic events. There were many internal battles over democratization of the society and press freedom. Although the economy saw much instability, there were demonstrations and assassination attempts on Jaber’s life. But most dramatic was the invasion by Iraq in 1990, where Jaber was driven out of the country for a period of seven months.
Jaber III al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah see Sabah, Jaber II ibn Ahmad as-
Sabah, Sabah III ibn Salim as-
Sabah, Sabah III ibn Salim as- (Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah) (1913 - December 31, 1977). Emir of Kuwait (1965-1977). Sabah was born in Kuwait, the son of Salim ibn Mubarak, who later became shaykh (1917-1921).
In 1938, Sabah was appointed commander of the police force. In 1959, Sabah became head of the public health department. In 1961, Sabah established the ministry of foreign affairs, and became its first minister.
In October of 1962, Shaykh Abdullah III appointed Sabah crown prince, even if they belong to the same branch, and the crown prince should this time have come from the Jaber-branch.
In January 1963, Sabah was appointed prime minister.
In November 1965, upon the death of Abdullah III, Sabah became the new ruler of Kuwait. He had the title changed from “shaykh” to “emir.” Sabah also appointed a new cabinet, where many of the new names aroused so much discontent that many parliament deputies resigned.
In May 1966, Sabah appointed Jaber II ibn Ahmad as prime minister, and Sa’ad ibn Abdullah as minister of defense and interior. Under the three, heavy censorship was imposed.
During the 1970s, Kuwait’s oil revenues increased to fantastic proportions, where only parts of the state budget can be used. There were periods of press freedom, but this was curbed in 1976.
In 1977, the National Assembly was dissolved. Later on, Sabah died, and was succeeded by Jaber III.
Sabah’s rule was one of fantastic economic growth due to increased oil revenues. This was especially the case after the heavy increase in oil prices following the oil embargo on Israel’s allies after the war in 1973. Much of this growth came to benefit the entire Kuwaiti population. At times during Sabah’s rule, there was great press freedom, but never much political freedom.
Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah was the Emir of Kuwait from 1965 to 1977. He was the youngest son of Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah. Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah succeeded his half-brother Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah upon his death on November 24, 1965. He was the 12th ruler of the Al-Sabah dynasty of Kuwait, and the second bearing the title of "Emir". He died from cancer on December 31, 1977. Prior to his ascension, he served as the president of the police department from 1953 to 1959, President of the public health department from 1959 to 1961, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1962 to 1963, and Prime Minister from 1963 to 1965. He was appointed as Crown Prince on October 29, 1962.
Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah see Sabah, Sabah III ibn Salim as-
Sabah, Sabah III ibn Salim as- (Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah) (1913 - December 31, 1977). Emir of Kuwait (1965-1977). Sabah was born in Kuwait, the son of Salim ibn Mubarak, who later became shaykh (1917-1921).
In 1938, Sabah was appointed commander of the police force. In 1959, Sabah became head of the public health department. In 1961, Sabah established the ministry of foreign affairs, and became its first minister.
In October of 1962, Shaykh Abdullah III appointed Sabah crown prince, even if they belong to the same branch, and the crown prince should this time have come from the Jaber-branch.
In January 1963, Sabah was appointed prime minister.
In November 1965, upon the death of Abdullah III, Sabah became the new ruler of Kuwait. He had the title changed from “shaykh” to “emir.” Sabah also appointed a new cabinet, where many of the new names aroused so much discontent that many parliament deputies resigned.
In May 1966, Sabah appointed Jaber II ibn Ahmad as prime minister, and Sa’ad ibn Abdullah as minister of defense and interior. Under the three, heavy censorship was imposed.
During the 1970s, Kuwait’s oil revenues increased to fantastic proportions, where only parts of the state budget can be used. There were periods of press freedom, but this was curbed in 1976.
In 1977, the National Assembly was dissolved. Later on, Sabah died, and was succeeded by Jaber III.
Sabah’s rule was one of fantastic economic growth due to increased oil revenues. This was especially the case after the heavy increase in oil prices following the oil embargo on Israel’s allies after the war in 1973. Much of this growth came to benefit the entire Kuwaiti population. At times during Sabah’s rule, there was great press freedom, but never much political freedom.
Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah was the Emir of Kuwait from 1965 to 1977. He was the youngest son of Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah. Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah succeeded his half-brother Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah upon his death on November 24, 1965. He was the 12th ruler of the Al-Sabah dynasty of Kuwait, and the second bearing the title of "Emir". He died from cancer on December 31, 1977. Prior to his ascension, he served as the president of the police department from 1953 to 1959, President of the public health department from 1959 to 1961, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1962 to 1963, and Prime Minister from 1963 to 1965. He was appointed as Crown Prince on October 29, 1962.
Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah see Sabah, Sabah III ibn Salim as-
Sabi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-
Sabi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al- (Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Sabi) (d.994). Member of the Sabaeans of Harran and a high official under the Buyids. He was chief secretary of the Department of State documents under the Buyids of Iraq Mu‘izz al-Dawla and his son ‘Izz al-Dawla (r. 967-978), but was put in prison by the latter’s uncle ‘Adud al-Dawla Fana-Khusraw. His official letters have been preserved as well as his poems.
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Sabi see Sabi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-
Sabi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al- (Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Sabi) (d.994). Member of the Sabaeans of Harran and a high official under the Buyids. He was chief secretary of the Department of State documents under the Buyids of Iraq Mu‘izz al-Dawla and his son ‘Izz al-Dawla (r. 967-978), but was put in prison by the latter’s uncle ‘Adud al-Dawla Fana-Khusraw. His official letters have been preserved as well as his poems.
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Sabi see Sabi, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-
Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al- (Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-Sabi) (Hilal al-Sabi') (Abū'l-Ḥusayn Hilāl ibn Muḥassin ibn Ibrahīm al-Ṣābi') (969-1056). Secretary to the Buyid vizier Abu Ghalib Muhammad ibn Khalaf (d.1016). Only some fragments of the nine works which he composed have been preserved .
Abū'l-Ḥusayn Hilāl ibn Muḥassin ibn Ibrahīm al-Ṣābi' was a historian, bureaucrat, and writer of Arabic. Born into a family of Sabian bureaucrats, al-Ṣābi converted to Islam in 1012. First working under the Buyid amir Ṣamṣām al-Dawla, he later became the Director of the Chancery under Baha' al-Daula's vizier Fakhr al-Mulk.
Hilal al-Sabi' is the author of numerous books, not all of which have survived. Bureaucratic matters and matters of the court were his main themes, along with history.
Some of the works of Hilal al-Sabi':
* The Rules and Regulations of the Abbasid Court - (Arabic: Rusum dar al-khilafa)
Perhaps his most famous book is the Rusum dar al-khilafa which is a manual for behavior and work in the Abbasid court of late Buyid Baghdad. Though it is designed as a set of instructions and advice, the book contains numerous statistics, anecdotes and historical asides.
* The Book of Viziers - (Arabic: Kitab al-wuzara)
Only the beginning of this work has survived, which deals with the viziers of the caliph Al-Muqtadir.
* History of Hilal al-Sabi' - (Arabic: Tarikh Hilal al-Sabi)
This work also survives only in fragmentary form, but its fragments fill a much needed gap in the chronicles of the late Buyid era, up to the year 1003 of the Christian calendar.
Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-Sabi see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Hilal al-Sabi' see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Abu'l-Husayn Hilal ibn Muhassin ibn Ibrahim al-Sabi' see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al- (Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-Sabi) (Hilal al-Sabi') (Abū'l-Ḥusayn Hilāl ibn Muḥassin ibn Ibrahīm al-Ṣābi') (969-1056). Secretary to the Buyid vizier Abu Ghalib Muhammad ibn Khalaf (d.1016). Only some fragments of the nine works which he composed have been preserved .
Abū'l-Ḥusayn Hilāl ibn Muḥassin ibn Ibrahīm al-Ṣābi' was a historian, bureaucrat, and writer of Arabic. Born into a family of Sabian bureaucrats, al-Ṣābi converted to Islam in 1012. First working under the Buyid amir Ṣamṣām al-Dawla, he later became the Director of the Chancery under Baha' al-Daula's vizier Fakhr al-Mulk.
Hilal al-Sabi' is the author of numerous books, not all of which have survived. Bureaucratic matters and matters of the court were his main themes, along with history.
Some of the works of Hilal al-Sabi':
* The Rules and Regulations of the Abbasid Court - (Arabic: Rusum dar al-khilafa)
Perhaps his most famous book is the Rusum dar al-khilafa which is a manual for behavior and work in the Abbasid court of late Buyid Baghdad. Though it is designed as a set of instructions and advice, the book contains numerous statistics, anecdotes and historical asides.
* The Book of Viziers - (Arabic: Kitab al-wuzara)
Only the beginning of this work has survived, which deals with the viziers of the caliph Al-Muqtadir.
* History of Hilal al-Sabi' - (Arabic: Tarikh Hilal al-Sabi)
This work also survives only in fragmentary form, but its fragments fill a much needed gap in the chronicles of the late Buyid era, up to the year 1003 of the Christian calendar.
Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-Sabi see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Hilal al-Sabi' see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Abu'l-Husayn Hilal ibn Muhassin ibn Ibrahim al-Sabi' see Sabi, Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-
Sabili’llah
Sabili’llah (Sabil Allah) (“The Way of God”). Indonesian Islamic guerrilla organization that fought the Dutch between 1945 and 1950. Sabili’llah was founded in November 1945 to serve as an instrument for the general mobilization of the Islamic population in the struggle against the Dutch. Founded alongside Hizbu’llah, it was intended for all who could not join Hizbu’llah (for instance, because they were too old). In practice, the distinction between the two was not as clear cut as on paper.
Sabil Allah see Sabili’llah
The Way of God see Sabili’llah
Sabili’llah (Sabil Allah) (“The Way of God”). Indonesian Islamic guerrilla organization that fought the Dutch between 1945 and 1950. Sabili’llah was founded in November 1945 to serve as an instrument for the general mobilization of the Islamic population in the struggle against the Dutch. Founded alongside Hizbu’llah, it was intended for all who could not join Hizbu’llah (for instance, because they were too old). In practice, the distinction between the two was not as clear cut as on paper.
Sabil Allah see Sabili’llah
The Way of God see Sabili’llah
Sab‘iyya
Sab‘iyya. The Arabic word sab‘iyya means “sevener.” The term sab‘iyya is a name applied to the Isma‘iliyya (especially Qarmatians), who restricted the imams to seven, the seventh being Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, grandson of Ja‘far al-Sadiq, who was expected to be the Mahdi.
The term sab‘iyya was in all probability first used to signify the Ismaili doctrine that history is divided into seven eras, each inaugurated by a natiq -- a speaking prophet. Each natiq brings a revealed message for the people amongst whom the prophet lives.
Ismailis believed in seven silent imams, one of whom followed each of the seven prophets and disclosed the esoteric aspects of the revelation. The seventh imam in each era becomes the natiq of the following era, abrogating the law (sharia) of the previous natiq and instituting a new one. In the sixth of these eras, Muhammad was the natiq, Ali was the silent imam, and, counting from his son al-Hasan, the seventh imam was Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, who was to become the seventh natiq -- the Mahdi, thus ushering in the seventh era and abrogating the sharia instituted by Muhammad. Muhammad ibn Isma‘il was to take power as soon as the organization of his loyal followers was complete.
Ja‘far al-Sadiq had designated his son Isma‘il to succeed him as imam, and since such a designation was regarded as divine providence, a controversy arose when Isma’il died before his father, and another son, Musa al-Kazim, succeeded to the office. Al-Kazim is regarded as the seventh in the series of twelve imams of the Imamiyya.
The Qarmatians were probably an offshoot of a group called Mubarakiyya, who regarded Isma‘il’s son Muhammad as successor to his grandfather al-Sadiq. They rejected the claims of the surviving sons of al-Sadiq on the grounds that the imamate could not again be vested in two brothers after al-Hasan and al-Husayn, the sons of Ali, and that the imamate must continue among the offspring of the deceased imam. The Qarmatians differed from the Mubarakiyya in maintaining that prophecy ended with Muhammad, and that there would be seven imams after him, ending with Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, who, they asserted, was alive as the Mahdi and would not die until he had conquered the world. In support of this they cited traditions that the seventh among the imams would be the Mahdi.
Also important were the beliefs of the Khattabiyya, followers of Abu al-Khattab Muhammad ibn Abi Zaynab al-Asadi al-Kufi, who seems to have shaped the Qarmatian doctrines of the esoteric interpretation of the Qur’an and of the transference of spiritual authority. Abu al-Khattab, who was al-Sadiq’s disciple in Kufa, had asserted that the latter had transferred his authority to him by designating him to be his deputy and executor of his will and entrusting to him the “Greatest Name,” which was supposed to empower its possessor with extraordinary ability in comprehending hidden matters. This authority was then transferred to Muhammad ibn Isma’il after Abu al-Khattab’s disappearance.
The belief that the seventh imam, whoever he was, was the Mahdi, seems to have been widespread, because after the death of al-Sadiq many Shi‘ite groups restricted the number of their imams to seven. The adherents of Musa al-Kazim refused to acknowledge his death, maintaining that he was alive and would return as the Mahdi. These are known as waqifiyya, meaning “those who stopped,” i.e., with the imamate of al-Kazim. The term implies uncertainty about the imam’s death, in contrast to those who affirmed that al-Kazim had died, and that the line of imams continued. Al-Shahrastani used the term also for those Ismailis who expected the return of Isma‘il. The waqifiyya are thus those who held that the seventh imam, whether Isma‘il or al-Kazim, was the Mahdi.
Several other Shi‘ite factions could be classified as Sab‘iyya. In all cases, the seventh imam was proclaimed as the hidden imam, and in his absence the leadership of these factions rested in the hands of the prominent disciples of the imams. Dissemination of the Sab‘iyya doctrines in different parts of the Muslim world resulted in the appearance of the revolutionary governments of the Qarmatians, Fatimids, Assassins, and other Ismaili groups. The Druzes also can be traced back to the early Sab‘iyya. The considerable importance which the Sab‘iyya movement attained is indicated in the religious as well as the political success of these groups. However, the early beliefs of the Sab‘iyya were essentially transformed, and its revolutionary aims gradually gave way to the esoteric and hence quietistic posture of the present day Nizari and of the Must‘ali Ismailis.
Sevener see Sab‘iyya.
Sab‘iyya. The Arabic word sab‘iyya means “sevener.” The term sab‘iyya is a name applied to the Isma‘iliyya (especially Qarmatians), who restricted the imams to seven, the seventh being Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, grandson of Ja‘far al-Sadiq, who was expected to be the Mahdi.
The term sab‘iyya was in all probability first used to signify the Ismaili doctrine that history is divided into seven eras, each inaugurated by a natiq -- a speaking prophet. Each natiq brings a revealed message for the people amongst whom the prophet lives.
Ismailis believed in seven silent imams, one of whom followed each of the seven prophets and disclosed the esoteric aspects of the revelation. The seventh imam in each era becomes the natiq of the following era, abrogating the law (sharia) of the previous natiq and instituting a new one. In the sixth of these eras, Muhammad was the natiq, Ali was the silent imam, and, counting from his son al-Hasan, the seventh imam was Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, who was to become the seventh natiq -- the Mahdi, thus ushering in the seventh era and abrogating the sharia instituted by Muhammad. Muhammad ibn Isma‘il was to take power as soon as the organization of his loyal followers was complete.
Ja‘far al-Sadiq had designated his son Isma‘il to succeed him as imam, and since such a designation was regarded as divine providence, a controversy arose when Isma’il died before his father, and another son, Musa al-Kazim, succeeded to the office. Al-Kazim is regarded as the seventh in the series of twelve imams of the Imamiyya.
The Qarmatians were probably an offshoot of a group called Mubarakiyya, who regarded Isma‘il’s son Muhammad as successor to his grandfather al-Sadiq. They rejected the claims of the surviving sons of al-Sadiq on the grounds that the imamate could not again be vested in two brothers after al-Hasan and al-Husayn, the sons of Ali, and that the imamate must continue among the offspring of the deceased imam. The Qarmatians differed from the Mubarakiyya in maintaining that prophecy ended with Muhammad, and that there would be seven imams after him, ending with Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, who, they asserted, was alive as the Mahdi and would not die until he had conquered the world. In support of this they cited traditions that the seventh among the imams would be the Mahdi.
Also important were the beliefs of the Khattabiyya, followers of Abu al-Khattab Muhammad ibn Abi Zaynab al-Asadi al-Kufi, who seems to have shaped the Qarmatian doctrines of the esoteric interpretation of the Qur’an and of the transference of spiritual authority. Abu al-Khattab, who was al-Sadiq’s disciple in Kufa, had asserted that the latter had transferred his authority to him by designating him to be his deputy and executor of his will and entrusting to him the “Greatest Name,” which was supposed to empower its possessor with extraordinary ability in comprehending hidden matters. This authority was then transferred to Muhammad ibn Isma’il after Abu al-Khattab’s disappearance.
The belief that the seventh imam, whoever he was, was the Mahdi, seems to have been widespread, because after the death of al-Sadiq many Shi‘ite groups restricted the number of their imams to seven. The adherents of Musa al-Kazim refused to acknowledge his death, maintaining that he was alive and would return as the Mahdi. These are known as waqifiyya, meaning “those who stopped,” i.e., with the imamate of al-Kazim. The term implies uncertainty about the imam’s death, in contrast to those who affirmed that al-Kazim had died, and that the line of imams continued. Al-Shahrastani used the term also for those Ismailis who expected the return of Isma‘il. The waqifiyya are thus those who held that the seventh imam, whether Isma‘il or al-Kazim, was the Mahdi.
Several other Shi‘ite factions could be classified as Sab‘iyya. In all cases, the seventh imam was proclaimed as the hidden imam, and in his absence the leadership of these factions rested in the hands of the prominent disciples of the imams. Dissemination of the Sab‘iyya doctrines in different parts of the Muslim world resulted in the appearance of the revolutionary governments of the Qarmatians, Fatimids, Assassins, and other Ismaili groups. The Druzes also can be traced back to the early Sab‘iyya. The considerable importance which the Sab‘iyya movement attained is indicated in the religious as well as the political success of these groups. However, the early beliefs of the Sab‘iyya were essentially transformed, and its revolutionary aims gradually gave way to the esoteric and hence quietistic posture of the present day Nizari and of the Must‘ali Ismailis.
Sevener see Sab‘iyya.
Sabuktigin
Sabuktigin. See Sebuktigin, Abu Mansur.
Sabuktigin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Abu Mansur Sabuktigin (Urdu: ابو منصور سبکتگین) (ca 942 - August 997), also spelled as Sabuktagin, Sabuktakin, Sebüktegin and Sebük Tigin, is generally regarded by historians as the founder of the Ghaznavid Empire and dynasty centered in modern day Afghanistan in the city of Ghazni. The empire extended throughout parts of Iran, Pakistan, and Central Asia. Amir Sebük Tigin was the son-in-law of Alptigin who actually seized Ghazni in a political fallout for the throne of the Samanids.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Lineage
* 2 Military career
* 3 Censuring the People of Innovation
* 4 Legacy
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] Lineage
Sebüktigin, aged twelve years, was taken prisoner by a neighbouring warring tribe and sold as a slave to a merchant named Nasr the Haji. He was purchased by Alptigin, the Lord Chamberlain of the Samani ruler of Khurasan. However, when Alptigin later rebelled against the Saminid influence, capturing Zabulistan and Ghazni, he raised Sebüktigin to the position of General and married his daughter to him. He served Alptigin, and his two successors Ishaq and Balkatigin. He later succeeded another slave of Alptagin to the throne, and in 977 became the popular ruler of Ghazni.
Sebüktigin enlarged upon Alptigin's conquests, extending his domain north to Balkh, west to Kandahar including most of Khorasan, and east to the Indus River.
Sebüktigin was recognized by the Caliph in Baghdad as governor of his dominions. He died in 997, and was succeeded by his younger son Sultan Ismail of Ghazni. Mahmud rebelled against his younger brother, Sultan Ismail of Ghazni, and took over Ghazni as the new Sultan.
Ferishta records Sebük Tigin's genealogy as descended from the Sassanid Emperors: "Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia." Some doubt has been cast on this due the lineage been reckoned too short to account for the 320 intervening years.[citation needed] What is known about Sebük Tigin is that he was of Turkic origin,[1] born in Barskhan and bought by Alptigin as a boy in Bokhara. According to Grousset,
The Turkic mercenary army which Alptigin had raised in Ghazni, and which was already profoundly influenced by Islam, was from 977 onward led by another Turkic ex-slave -another Mameluke- named Sebüktigin, who made himself master of Tokharistan (Balkh-Kunduz) and Kandahar, and embarked upon the conquest of Kabul.[2]
[edit] Military career
He grew up in the court circles of Alptigin and was conferred the titles of Amīr ul-Umra (Chief of the Nobles), and Wakīl-e Mūtlak (Representative). He was then heavily involved in the defence of Ghaznis independence for the next 15 years until Alptigins death as his general.
Upon Alptigin's death in 975, both Sebüktegin and Alptigin's son Abu Ishaq went to Bokhara to mend fences with the Samanids. Mansur I of Samanid then officially conferred upon Abu Ishaq the governorship of Ghazni and acknowledged Sebüktegin as the heir. Abu Ishaq died soon after in 977 and Sabuktigin succeeded him to the governorship of Ghazni and married Alptigin's daughter.
In 977 he marched against Toghan, who had opposed his succession. Toghan fled to Būst, so Sebüktegin marched upon it and captured Kandahar and its surrounding area. This prompted the Shahi prince Jayapala to launch a pre-emptive strike at Ghazni. Despite the Jayapala amassing approximately 100,000 troops for the battle, Sebüktegin was soundly victorious.[3] The battle was fought at Laghman (near Kabul) and the Jayapala was forced to pay a large tribute. He defaulted upon this, imprisoned Sebüktegin's collectors, and assembled an army allied with forces from the kingdoms of Delhi, Ajmer, Kalinjar, and Kannauj which was defeated at the banks of the Neelum. Sebüktegin then annexed Afghanistan and Peshawar, and all land west of the Neelum.
In 994 he was involved in aiding Nuh II of the Samanids against internal uprisings and defeated the rebels at Balkh and then to Nishapur, thereby earning for himself the title of Nāsir ud-Dīn ("Hero of the Faith") and for his son Mahmud the title of Governor of Khorasan and Saif ud-Dawlah ("Sword of the State").
Sebüktegin had increased upon Alptigin's domains by extending his domain north to Balkh, west to Kandahar and Khorasan, and east to the Indus River; he was eventually recognized by the Caliph in Baghdad as governor of his dominions.
[edit] Censuring the People of Innovation
A pious ruler, Sebüktegin grew concerned over the increasing amount of innovation (commonly known as bidah) in the Islamic creed, and consequently censured those who he believed were promulgating heretical doctrines or beliefs that contravened orthodox Sunni principles.[4] Ibn Taymiyyah duly eulogizes Sebüktegin, stating that he:
“ commanded that Ahlul Bidah be publicly cursed on the minbars, and as a result the Jahmiyyah, Rafida, Hulooliyah, Mu'tazilah, and Qadariyah were all publicly cursed, along with the Asharites.[5] ”
[edit] Legacy
Sultan Sebüktegin grew sick in Balkh during his campaign and retired to Ghazni, and his body has been buried in Termez or Ghazni[6] where he was succeeded by his son, Ismail. Sebüktegin is generally regarded as the architect of the Ghaznavid Empire.
Sebuktegin
born c. 942 ce, Barskhan, Afg. died August 997, Balkh
founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, which ruled much of the area of present-day Afghanistan for more than 150 years.
Once a Turkish slave, Sebüktigin married the daughter of the governor of the town of Ghazna (modern Ghaznī), which was under the control of the Sāmānid dynasty. He succeeded the governor in 977 and later rejected Sāmānid control. In the next 20 years Sebüktigin extended his rule over much of what is now Afghanistan. At his own request, he was succeeded in 977 by a younger son, Ismāʿīl. Many of the nobles, however, preferred his eldest son, Maḥmūd, as their sovereign. Maḥmūd was able to defeat his brother in battle (and imprison him for the rest of his life) and to ascend the throne in 998, to become the great Maḥmūd of Ghazna.
Sabuktigin. See Sebuktigin, Abu Mansur.
Sabuktigin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Abu Mansur Sabuktigin (Urdu: ابو منصور سبکتگین) (ca 942 - August 997), also spelled as Sabuktagin, Sabuktakin, Sebüktegin and Sebük Tigin, is generally regarded by historians as the founder of the Ghaznavid Empire and dynasty centered in modern day Afghanistan in the city of Ghazni. The empire extended throughout parts of Iran, Pakistan, and Central Asia. Amir Sebük Tigin was the son-in-law of Alptigin who actually seized Ghazni in a political fallout for the throne of the Samanids.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Lineage
* 2 Military career
* 3 Censuring the People of Innovation
* 4 Legacy
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] Lineage
Sebüktigin, aged twelve years, was taken prisoner by a neighbouring warring tribe and sold as a slave to a merchant named Nasr the Haji. He was purchased by Alptigin, the Lord Chamberlain of the Samani ruler of Khurasan. However, when Alptigin later rebelled against the Saminid influence, capturing Zabulistan and Ghazni, he raised Sebüktigin to the position of General and married his daughter to him. He served Alptigin, and his two successors Ishaq and Balkatigin. He later succeeded another slave of Alptagin to the throne, and in 977 became the popular ruler of Ghazni.
Sebüktigin enlarged upon Alptigin's conquests, extending his domain north to Balkh, west to Kandahar including most of Khorasan, and east to the Indus River.
Sebüktigin was recognized by the Caliph in Baghdad as governor of his dominions. He died in 997, and was succeeded by his younger son Sultan Ismail of Ghazni. Mahmud rebelled against his younger brother, Sultan Ismail of Ghazni, and took over Ghazni as the new Sultan.
Ferishta records Sebük Tigin's genealogy as descended from the Sassanid Emperors: "Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia." Some doubt has been cast on this due the lineage been reckoned too short to account for the 320 intervening years.[citation needed] What is known about Sebük Tigin is that he was of Turkic origin,[1] born in Barskhan and bought by Alptigin as a boy in Bokhara. According to Grousset,
The Turkic mercenary army which Alptigin had raised in Ghazni, and which was already profoundly influenced by Islam, was from 977 onward led by another Turkic ex-slave -another Mameluke- named Sebüktigin, who made himself master of Tokharistan (Balkh-Kunduz) and Kandahar, and embarked upon the conquest of Kabul.[2]
[edit] Military career
He grew up in the court circles of Alptigin and was conferred the titles of Amīr ul-Umra (Chief of the Nobles), and Wakīl-e Mūtlak (Representative). He was then heavily involved in the defence of Ghaznis independence for the next 15 years until Alptigins death as his general.
Upon Alptigin's death in 975, both Sebüktegin and Alptigin's son Abu Ishaq went to Bokhara to mend fences with the Samanids. Mansur I of Samanid then officially conferred upon Abu Ishaq the governorship of Ghazni and acknowledged Sebüktegin as the heir. Abu Ishaq died soon after in 977 and Sabuktigin succeeded him to the governorship of Ghazni and married Alptigin's daughter.
In 977 he marched against Toghan, who had opposed his succession. Toghan fled to Būst, so Sebüktegin marched upon it and captured Kandahar and its surrounding area. This prompted the Shahi prince Jayapala to launch a pre-emptive strike at Ghazni. Despite the Jayapala amassing approximately 100,000 troops for the battle, Sebüktegin was soundly victorious.[3] The battle was fought at Laghman (near Kabul) and the Jayapala was forced to pay a large tribute. He defaulted upon this, imprisoned Sebüktegin's collectors, and assembled an army allied with forces from the kingdoms of Delhi, Ajmer, Kalinjar, and Kannauj which was defeated at the banks of the Neelum. Sebüktegin then annexed Afghanistan and Peshawar, and all land west of the Neelum.
In 994 he was involved in aiding Nuh II of the Samanids against internal uprisings and defeated the rebels at Balkh and then to Nishapur, thereby earning for himself the title of Nāsir ud-Dīn ("Hero of the Faith") and for his son Mahmud the title of Governor of Khorasan and Saif ud-Dawlah ("Sword of the State").
Sebüktegin had increased upon Alptigin's domains by extending his domain north to Balkh, west to Kandahar and Khorasan, and east to the Indus River; he was eventually recognized by the Caliph in Baghdad as governor of his dominions.
[edit] Censuring the People of Innovation
A pious ruler, Sebüktegin grew concerned over the increasing amount of innovation (commonly known as bidah) in the Islamic creed, and consequently censured those who he believed were promulgating heretical doctrines or beliefs that contravened orthodox Sunni principles.[4] Ibn Taymiyyah duly eulogizes Sebüktegin, stating that he:
“ commanded that Ahlul Bidah be publicly cursed on the minbars, and as a result the Jahmiyyah, Rafida, Hulooliyah, Mu'tazilah, and Qadariyah were all publicly cursed, along with the Asharites.[5] ”
[edit] Legacy
Sultan Sebüktegin grew sick in Balkh during his campaign and retired to Ghazni, and his body has been buried in Termez or Ghazni[6] where he was succeeded by his son, Ismail. Sebüktegin is generally regarded as the architect of the Ghaznavid Empire.
Sebuktegin
born c. 942 ce, Barskhan, Afg. died August 997, Balkh
founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, which ruled much of the area of present-day Afghanistan for more than 150 years.
Once a Turkish slave, Sebüktigin married the daughter of the governor of the town of Ghazna (modern Ghaznī), which was under the control of the Sāmānid dynasty. He succeeded the governor in 977 and later rejected Sāmānid control. In the next 20 years Sebüktigin extended his rule over much of what is now Afghanistan. At his own request, he was succeeded in 977 by a younger son, Ismāʿīl. Many of the nobles, however, preferred his eldest son, Maḥmūd, as their sovereign. Maḥmūd was able to defeat his brother in battle (and imprison him for the rest of his life) and to ascend the throne in 998, to become the great Maḥmūd of Ghazna.
Sabur ibn Ardashir, Abu Nasr
Sabur ibn Ardashir, Abu Nasr (Abu Nasr Sabur ibn Ardashir) (d. 1025). Vizier of Baha’ al-Dawla, the Buyid of Fars and Khuzistan. In the first period of his vizierate he had founded a great library. In 1000, he witnessed the mutiny of the Turkish mercenaries at Baghdad.
Abu Nasr Sabur ibn Ardashir see Sabur ibn Ardashir, Abu Nasr
Sabur ibn Ardashir, Abu Nasr (Abu Nasr Sabur ibn Ardashir) (d. 1025). Vizier of Baha’ al-Dawla, the Buyid of Fars and Khuzistan. In the first period of his vizierate he had founded a great library. In 1000, he witnessed the mutiny of the Turkish mercenaries at Baghdad.
Abu Nasr Sabur ibn Ardashir see Sabur ibn Ardashir, Abu Nasr
Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi (Hajji Hadi Sabzawari) (Hajji Hadi Sabzevari) (1797/98, Sabzevar, Iran – 1878, Sabzevar, Iran). Persian philosopher and poet. He disseminated and clarified the doctrines of Mulla Sadra Shirazi. The Qajar Shah Nasir al-Din ordered a mausoleum to be built for him at Mashhad.
Hajji Hadi Sabzevari was a famous scholar and teacher in the hikmah school of Islamic philosophy. He wrote on the subjects of gnosis, philosophy, and revelation to further the works of Mulla Sadra.
Raised in the center for Shia and Sufi studies, Sabzevar, he went on to be educated in Mashhad, and in Eşfahān where he would encounter the teachings about hikmat. He returned to his city to found a religious school (madrassa) which more than one thousand people would graduate from during his lifetime.
Sabzevari was an Iranian teacher and philosopher who advanced the ḥikmah (wisdom) school of Islāmic philosophy. His doctrines—composed of diverse elements of gnosis (esoteric spiritual knowledge), philosophy, and revelation—are an exposition and clarification of the philosophical concepts of Mullā Ṣadrā. But he differed to some extent by classifying knowledge as an essence, rather than an outward quality, of the human soul.
After spending his early childhood in Sabzevār, a center for Shīʿī and Ṣūfī studies, Sabzevārī was educated in Meshed, and in Eṣfahān, where he was first influenced by the teachings of the ḥikmat. On completing his studies, he returned to his native city, where he founded a madrasah (school) that attracted students of philosophy from as far away as Arabia and India.
The fame of Sabzevārī was such that Nāṣer od-Dīn Shāh, the fourth Qājār king of Iran, visited him in 1877/78. At the request of the Shāh, he wrote the Asrār al-ḥikmah (“The Secrets of Wisdom”), which, together with his Arabic treatise Sharḥ manzumah (“A Treatise on Logic in Verse”), remains a basic text for the study of ḥikmat doctrines in Iran. Not limited to philosophy, he also wrote poetry under the name of Asrār and completed a commentary on the Māsnavī of Jalāl ad-Dīn ar-Rūmī, the great mystic poet of Islām. Devout and pious, Sabzevāri led the ascetic life of a mystic. Miracles were attributed to him, and he is said to have cured the sick. On his death, the Shāh ordered that a mausoleum be constructed for him in Meshed.
Hajji Hadi Sabzawari see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Hajji Hadj Sabzevari see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Sabzevari, Hajji Hadj see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi (Hajji Hadi Sabzawari) (Hajji Hadi Sabzevari) (1797/98, Sabzevar, Iran – 1878, Sabzevar, Iran). Persian philosopher and poet. He disseminated and clarified the doctrines of Mulla Sadra Shirazi. The Qajar Shah Nasir al-Din ordered a mausoleum to be built for him at Mashhad.
Hajji Hadi Sabzevari was a famous scholar and teacher in the hikmah school of Islamic philosophy. He wrote on the subjects of gnosis, philosophy, and revelation to further the works of Mulla Sadra.
Raised in the center for Shia and Sufi studies, Sabzevar, he went on to be educated in Mashhad, and in Eşfahān where he would encounter the teachings about hikmat. He returned to his city to found a religious school (madrassa) which more than one thousand people would graduate from during his lifetime.
Sabzevari was an Iranian teacher and philosopher who advanced the ḥikmah (wisdom) school of Islāmic philosophy. His doctrines—composed of diverse elements of gnosis (esoteric spiritual knowledge), philosophy, and revelation—are an exposition and clarification of the philosophical concepts of Mullā Ṣadrā. But he differed to some extent by classifying knowledge as an essence, rather than an outward quality, of the human soul.
After spending his early childhood in Sabzevār, a center for Shīʿī and Ṣūfī studies, Sabzevārī was educated in Meshed, and in Eṣfahān, where he was first influenced by the teachings of the ḥikmat. On completing his studies, he returned to his native city, where he founded a madrasah (school) that attracted students of philosophy from as far away as Arabia and India.
The fame of Sabzevārī was such that Nāṣer od-Dīn Shāh, the fourth Qājār king of Iran, visited him in 1877/78. At the request of the Shāh, he wrote the Asrār al-ḥikmah (“The Secrets of Wisdom”), which, together with his Arabic treatise Sharḥ manzumah (“A Treatise on Logic in Verse”), remains a basic text for the study of ḥikmat doctrines in Iran. Not limited to philosophy, he also wrote poetry under the name of Asrār and completed a commentary on the Māsnavī of Jalāl ad-Dīn ar-Rūmī, the great mystic poet of Islām. Devout and pious, Sabzevāri led the ascetic life of a mystic. Miracles were attributed to him, and he is said to have cured the sick. On his death, the Shāh ordered that a mausoleum be constructed for him in Meshed.
Hajji Hadi Sabzawari see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Hajji Hadj Sabzevari see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Sabzevari, Hajji Hadj see Sabzawari, Hajji Hadi
Sa‘d al-Din Kopek
Sa‘d al-Din Kopek (Gobek). High official at the time of the Rum Saljuq Kaykhusraw II of the thirteenth century. He built the large khan still standing near Konya.
Kopek, Sa'd al-Din see Sa‘d al-Din Kopek
Gobek see Sa‘d al-Din Kopek
Sa‘d al-Din Kopek (Gobek). High official at the time of the Rum Saljuq Kaykhusraw II of the thirteenth century. He built the large khan still standing near Konya.
Kopek, Sa'd al-Din see Sa‘d al-Din Kopek
Gobek see Sa‘d al-Din Kopek
Sadama
Sadama (Sidamo). The Ethiopian people who refer to themselves as Sadama may include several differing, but related, ethnic groups in the southwest part of Ethiopia. Perhaps ten percent are Muslim. They live in a trapezoidal shape area marked by Lake Awasa, Lake Abaya, the upper branches of the Loghita River and the Billate River. Though it is likely that the inter-ethnic trade of the last century would have provided the Sadama with some knowledge of Islam, informants are of the belief that only recently (within the last twenty years) have there been any significant numbers of converts.
There are several aspects of Sidamo (Sadama) culture which provide for ease of syncretic accommodation with Islam. These include dreams as a means of communication with the supernatural, importance of a traditional life code, revered elders as code interpreters, the use of conditional vows and reverence for spirits in the healing process.
The principal means of conversion to Islam is through dreams, an important element in Sidamo culture. One informant, after losing four of his children through serious illness in the space of a few months, dreamed that the loss was a message from Magano that he should become a Muslim. Three of his relatives had the same dream at approximately the same time. One convert suggested that the dream is conditional, like the one in which a dead father appears demanding to be honored. In the Islamic dream, however, the spirit of Shaikh Husain is manifest, and if one does not obey his summons death will occur. (Shaikh Husain was one of the first Muslim missionaries in the region. His revered tomb is in Balke on the plain near Goba.) The Shaikh is said to have been beloved by Magano, hence given the power to transform himself or other mortals into anything he desires. This is in keeping with the orthodox Muslim belief that saints are especially favored by God and after death constitute a link between the latter and the material world. For this reason saints signify their presence to mortals by appearing in dreams.
Sidamo see Sadama
Sadama (Sidamo). The Ethiopian people who refer to themselves as Sadama may include several differing, but related, ethnic groups in the southwest part of Ethiopia. Perhaps ten percent are Muslim. They live in a trapezoidal shape area marked by Lake Awasa, Lake Abaya, the upper branches of the Loghita River and the Billate River. Though it is likely that the inter-ethnic trade of the last century would have provided the Sadama with some knowledge of Islam, informants are of the belief that only recently (within the last twenty years) have there been any significant numbers of converts.
There are several aspects of Sidamo (Sadama) culture which provide for ease of syncretic accommodation with Islam. These include dreams as a means of communication with the supernatural, importance of a traditional life code, revered elders as code interpreters, the use of conditional vows and reverence for spirits in the healing process.
The principal means of conversion to Islam is through dreams, an important element in Sidamo culture. One informant, after losing four of his children through serious illness in the space of a few months, dreamed that the loss was a message from Magano that he should become a Muslim. Three of his relatives had the same dream at approximately the same time. One convert suggested that the dream is conditional, like the one in which a dead father appears demanding to be honored. In the Islamic dream, however, the spirit of Shaikh Husain is manifest, and if one does not obey his summons death will occur. (Shaikh Husain was one of the first Muslim missionaries in the region. His revered tomb is in Balke on the plain near Goba.) The Shaikh is said to have been beloved by Magano, hence given the power to transform himself or other mortals into anything he desires. This is in keeping with the orthodox Muslim belief that saints are especially favored by God and after death constitute a link between the latter and the material world. For this reason saints signify their presence to mortals by appearing in dreams.
Sidamo see Sadama
Sadaqa ibn Mansur ibn Dubays
Sadaqa ibn Mansur ibn Dubays (d.1108). Ruler of al-Hilla. He founded the town in 1102 from Kufa, which he had occupied in 1101. In the fight between the Great Saljuq Berkyaruq and his brother Muhammad I, he stood on the latter’s side. In 1103, Sadaqa extended his power over a great part of Iraq, and took Hit, Wasit, Basra and Takrit. He was finally defeated by Muhammad I.
Sadaqa ibn Mansur ibn Dubays (d.1108). Ruler of al-Hilla. He founded the town in 1102 from Kufa, which he had occupied in 1101. In the fight between the Great Saljuq Berkyaruq and his brother Muhammad I, he stood on the latter’s side. In 1103, Sadaqa extended his power over a great part of Iraq, and took Hit, Wasit, Basra and Takrit. He was finally defeated by Muhammad I.
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