Muhammad (Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh) (Muhammed) (Mohammed) (ca. 570/571, Mecca – June 8, 632). The Prophet of Islam. Belief that Muhammad is the Messenger of God is second only to belief in the Oneness of God according to the Muslim profession of faith (in Arabic, shahada), the quintessential Islamic creed. Muhammad has a highly exalted role at the heart of Muslim faith. At the same time the Qur’an and Islamic orthodoxy insist that he was fully human with no supernatural powers.
Born around 570, Muhammad grew up as an orphan. At the age of 25, he married Khadija, and it was at the age of 40 or 43 that he began to have visions and hear mysterious voices. Key themes in his early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God, and the idea of judgment to take place on the Day of Resurrection. To these are added vivid descriptions of the tortures of the damned in hellfire and the pleasures of the believers in Paradise. The religious duties that the Qur’an imposed on the Prophet and his followers during the Meccan years were few in number: one should believe in God, appeal to God for forgiveness of sins, offer prayers frequently, including long night vigils, assist others (especially those who are in need), free oneself from the love of delusive wealth and from all forms of cheating, lead a chaste life, and not expose new born girls to die in the desert.
When the Meccan merchants discovered that the Prophet attacked on principle the gods of Mecca, they realized that a religious revolution might be dangerous for their fairs and their trade. But during the Meccan years, the Prophet had not thought of founding a new religion. His task was only that of a warner, charged with the task of informing the Arabs, to whom no prophet had been sent before, that the Day of Judgment was approaching. The Jews and Christians must also testify to the truth of his preaching, since the same revelation had been sent down to them previously. It is in this context that the meaning of the repeatedly discussed term ummi, often translated as “illiterate,” is best understood. As applied to the Prophet in Sura 7:157, the term appears to mean “one who has not previously been given the Book of God.” After the emigration of some of the Prophet’s followers to Abyssinia, a few notables in Mecca were won for the new teaching, but the religious reform of his native city must be regarded as having failed, as also an attempt to establish himself in Ta’if failed. It is at this point that some accounts place the Night Journey to Jerusalem (in Arabic, isra’) and the Ascension to Heaven (in Arabic, mi‘raj). The Prophet persevered in his search for a new sphere of activity outside of Mecca, and found it in Yathrib (later called Medina).
After he had entered into relations with some Medinans who had come as pilgrims to Mecca in 621, the latter began to spread Islam in their native town. After a preliminary conference in al-‘Aqaba, he was able to conclude at the same place, during the pilgrimage of 622, a formal agreement with a considerable number of Medinans, in they pledged themselves to take him into their community and to protect him. These negotiations produced great bitterness in Mecca, and the believers slipped away to Medina, on September 24, 622.
Slowly at first, and then in larger numbers, the Medinans adopted Islam. During his first year in Medina, the Prophet devoted considerable attention to the Jews. His relations with any Christians who may have been in Medina can only be surmised from references in the Qur’an. In the so-called “Constitution of Medina,” the Prophet established a formal agreement with all of the significant tribes and families and he revealed his great diplomatic skills in his dealings with the Jews. But they would not accept his claims to a new religion, and the Qur’an accuses them of concealing parts of their holy scriptures. The Prophet also came to believe that the Christian scriptures did not preserve the actual message and teachings of the prophet Jesus.
It was at this point that the nascent Muslim community took on a pronounced national character through the adoption of various elements from ancient Arabian worship. This decisive change in the course of Islam occurred in the second year of the Hijra (July 623-June 624), and was signaled by the much discussed “change of the Qibla” from Jerusalem to the ancient sanctuary
of the Ka‘ba in Mecca. The Prophet came forward as the restorer of the religion of Abraham that had been distorted by Jews and Christians.
Now the inevitable necessity arose of forcing admission to Mecca. The Prophet sent some of his followers to Nakhla, where they succeeded in capturing a Meccan caravan. In 624, the Muslims succeeded in completely routing the far more numerous Meccan enemy in the battle of Badr. The Jewish tribe of Qaynuqa’ was forced to leave Medina, while alliances were concluded with a number of Bedouin tribes. At the battle of Uhud in 624, the Prophet was wounded and the Meccans were victorious, but the expected negative consequences of this setback did not materialize in Medina. A second Medinan Jewish tribe, the Banu’l-Nadir, who were delighted at the Prophet’s misfortune, were forced to emigrate to Khaybar.
In 626, the Meccans set out with a large army against Medina. The Prophet had a trench (in Persian, khandaq) dug, and after the siege had dragged on, the besiegers gradually began to retire. After that the Prophet declared war on the Jewish tribe of the Qurayza, and all of their men were killed.
He then turned his major attention to the north and led two of the expeditions himself, one against the Banu Lihyan in 627, the other against the Banu Mustaliq. In 628, he felt strong enough to undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca. He encamped at al-Hudaybiya, where he agreed to the proposal of the Meccans that the Muslims would return the following year to perform the so-called “little pilgrimage” (in Arabic, ‘umra). He also concluded a ten years’ truce with the Quraysh. This so-called “Treaty of al-Hudaybiya” represented a brilliant act of diplomacy on his part, in that he had induced the Meccans to recognize him as an equal. In 628, the fertile oasis of Khaybar, inhabited by Jews, was captured.
At about this time, hadith puts the dispatch of letters from the Prophet to the Muqawqis of Alexandria, the Negus of Abyssinia, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, the Persian king, and a number of others, in which he demanded that they adopt Islam.
Early in 629, the Prophet performed the pilgrimage to Mecca and accomplished the reconciliation with his family, the clan of Hashim. A few of the most important Meccans, such as the military men Khalid ibn al-Walid and ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, became Muslims. In the meantime, the Prophet continued his military expeditions. His forces suffered a serious reverse in the battle of Mu’ta in Transjordan against the Byzantines. The belligerent party in Mecca decided to support one of their client clans, the Banu Bakr, against the Banu Khuza‘a, who were allied to the Prophet. This, according to the custom among the Arabs at that time, was seen on both sides as breaking the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, freeing the Prophet to attack Meccan caravans and even the city itself.
In December 629, Muhammad set out against Mecca. Not far from the town he was met by some Quraysh, who paid homage to him and obtained an amnesty for all Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Thus, the Prophet was able to enter his native city practically without a struggle. He acted with great generosity and demanded only the destruction of all idols in and around Mecca. After that he returned to Medina. His forces then routed the Hawazin tribes of central Arabia at Hunayn, but were unable to take Ta’if, which only surrendered in 630.
In 630, many embassies came to Medina from different parts of Arabia to submit to the conqueror of Mecca on behalf of their tribes. Although the Prophet’s appeal for a campaign against northern Arabia met with little support, he carried through with his plan. The campaign against Tabuk in 630 was indecisive by itself, but the petty Christian and Jewish states in the north of Arabia submitted to him, as did small groups of Bedouins in regions so far away from Medina as Bahrain, Oman and South Arabia.
In March 632, the Prophet carried through the first truly Islamic pilgrimage, the so-called “Farewell Pilgrimage.” Only a month before his death, Muhammad began preparations for a great expedition against Trans-jordan that he intended to lead himself. At about this time the appearance of rival “prophet’s,” such as al-Aswad, Musaylima and Tulayha, provoked disturbances.
The Prophet suddenly fell ill and died on June 8, 632. The really powerful factor in his life and the essential clue to his extraordinary success was his unshakable belief from beginning to end that he had been called by God.
Stories about the Prophet, his life and his intercession have permeated popular Muslim thought everywhere, and although he never claimed to have performed any miracle, traditional folk poetry indulges in extensive descriptions of his marvellous attributes and actions.
Immediately after the first Arab conquests, the professional story-tellers began to compose and disseminate stories of the life of the Prophet. A specimen of this sort of literature, which belonged to the historical novel rather than to history, was the “Book of the military campaigns” of Wahb ibn Munabbih. The oldest author of a biography of the Prophet was ‘Urwa ibn al-Zubayr. Oral transmissions by Aban ibn ‘Uthman (642-723), a son of the third caliph, were collected by ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Mughira (d. before 742). These earliest productions are given the name “military campaigns.” Works of historians like Shihab al-Zuhri (671-741) and Musa ibn ‘Uqba (d. 758) also bear this title. The most famous biography of the Prophet is that of Ibn Ishaq -- the Sirah -- in the recension of Ibn Hisham, who preserved almost intact the primitive text of Ibn Ishaq. Other famous biographers in early Islam were Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi and Muhammad ibn Sa‘d (d. 844).
Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah see Muhammad
Muhammed see Muhammad
Mohammed see Muhammad
The Prophet of Islam see Muhammad
The Messenger of God see Muhammad
Now the inevitable necessity arose of forcing admission to Mecca. The Prophet sent some of his followers to Nakhla, where they succeeded in capturing a Meccan caravan. In 624, the Muslims succeeded in completely routing the far more numerous Meccan enemy in the battle of Badr. The Jewish tribe of Qaynuqa’ was forced to leave Medina, while alliances were concluded with a number of Bedouin tribes. At the battle of Uhud in 624, the Prophet was wounded and the Meccans were victorious, but the expected negative consequences of this setback did not materialize in Medina. A second Medinan Jewish tribe, the Banu’l-Nadir, who were delighted at the Prophet’s misfortune, were forced to emigrate to Khaybar.
In 626, the Meccans set out with a large army against Medina. The Prophet had a trench (in Persian, khandaq) dug, and after the siege had dragged on, the besiegers gradually began to retire. After that the Prophet declared war on the Jewish tribe of the Qurayza, and all of their men were killed.
He then turned his major attention to the north and led two of the expeditions himself, one against the Banu Lihyan in 627, the other against the Banu Mustaliq. In 628, he felt strong enough to undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca. He encamped at al-Hudaybiya, where he agreed to the proposal of the Meccans that the Muslims would return the following year to perform the so-called “little pilgrimage” (in Arabic, ‘umra). He also concluded a ten years’ truce with the Quraysh. This so-called “Treaty of al-Hudaybiya” represented a brilliant act of diplomacy on his part, in that he had induced the Meccans to recognize him as an equal. In 628, the fertile oasis of Khaybar, inhabited by Jews, was captured.
At about this time, hadith puts the dispatch of letters from the Prophet to the Muqawqis of Alexandria, the Negus of Abyssinia, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, the Persian king, and a number of others, in which he demanded that they adopt Islam.
Early in 629, the Prophet performed the pilgrimage to Mecca and accomplished the reconciliation with his family, the clan of Hashim. A few of the most important Meccans, such as the military men Khalid ibn al-Walid and ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, became Muslims. In the meantime, the Prophet continued his military expeditions. His forces suffered a serious reverse in the battle of Mu’ta in Transjordan against the Byzantines. The belligerent party in Mecca decided to support one of their client clans, the Banu Bakr, against the Banu Khuza‘a, who were allied to the Prophet. This, according to the custom among the Arabs at that time, was seen on both sides as breaking the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, freeing the Prophet to attack Meccan caravans and even the city itself.
In December 629, Muhammad set out against Mecca. Not far from the town he was met by some Quraysh, who paid homage to him and obtained an amnesty for all Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Thus, the Prophet was able to enter his native city practically without a struggle. He acted with great generosity and demanded only the destruction of all idols in and around Mecca. After that he returned to Medina. His forces then routed the Hawazin tribes of central Arabia at Hunayn, but were unable to take Ta’if, which only surrendered in 630.
In 630, many embassies came to Medina from different parts of Arabia to submit to the conqueror of Mecca on behalf of their tribes. Although the Prophet’s appeal for a campaign against northern Arabia met with little support, he carried through with his plan. The campaign against Tabuk in 630 was indecisive by itself, but the petty Christian and Jewish states in the north of Arabia submitted to him, as did small groups of Bedouins in regions so far away from Medina as Bahrain, Oman and South Arabia.
In March 632, the Prophet carried through the first truly Islamic pilgrimage, the so-called “Farewell Pilgrimage.” Only a month before his death, Muhammad began preparations for a great expedition against Trans-jordan that he intended to lead himself. At about this time the appearance of rival “prophet’s,” such as al-Aswad, Musaylima and Tulayha, provoked disturbances.
The Prophet suddenly fell ill and died on June 8, 632. The really powerful factor in his life and the essential clue to his extraordinary success was his unshakable belief from beginning to end that he had been called by God.
Stories about the Prophet, his life and his intercession have permeated popular Muslim thought everywhere, and although he never claimed to have performed any miracle, traditional folk poetry indulges in extensive descriptions of his marvellous attributes and actions.
Immediately after the first Arab conquests, the professional story-tellers began to compose and disseminate stories of the life of the Prophet. A specimen of this sort of literature, which belonged to the historical novel rather than to history, was the “Book of the military campaigns” of Wahb ibn Munabbih. The oldest author of a biography of the Prophet was ‘Urwa ibn al-Zubayr. Oral transmissions by Aban ibn ‘Uthman (642-723), a son of the third caliph, were collected by ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Mughira (d. before 742). These earliest productions are given the name “military campaigns.” Works of historians like Shihab al-Zuhri (671-741) and Musa ibn ‘Uqba (d. 758) also bear this title. The most famous biography of the Prophet is that of Ibn Ishaq -- the Sirah -- in the recension of Ibn Hisham, who preserved almost intact the primitive text of Ibn Ishaq. Other famous biographers in early Islam were Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi and Muhammad ibn Sa‘d (d. 844).
Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah see Muhammad
Muhammed see Muhammad
Mohammed see Muhammad
The Prophet of Islam see Muhammad
The Messenger of God see Muhammad
Muhammad I
Muhammad I. See Mehmed I.
Muhammad I. See Mehmed I.
Muhammad II
Muhammad II. See Mehmed II.
Muhammad II. See Mehmed II.
Muhammad III
Muhammad III. See Mehmed III.
Muhammad III. See Mehmed III.
Muhammad III
Muhammad III (Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah, Sayyidi )(Sayyidi Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah) (Sidi Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah) (Mohammed Ben Abdellah al-Qatib) (1710/1722-1790). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1757-1790). In 1748, he restored his father Mawlay ‘Abd Allah ibn Isma‘il to his throne at Meknes. In 1757, he was proclaimed ruler at Marrakesh and his long reign of serenity was marred only by a limited number of troubles. He repaired the ruins of Fez, and developed great building activities at Marrakesh.
Muhammad III (Mohammed Ben Abdellah al-Qatib) was Sultan of Morocco from 1757 to 1790 under the Alaouite dynasty. He was the governor of Marrakech around 1750 and was the son of Sultan Abdallah IV who reigned 1745-1757. He was also sultan briefly during 1748.
A more open-minded ruler than many of his forebears, he signed numerous peace treaties with the European powers, and curtailed the power of the Barbary corsairs. He revived the city of Essaouira and invited Jews and English to trade there. He also built the old medina of Casablanca (Derb Tazi) and renovated the kasbah of Marrakesh. He conquered Mazagan from Portuguese in 1769. An attempt on Melilla ended in defeat in 1775 when British aid failed to materialize.
Under Muhammad III, Morocco became the first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation, in 1777. President George Washington wrote Muhammad in 1789 asking him for aid in allowing American ships to navigate nearby waters.
Muhammad III (Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah, Sayyidi )(Sayyidi Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah) (Sidi Muhammad III ibn ‘Abd Allah) (Mohammed Ben Abdellah al-Qatib) (1710/1722-1790). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1757-1790). In 1748, he restored his father Mawlay ‘Abd Allah ibn Isma‘il to his throne at Meknes. In 1757, he was proclaimed ruler at Marrakesh and his long reign of serenity was marred only by a limited number of troubles. He repaired the ruins of Fez, and developed great building activities at Marrakesh.
Muhammad III (Mohammed Ben Abdellah al-Qatib) was Sultan of Morocco from 1757 to 1790 under the Alaouite dynasty. He was the governor of Marrakech around 1750 and was the son of Sultan Abdallah IV who reigned 1745-1757. He was also sultan briefly during 1748.
A more open-minded ruler than many of his forebears, he signed numerous peace treaties with the European powers, and curtailed the power of the Barbary corsairs. He revived the city of Essaouira and invited Jews and English to trade there. He also built the old medina of Casablanca (Derb Tazi) and renovated the kasbah of Marrakesh. He conquered Mazagan from Portuguese in 1769. An attempt on Melilla ended in defeat in 1775 when British aid failed to materialize.
Under Muhammad III, Morocco became the first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation, in 1777. President George Washington wrote Muhammad in 1789 asking him for aid in allowing American ships to navigate nearby waters.
Muhammad IV
Muhammad IV. See Mehmed IV.
Muhammad IV. See Mehmed IV.
Muhammad IV
Muhammad IV. (Sayyidi Muhammad IV ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (Sayyidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (Sidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (b. c. 1815). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1859-1873). Agreements with European powers and with the United States formed part of the policy of reforms that Sidi Muhammad wished to carry out. He lived in perfect entente with the French in Algeria. The visit of Sir Moses Montefiore in an attempt to improve the lot of Jews, which left much to desire, was in important event, although it did not have spectacular results.
Sayyidi Muhammad IV ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Sayyidi Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Sidi Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Muhammad IV. (Sayyidi Muhammad IV ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (Sayyidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (Sidi Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman) (b. c. 1815). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1859-1873). Agreements with European powers and with the United States formed part of the policy of reforms that Sidi Muhammad wished to carry out. He lived in perfect entente with the French in Algeria. The visit of Sir Moses Montefiore in an attempt to improve the lot of Jews, which left much to desire, was in important event, although it did not have spectacular results.
Sayyidi Muhammad IV ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Sayyidi Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Sidi Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman see Muhammad IV.
Muhammad V
Muhammad V (Muhammad V Reshad) (Mehemmed V Reshad) (Mehmed V Reshad) (Meḥmed-i ẖâmis) (Mehmed V Reşad) (Reşat Mehmet) (November 2/3, 1844 – July 3/4 1918). Ottoman ruler (r.1909-1918). In 1909, Turkey lost Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. With the peace treaties with Bulgaria (1913), with Greece (1914) and with Serbia (1914), the Ottoman Empire lost all its European possessions west of the Maritza river, and also the Aegean islands and Crete. During the First World War, the Turks fought against the Russians and the English, and successfully defended the Dardanelles.
Mehmed V Reshad was the 35th Ottoman Sultan. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I. His Mother was Valide Sultan Gülcemal, (1826, Caucasus - November 16, 1851, Ortakoy Palace, Ortakoy, Istanbul), originally named Sofiya, a Circassian.
He was born at Topkapı Palace, Istanbul. Like many other potential heirs to the throne, he was confined for 30 years in the Harems of the palace. For nine of those years he was in solitary confinement. During this time he studied poetry of the old Persian style and was an acclaimed poet. On his ninth birthday he was ceremoniously circumcised in the special Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odasi) of Topkapı Palace.
His reign began on April 27, 1909 but he had no real political power. The actual decisions were made by various members of the Ottoman government and finally, during the First World War, by the Three Pashas: Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha.
Mehmed V's only significant political act was to formally declare Jihad against the Allies on November 11, 1914. This was the last genuine proclamation of Jihad in history by a Caliph, as the Caliphate lasted until 1924. The proclamation had no noticeable effect on the war, despite the fact that many Muslims lived in Ottoman territories. The Arabs eventually joined the British forces against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Istanbul on October 15, 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on January 27, 1916 and of the Empire of Germany on February 1, 1916.
Mehmed V died at Yıldız Palace on July 3, 1918, only four months before the end of World War I. Thus, he did not live to see the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. He spent most of his life at the Dolmabahçe Palace and Yıldız Palace in Istanbul. His grave is in the historic Eyüp district of the city.
Muhammad V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehemmed V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehmed V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehmed-i hamis see Muhammad V
Mehmed V Resad see Muhammad V
Resat Mehmet see Muhammad V
Muhammad V (Muhammad V Reshad) (Mehemmed V Reshad) (Mehmed V Reshad) (Meḥmed-i ẖâmis) (Mehmed V Reşad) (Reşat Mehmet) (November 2/3, 1844 – July 3/4 1918). Ottoman ruler (r.1909-1918). In 1909, Turkey lost Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. With the peace treaties with Bulgaria (1913), with Greece (1914) and with Serbia (1914), the Ottoman Empire lost all its European possessions west of the Maritza river, and also the Aegean islands and Crete. During the First World War, the Turks fought against the Russians and the English, and successfully defended the Dardanelles.
Mehmed V Reshad was the 35th Ottoman Sultan. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I. His Mother was Valide Sultan Gülcemal, (1826, Caucasus - November 16, 1851, Ortakoy Palace, Ortakoy, Istanbul), originally named Sofiya, a Circassian.
He was born at Topkapı Palace, Istanbul. Like many other potential heirs to the throne, he was confined for 30 years in the Harems of the palace. For nine of those years he was in solitary confinement. During this time he studied poetry of the old Persian style and was an acclaimed poet. On his ninth birthday he was ceremoniously circumcised in the special Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odasi) of Topkapı Palace.
His reign began on April 27, 1909 but he had no real political power. The actual decisions were made by various members of the Ottoman government and finally, during the First World War, by the Three Pashas: Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha.
Mehmed V's only significant political act was to formally declare Jihad against the Allies on November 11, 1914. This was the last genuine proclamation of Jihad in history by a Caliph, as the Caliphate lasted until 1924. The proclamation had no noticeable effect on the war, despite the fact that many Muslims lived in Ottoman territories. The Arabs eventually joined the British forces against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Istanbul on October 15, 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on January 27, 1916 and of the Empire of Germany on February 1, 1916.
Mehmed V died at Yıldız Palace on July 3, 1918, only four months before the end of World War I. Thus, he did not live to see the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. He spent most of his life at the Dolmabahçe Palace and Yıldız Palace in Istanbul. His grave is in the historic Eyüp district of the city.
Muhammad V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehemmed V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehmed V Reshad see Muhammad V
Mehmed-i hamis see Muhammad V
Mehmed V Resad see Muhammad V
Resat Mehmet see Muhammad V
Muhammad V
Muhammad V (Sīdī Muḥammad Ben Yūsuf) (b. August 10, 1909, Fès, Mor.—d. February 26, 1961, Rabat). Sultan of Morocco (r. 1927-1957) and King of Morocco (r.1957-1961). Early in the 1950s, Muhammad V started to oppose the French, as he associated himself with the independence movement. Muhammad V was deposed by France in 1953 because he had refused to sign agreements with them and as there had been rioting in the public. Muhammad V stayed in exile until 1955. When Morocco became independent in 1956, and Muhammad became king, he disengaged himself from the independence movement and made effective use of the military forces with his son Hassan in the position of army commander.
Muḥammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–57), became a focal point of nationalist aspirations, secured Moroccan independence from French colonial rule, and then ruled as king from 1957 to 1961.
Muḥammad was the third son of Sultan Mawlāy Yūsuf; when his father died in 1927, French authorities chose him to be successor, expecting him to be more compliant than his two older brothers. The first indication of Muḥammad’s nationalist feelings occurred in 1934, when he urged the French to abandon the Berber Dahir legislation of 1930 that had established different legal systems for the two Moroccan ethnic groups, Imazighen (Berbers) and Arabs—a policy resented by both groups. It had been promulgated to help the protectorate, but, instead, it divided the country and accelerated nationalism. Wanting to make Muḥammad a national symbol, the Moroccan nationalists organized the Fête du Trône (Throne Day), an annual festival to commemorate the anniversary of Muḥammad’s assumption of power. On these occasions he gave speeches that, though moderate in tone, encouraged nationalist sentiment. The French reluctantly agreed to make the festival an official holiday, and for the next decade Muḥammad remained above nationalist agitation but gave it his tacit support.
During World War II (1939–45), Muḥammad supported the Allies, and in 1943 he met with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who encouraged him to seek independence. Muḥammad’s determination increased when French authorities arrested a number of nationalists in January 1944. In 1947, he visited Tangier (then an international city) and made a speech stressing Moroccan links with the Arab world, making no mention of France. He found an effective means of resistance in refusing to sign, and thus make legally binding, the decrees of the French resident general.
In 1951, the French encouraged a tribal rebellion against him, and, on the pretext of protecting him, they surrounded his palace with troops. Under these conditions he was induced to denounce the nationalist movement. In August 1953 the French deported the sultan to Corsica and then to Madagascar. Acts of terrorism multiplied during Muḥammad’s absence, and his prestige soared. The French government, already faced with rebellion in Algeria, allowed him to return in November 1955, and in March 1956 he negotiated a treaty securing full independence.
Thereafter, Muḥammad asserted his personal authority, ruling with moderation. He took the title of king in 1957. His son al-Ḥasan Muḥammad (who later reigned as Hassan II) resented the slow pace of government, and in May 1960 Muḥammad made him deputy prime minister and relinquished active direction of the country.
Muhammad V (Mohammed V) died on February 26, 1961 after a minor operation.
The Mohammed V International Airport of Casablanca is named after him, as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across Morocco. There is an Avenue Mohammed V in nearly every Moroccan city.
Among his wives was Lalla Abla bint Tahar, who became the mother of his son and successor King Hassan II.
Sidi Muhammad Ben Yusuf see Muhammad V
Muhammad V (Sīdī Muḥammad Ben Yūsuf) (b. August 10, 1909, Fès, Mor.—d. February 26, 1961, Rabat). Sultan of Morocco (r. 1927-1957) and King of Morocco (r.1957-1961). Early in the 1950s, Muhammad V started to oppose the French, as he associated himself with the independence movement. Muhammad V was deposed by France in 1953 because he had refused to sign agreements with them and as there had been rioting in the public. Muhammad V stayed in exile until 1955. When Morocco became independent in 1956, and Muhammad became king, he disengaged himself from the independence movement and made effective use of the military forces with his son Hassan in the position of army commander.
Muḥammad V, sultan of Morocco (1927–57), became a focal point of nationalist aspirations, secured Moroccan independence from French colonial rule, and then ruled as king from 1957 to 1961.
Muḥammad was the third son of Sultan Mawlāy Yūsuf; when his father died in 1927, French authorities chose him to be successor, expecting him to be more compliant than his two older brothers. The first indication of Muḥammad’s nationalist feelings occurred in 1934, when he urged the French to abandon the Berber Dahir legislation of 1930 that had established different legal systems for the two Moroccan ethnic groups, Imazighen (Berbers) and Arabs—a policy resented by both groups. It had been promulgated to help the protectorate, but, instead, it divided the country and accelerated nationalism. Wanting to make Muḥammad a national symbol, the Moroccan nationalists organized the Fête du Trône (Throne Day), an annual festival to commemorate the anniversary of Muḥammad’s assumption of power. On these occasions he gave speeches that, though moderate in tone, encouraged nationalist sentiment. The French reluctantly agreed to make the festival an official holiday, and for the next decade Muḥammad remained above nationalist agitation but gave it his tacit support.
During World War II (1939–45), Muḥammad supported the Allies, and in 1943 he met with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who encouraged him to seek independence. Muḥammad’s determination increased when French authorities arrested a number of nationalists in January 1944. In 1947, he visited Tangier (then an international city) and made a speech stressing Moroccan links with the Arab world, making no mention of France. He found an effective means of resistance in refusing to sign, and thus make legally binding, the decrees of the French resident general.
In 1951, the French encouraged a tribal rebellion against him, and, on the pretext of protecting him, they surrounded his palace with troops. Under these conditions he was induced to denounce the nationalist movement. In August 1953 the French deported the sultan to Corsica and then to Madagascar. Acts of terrorism multiplied during Muḥammad’s absence, and his prestige soared. The French government, already faced with rebellion in Algeria, allowed him to return in November 1955, and in March 1956 he negotiated a treaty securing full independence.
Thereafter, Muḥammad asserted his personal authority, ruling with moderation. He took the title of king in 1957. His son al-Ḥasan Muḥammad (who later reigned as Hassan II) resented the slow pace of government, and in May 1960 Muḥammad made him deputy prime minister and relinquished active direction of the country.
Muhammad V (Mohammed V) died on February 26, 1961 after a minor operation.
The Mohammed V International Airport of Casablanca is named after him, as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across Morocco. There is an Avenue Mohammed V in nearly every Moroccan city.
Among his wives was Lalla Abla bint Tahar, who became the mother of his son and successor King Hassan II.
Sidi Muhammad Ben Yusuf see Muhammad V
Muhammad VI
Muhammad VI (Sīdī Muḥammad) (Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan) (b. August 21, 1963, Rabat, Morocco). King of Morocco (1999– ).
Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan completed primary and secondary schooling at the Royal Palace College before entering the Mohammed V University in Rabat; there he received a bachelor’s degree in law in 1985 and, three years later, a master’s degree in public law. For a brief period in the late 1980s the crown prince studied at the headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels. He then entered the University of Nice in France, where he received a doctorate in law in 1993. His doctoral thesis dealt with relations between the Arab Maghreb Union and the European Economic Community. He was educated in both Arabic and French, and literature and art were among his interests.
Over time the heir to the throne of Morocco took on increasing responsibilities in support of his father, King Hassan II. He became known particularly for advancing efforts to help the poor. In 1985 his father gave him the task of coordinating the country’s armed forces. As his father’s health declined in the 1990s, the crown prince represented him at a number of political meetings and ceremonial functions, both in Morocco and in other countries.
Hours after the death of his father on July 23, 1999, Muḥammad took the throne as Muḥammad VI. The new king thus joined two other young rulers of the Arab world—King ʿAbdullah II of Jordan, who was a personal friend, and Sheikh Ḥamad ibn ʿĪsā Āl Khalīfah of Bahrain—who had both assumed power in 1999 upon the deaths of their fathers.
Hassan II, who had ruled Morocco for 38 years, was widely held to be a moderating influence among Arab nations and in relations between the Arab world and the West. His death and the assumption of the throne by his son were seen as part of a pattern of the transfer of power between generations that was taking place in a number of Arab and Middle Eastern countries. The transition from the rule of Hassan II to that of Muḥammad VI went smoothly and was without incident, and the new king continued in the moderate tradition established by his father.
In June 2011 Muḥammad VI attempted to head off a growing pro-democracy protest movement in Morocco by proposing a new constitution that he claimed would curb his powers and strengthen representative government. The new document expanded the powers of the prime minister and parliament but preserved the king’s role as the final authority in all areas of government and gave him exclusive control over religious affairs, security, and strategic policy. Voters approved the new constitution in a referendum in July, over the objections of critics who charged that it did too little to open the political system.
Sidi Muhammad see Muhammad VI
Muhammad ibn al-Hasan see Muhammad VI
Muhammad, Sidi see Muhammad VI
Muhammad VI (Sīdī Muḥammad) (Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan) (b. August 21, 1963, Rabat, Morocco). King of Morocco (1999– ).
Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan completed primary and secondary schooling at the Royal Palace College before entering the Mohammed V University in Rabat; there he received a bachelor’s degree in law in 1985 and, three years later, a master’s degree in public law. For a brief period in the late 1980s the crown prince studied at the headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels. He then entered the University of Nice in France, where he received a doctorate in law in 1993. His doctoral thesis dealt with relations between the Arab Maghreb Union and the European Economic Community. He was educated in both Arabic and French, and literature and art were among his interests.
Over time the heir to the throne of Morocco took on increasing responsibilities in support of his father, King Hassan II. He became known particularly for advancing efforts to help the poor. In 1985 his father gave him the task of coordinating the country’s armed forces. As his father’s health declined in the 1990s, the crown prince represented him at a number of political meetings and ceremonial functions, both in Morocco and in other countries.
Hours after the death of his father on July 23, 1999, Muḥammad took the throne as Muḥammad VI. The new king thus joined two other young rulers of the Arab world—King ʿAbdullah II of Jordan, who was a personal friend, and Sheikh Ḥamad ibn ʿĪsā Āl Khalīfah of Bahrain—who had both assumed power in 1999 upon the deaths of their fathers.
Hassan II, who had ruled Morocco for 38 years, was widely held to be a moderating influence among Arab nations and in relations between the Arab world and the West. His death and the assumption of the throne by his son were seen as part of a pattern of the transfer of power between generations that was taking place in a number of Arab and Middle Eastern countries. The transition from the rule of Hassan II to that of Muḥammad VI went smoothly and was without incident, and the new king continued in the moderate tradition established by his father.
In June 2011 Muḥammad VI attempted to head off a growing pro-democracy protest movement in Morocco by proposing a new constitution that he claimed would curb his powers and strengthen representative government. The new document expanded the powers of the prime minister and parliament but preserved the king’s role as the final authority in all areas of government and gave him exclusive control over religious affairs, security, and strategic policy. Voters approved the new constitution in a referendum in July, over the objections of critics who charged that it did too little to open the political system.
Sidi Muhammad see Muhammad VI
Muhammad ibn al-Hasan see Muhammad VI
Muhammad, Sidi see Muhammad VI
Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Muhammad VI Wahdeddin (Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin) (Mehmed Vahideddin) (Mehmed VI Wahid ed-din) (Meḥmed-i sâdis) (Mehmed Vahideddin) (Mehmet Vahdettin)) (b. January 14/February 2, 1861 - d. May 15/16, 1926, San Remo, Italy). Ottoman ruler (r.1918-1922). The landing of Greek forces in Izmir in 1919 led to the growth of a Turkish national resistance movement which opposed the policy of appeasement pursued by the sultan and his government. Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Ataturk) assumed the leadership of this movement. In 1922, the Grand National Assembly at Ankara separated the offices of sultan and caliph, and declared the Ottoman sultanate abolished from March 16, 1920, the date of the Allied occupation of Istanbul. Muhammad left Turkey on November 17, 1922. The next day the Grand National Assembly divested him of the caliphate, in favor of his uncle Abdulmecid II. Muhammad’s proclamation from Mecca, in which he maintained that the separation of the caliphate from the sultanate was contrary to Muslim law, found hardly any response in the Islamic world.
Mehmed VI was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire. His forced abdication and exile in 1922 prepared the way for the emergence of the Turkish Republic under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk within a year.
Clever and perceptive, Mehmed VI became sultan July 4, 1918, and attempted to follow the example of his elder brother Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–1909) by assuming personal control of the government. After the Armistice of Mudros (October 30, 1918) and the establishment of the Allied military administration in Istanbul on December 8, 1918, the nationalist–liberal Committee of Union and Progress had collapsed, and its leaders had fled abroad. The Sultan, opposed to all nationalist ideologies and anxious to perpetuate the Ottoman dynasty, acceded to the demands of the Allies. On December 21, he dissolved Parliament and undertook to crush the nationalists.
The nationalists, however, who were organizing in Anatolia under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, sought the Sultan’s support in their struggle for territorial integrity and national independence. After negotiations, the Sultan agreed to elections, which were held late in 1919, and the nationalists won a majority in the new parliament. The Allies, alarmed at the prospect of Turkish unity, extended the occupied area in Istanbul and arrested and exiled the nationalists.
The Sultan dissolved the Parliament (April 11, 1920), and the nationalists set up a provisional government in Ankara. Mehmed’s signing of the Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920), however, reduced the empire to little but Turkey itself and served to strengthen the nationalist cause. After their defeat of the Greeks, the nationalists were in solid control of Turkey. The Grand National Assembly on November 1, 1922, abolished the sultanate. Sixteen days later Mehmed VI boarded a British warship and fled to Malta. His later attempts to install himself as caliph in the Hejaz failed.
Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmed Vahideddin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Vahideddin, Mehmed see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Wahdeddin, Mehemmed VI see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmed-i sadis see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmet Vahdettin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Muhammad VI Wahdeddin (Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin) (Mehmed Vahideddin) (Mehmed VI Wahid ed-din) (Meḥmed-i sâdis) (Mehmed Vahideddin) (Mehmet Vahdettin)) (b. January 14/February 2, 1861 - d. May 15/16, 1926, San Remo, Italy). Ottoman ruler (r.1918-1922). The landing of Greek forces in Izmir in 1919 led to the growth of a Turkish national resistance movement which opposed the policy of appeasement pursued by the sultan and his government. Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Ataturk) assumed the leadership of this movement. In 1922, the Grand National Assembly at Ankara separated the offices of sultan and caliph, and declared the Ottoman sultanate abolished from March 16, 1920, the date of the Allied occupation of Istanbul. Muhammad left Turkey on November 17, 1922. The next day the Grand National Assembly divested him of the caliphate, in favor of his uncle Abdulmecid II. Muhammad’s proclamation from Mecca, in which he maintained that the separation of the caliphate from the sultanate was contrary to Muslim law, found hardly any response in the Islamic world.
Mehmed VI was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire. His forced abdication and exile in 1922 prepared the way for the emergence of the Turkish Republic under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk within a year.
Clever and perceptive, Mehmed VI became sultan July 4, 1918, and attempted to follow the example of his elder brother Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–1909) by assuming personal control of the government. After the Armistice of Mudros (October 30, 1918) and the establishment of the Allied military administration in Istanbul on December 8, 1918, the nationalist–liberal Committee of Union and Progress had collapsed, and its leaders had fled abroad. The Sultan, opposed to all nationalist ideologies and anxious to perpetuate the Ottoman dynasty, acceded to the demands of the Allies. On December 21, he dissolved Parliament and undertook to crush the nationalists.
The nationalists, however, who were organizing in Anatolia under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, sought the Sultan’s support in their struggle for territorial integrity and national independence. After negotiations, the Sultan agreed to elections, which were held late in 1919, and the nationalists won a majority in the new parliament. The Allies, alarmed at the prospect of Turkish unity, extended the occupied area in Istanbul and arrested and exiled the nationalists.
The Sultan dissolved the Parliament (April 11, 1920), and the nationalists set up a provisional government in Ankara. Mehmed’s signing of the Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920), however, reduced the empire to little but Turkey itself and served to strengthen the nationalist cause. After their defeat of the Greeks, the nationalists were in solid control of Turkey. The Grand National Assembly on November 1, 1922, abolished the sultanate. Sixteen days later Mehmed VI boarded a British warship and fled to Malta. His later attempts to install himself as caliph in the Hejaz failed.
Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmed Vahideddin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Vahideddin, Mehmed see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Wahdeddin, Mehemmed VI see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmed-i sadis see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Mehmet Vahdettin see Muhammad VI Wahdeddin
Muhammad ‘Abduh
Muhammad ‘Abduh (b. 1849, Nile Delta - d. July 11, 1905, Alexandria, Egypt). Muslim theologian and founder of the Egyptian modernist school. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani exercised a profound influence upon him, but Muhammad ‘Abduh held that only gradual reform could be successful. He was banished from Egypt in 1882. In 1884, he published in Paris, together with al-Afghani, a paper which exercised a very great influence on the development of nationalism in the Muslim east. In 1889, he returned to Cairo and became in 1899 state mufti, the highest clerical post in Egypt. In 1897, he published his most important work, the Treatise of the Oneness (of God). His commentary on the Qur’an remained unfinished. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s advanced ideas provoked the most vigorous hostility in orthodox and conservative circles. His program was to reform the Muslim religion by bringing it back to its original condition, to renovate the Arabic language, and to recognize the rights of the people in relation to the government.
Muhammad ‘Abduh lived all his life in Egypt until he was banished by the British in 1882 following an unsuccessful revolt against the British colonial authority. Muhammad ‘Abduh traveled, wrote, and taught abroad until he was allowed to return to Egypt in 1889.
Muhammad ‘Abduh’s early life was dedicated to traditional Qur’anic studies and mysticism. During the 1870s, Muhammad ‘Abduh was influenced by Jamal al-Din Afghani, who was then living in Cairo. While in exile in Paris, Muhammad ‘Abduh and Jamal al-Din edited a monthly journal. Upon his return to Cairo, Muhammad ‘Abduh expressed his views through a monthly journal edited by his disciple, Muhammad Rashid Rida.
The thought of Muhammad ‘Abduh reflects a consistent balance. He was concerned not only with the liberation of Muslims from colonial rule but also with the purification of their religious beliefs. However, he recognized that European rule had introduced healthy changes into Egyptian society, and he wanted to preserve these changes within a system that was at once rational and Islamic. For Muhammad ‘Abduh, commitment to science and active participation in public life were consistent with Islamic ideals, and he waged an unrelenting battle against secular materialism and Muslim conservatism.
Muhammad ‘Abduh opposed the orthodox religious leaders, the ‘ulama’ and fuqaha, who in turn were bitterly resentful of his teaching and influence. In their view, Islam consisted in adherence to the teachings of the four Sunni schools of law. Muhammad ‘Abduh argued for a sensitive exercise of individual judgment (ijtihad) in matters of law and also a reliance of ijma’, or community consensus, in determining legislative policy. Like Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ‘Abduh also inveighed against saint worship, opposing the tomb cults which abound in Egypt. Yet by simultaneously stressing the interior, ethical dimension of Muslim duties, Muhammad ‘Abduh seemed to follow the mystical method of al-Ghazali.
On balance, Muhammad ‘Abduh’s dominant theological outlook was more rational than mystical. The Mu’tazila, in his view, provided the guidelines by which the superiority of Islam over Christianity could be reasserted and the honor of Egypt upheld against the tidal wave of European intellectual colonialism. Muhammad Abduh’s goal was to have original and genuine Islam, stripped of its secondary accretions, flourish again -- as consistent with the pragmatic demands of Western technology as it had been with the intellectual precepts of Greek philosophy.
'Abduh, Muhammad see Muhammad ‘Abduh
Muhammad ‘Abduh (b. 1849, Nile Delta - d. July 11, 1905, Alexandria, Egypt). Muslim theologian and founder of the Egyptian modernist school. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani exercised a profound influence upon him, but Muhammad ‘Abduh held that only gradual reform could be successful. He was banished from Egypt in 1882. In 1884, he published in Paris, together with al-Afghani, a paper which exercised a very great influence on the development of nationalism in the Muslim east. In 1889, he returned to Cairo and became in 1899 state mufti, the highest clerical post in Egypt. In 1897, he published his most important work, the Treatise of the Oneness (of God). His commentary on the Qur’an remained unfinished. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s advanced ideas provoked the most vigorous hostility in orthodox and conservative circles. His program was to reform the Muslim religion by bringing it back to its original condition, to renovate the Arabic language, and to recognize the rights of the people in relation to the government.
Muhammad ‘Abduh lived all his life in Egypt until he was banished by the British in 1882 following an unsuccessful revolt against the British colonial authority. Muhammad ‘Abduh traveled, wrote, and taught abroad until he was allowed to return to Egypt in 1889.
Muhammad ‘Abduh’s early life was dedicated to traditional Qur’anic studies and mysticism. During the 1870s, Muhammad ‘Abduh was influenced by Jamal al-Din Afghani, who was then living in Cairo. While in exile in Paris, Muhammad ‘Abduh and Jamal al-Din edited a monthly journal. Upon his return to Cairo, Muhammad ‘Abduh expressed his views through a monthly journal edited by his disciple, Muhammad Rashid Rida.
The thought of Muhammad ‘Abduh reflects a consistent balance. He was concerned not only with the liberation of Muslims from colonial rule but also with the purification of their religious beliefs. However, he recognized that European rule had introduced healthy changes into Egyptian society, and he wanted to preserve these changes within a system that was at once rational and Islamic. For Muhammad ‘Abduh, commitment to science and active participation in public life were consistent with Islamic ideals, and he waged an unrelenting battle against secular materialism and Muslim conservatism.
Muhammad ‘Abduh opposed the orthodox religious leaders, the ‘ulama’ and fuqaha, who in turn were bitterly resentful of his teaching and influence. In their view, Islam consisted in adherence to the teachings of the four Sunni schools of law. Muhammad ‘Abduh argued for a sensitive exercise of individual judgment (ijtihad) in matters of law and also a reliance of ijma’, or community consensus, in determining legislative policy. Like Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ‘Abduh also inveighed against saint worship, opposing the tomb cults which abound in Egypt. Yet by simultaneously stressing the interior, ethical dimension of Muslim duties, Muhammad ‘Abduh seemed to follow the mystical method of al-Ghazali.
On balance, Muhammad ‘Abduh’s dominant theological outlook was more rational than mystical. The Mu’tazila, in his view, provided the guidelines by which the superiority of Islam over Christianity could be reasserted and the honor of Egypt upheld against the tidal wave of European intellectual colonialism. Muhammad Abduh’s goal was to have original and genuine Islam, stripped of its secondary accretions, flourish again -- as consistent with the pragmatic demands of Western technology as it had been with the intellectual precepts of Greek philosophy.
'Abduh, Muhammad see Muhammad ‘Abduh
Muhammad ‘Abdullah Hassan
Muhammad ‘Abdullah Hassan (The Mad Mullah) (Hajj Muhammad) (Sayyid Muhammad) (Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan). See Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allah Hassan.
Muhammad ‘Abdullah Hassan (The Mad Mullah) (Hajj Muhammad) (Sayyid Muhammad) (Sayyīd Muhammad `Abd Allāh al-Hasan). See Muhammad ibn ‘Abd Allah Hassan.
Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Muhammad Aguibu Tall (Muhammed Aguibu Tall) (c. 1843-1907). Tukolor ruler of Dinguiray and Macina. He collaborated with the French to destroy the Tukolor Empire.
Muhammad Aguibu Tall was the son of al-Hajj ‘Umar, the founder of the Tukolor Empire. When ‘Umar died in 1864, Muhammad Aguibu’s brother, Ahmadu ibn ‘Umar Tall, inherited the empire.
Ahmadu made Muhammad ruler of Segu but soon came to distrust him as overly ambitious. Muhammad later became emir of Dinguiray which he ruled seemingly independently of Ahmadu.
When the French military leader Archinard set out to conquer the Tukolor Empire, Archinard used the rivalry between the two brothers as a wedge. After the fall of Segu in 1890, Archinard contacted Muhammad and claimed that it was only Ahmadu and not the Tukolor nation whom the French were fighting. Muhammad answered amicably and formally submitted to the French the following year.
Muhammad’s acquiescence to French rule, divided the Tukolor and facilitated the fall of Macina, Ahmadu’s last base, in 1893. Archinard rewarded Muhammad by making him the new ruler of Macina. This was a wise move on Archinard’s part since, by making Muhammad the ruler of Macina, he averted further resistance from the population. The population of Macina appeared to be far more willing to accept the substitution of one son of ‘Umar for another.
Muhammad proved to be an unpopular ruler under the French colonial system. He was demoted in 1903.
Muhammed Aguibu Tall see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Tall, Muhammad Aguibu see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Tall, Muhammed Aguibu see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Muhammad Aguibu Tall (Muhammed Aguibu Tall) (c. 1843-1907). Tukolor ruler of Dinguiray and Macina. He collaborated with the French to destroy the Tukolor Empire.
Muhammad Aguibu Tall was the son of al-Hajj ‘Umar, the founder of the Tukolor Empire. When ‘Umar died in 1864, Muhammad Aguibu’s brother, Ahmadu ibn ‘Umar Tall, inherited the empire.
Ahmadu made Muhammad ruler of Segu but soon came to distrust him as overly ambitious. Muhammad later became emir of Dinguiray which he ruled seemingly independently of Ahmadu.
When the French military leader Archinard set out to conquer the Tukolor Empire, Archinard used the rivalry between the two brothers as a wedge. After the fall of Segu in 1890, Archinard contacted Muhammad and claimed that it was only Ahmadu and not the Tukolor nation whom the French were fighting. Muhammad answered amicably and formally submitted to the French the following year.
Muhammad’s acquiescence to French rule, divided the Tukolor and facilitated the fall of Macina, Ahmadu’s last base, in 1893. Archinard rewarded Muhammad by making him the new ruler of Macina. This was a wise move on Archinard’s part since, by making Muhammad the ruler of Macina, he averted further resistance from the population. The population of Macina appeared to be far more willing to accept the substitution of one son of ‘Umar for another.
Muhammad proved to be an unpopular ruler under the French colonial system. He was demoted in 1903.
Muhammed Aguibu Tall see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Tall, Muhammad Aguibu see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Tall, Muhammed Aguibu see Muhammad Aguibu Tall
Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Mahdi
Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Mahdi. See Mahdi, El.
Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Mahdi. See Mahdi, El.
Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad al-Baqir (Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Baqir) (Muhammad ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin) (al-Baqir)(676-743). Fourth Imam of the Isma’ili and Fifth Imam of Twelver traditions of Shi‘a Islam (c.712-c.743). Muhammad al-Baqir spent his life in contemplation and religious studies, avoiding active involvement in the politics of his time. He is remembered primarily for his religious and juridical teachings, his pious wisdom, and for counseling his brother Zayyid against open rebellion. His body was buried at al-Baqi cemetery in Medina. He was succeeded by Jafar as-Sadiq.
Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Baqir was the Fifth Imām to the Twelver Shī‘ah and Fourth Imām to the Ismā‘īlī Shī‘ah. His father was the previous Imām, ‘Alī ibn Ḥusayn, and his mother was Fatimah bint al-Hasan. He is highly respected by Shia Muslims for his religious knowledge and Islamic scholarship.
Muhammad al-Baqir was born in the city of Medina. He was the first Imam whose lineage ascended and reached the Islamic prophet Muhammad both from the paternal and maternal sides.
Muhammad al-Baqir was awarded the title Baqir al-'Ulum "Revealer of Knowledge" because of his religious and judicial knowledge and his enthusiasm to teach. Muhammad al-Baqir’s son, Ja'far al-Sadiq, was his student and benefited from his knowledge. He founded the precursor of Shī‘ah jurisprudence.
Despite his aversion to politics, the Umayyad rulers harassed Muhammad al-Baqir for fear of his popularity and influence. The actions of his brother and other kinsmen made them distrust him.
Muhammad al-Baqir was poisoned by the order of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. His body was buried beside the graves of other Imams in the graveyard of Jannatul Baqee'.
Baqir, Muhammad al- see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad ibn 'Ali al-Baqir see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin see Muhammad al-Baqir
Baqir, al- see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad al-Baqir (Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Baqir) (Muhammad ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin) (al-Baqir)(676-743). Fourth Imam of the Isma’ili and Fifth Imam of Twelver traditions of Shi‘a Islam (c.712-c.743). Muhammad al-Baqir spent his life in contemplation and religious studies, avoiding active involvement in the politics of his time. He is remembered primarily for his religious and juridical teachings, his pious wisdom, and for counseling his brother Zayyid against open rebellion. His body was buried at al-Baqi cemetery in Medina. He was succeeded by Jafar as-Sadiq.
Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Baqir was the Fifth Imām to the Twelver Shī‘ah and Fourth Imām to the Ismā‘īlī Shī‘ah. His father was the previous Imām, ‘Alī ibn Ḥusayn, and his mother was Fatimah bint al-Hasan. He is highly respected by Shia Muslims for his religious knowledge and Islamic scholarship.
Muhammad al-Baqir was born in the city of Medina. He was the first Imam whose lineage ascended and reached the Islamic prophet Muhammad both from the paternal and maternal sides.
Muhammad al-Baqir was awarded the title Baqir al-'Ulum "Revealer of Knowledge" because of his religious and judicial knowledge and his enthusiasm to teach. Muhammad al-Baqir’s son, Ja'far al-Sadiq, was his student and benefited from his knowledge. He founded the precursor of Shī‘ah jurisprudence.
Despite his aversion to politics, the Umayyad rulers harassed Muhammad al-Baqir for fear of his popularity and influence. The actions of his brother and other kinsmen made them distrust him.
Muhammad al-Baqir was poisoned by the order of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. His body was buried beside the graves of other Imams in the graveyard of Jannatul Baqee'.
Baqir, Muhammad al- see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad ibn 'Ali al-Baqir see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin see Muhammad al-Baqir
Baqir, al- see Muhammad al-Baqir
Muhammad ‘Ali
Muhammad ‘Ali. See Mohamed 'Ali.
Muhammad ‘Ali. See Mohamed 'Ali.
Muhammad ‘Ali Barfurushi Quddus
Muhammad ‘Ali Barfurushi Quddus (1824-1849). Outstanding leader of early Babism. After his execution, his tomb at Barfurush in Mazandaran, Iran, became a Baha’i shrine.
Quddus, Muhammad 'Ali Barfurushi see Muhammad ‘Ali Barfurushi Quddus
Muhammad ‘Ali Barfurushi Quddus (1824-1849). Outstanding leader of early Babism. After his execution, his tomb at Barfurush in Mazandaran, Iran, became a Baha’i shrine.
Quddus, Muhammad 'Ali Barfurushi see Muhammad ‘Ali Barfurushi Quddus
Muhammad ‘Ali dynasty
Muhammad ‘Ali dynasty. Dynasty of Albanian-Ottoman origin that reigned in Egypt from 1805 until Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers deposed King Faruq in 1952 and his infant son Ahmad Fu’ad II the following year and established a republic. The rulers bore the titles pasha and wali (governor) until 1867; they were called khedive (viceroy) until 1914, sultan until 1922, and finally king until 1953.
Muhammad ‘Ali and Ibrahim (who ruled only a few months and predeceased his mentally incapacitated father) are usually depicted as able rulers, and Isma‘il and Fu’ad I as energetic if not unflawed ones. ‘Abbas I, Tawfiq, ‘Abbas II, Husayn Kamil, and Faruq are generally seen as capricious, weak, or subservient to Western interests.
Arriving with an Ottoman force sent to expel Napoleon Bonaparte’s French expedition (1798-1801), Muhammad ‘Ali maneuvered until the sultan recognized a fait accompli by naming him governor of Egypt. The ‘ulama’ of al-Azhar mosque helped him to power, but he soon curbed their political influence and economic autonomy. The hard-driving “founder of modern Egypt” dug irrigation canals, promoted cotton as a cash crop for export, centralized taxes, and established monopolies in industry and foreign trade. Western advisers helped him build a modern army and schools to train officers, administrators, and technicians. Muhammad ‘Ali conquered parts of Arabia, the Sudan, and Greece in the name of the sultan, then rebelled in the 1830s and seized Palestine and Syria. The European powers forced him back to his Egyptian base and made him pare down his army, but he obtained the hereditary governorship of Egypt for his line.
Some revisionists have challenged the prevailing view of ‘Abbas I as a xenophobic and reactionary despot. The weak willed Sa‘id went along with the Suez Canal project and opened wide the door to European exploitation. Isma‘il formally opened the Canal, promoted education and public works, and conquered a new African empire. But bankruptcy led to his deposition in 1879, followed by the ‘Urabi revolt, and the British occupation of 1882. Tawfiq was somewhat a tool of the British, and ‘Abbas II was an ineffectual rebel against the powerful British consul general, Lord Cromer.
Young ‘Abbas II and Faruq squandered their initial popularity, and the dynasty’s failure to come to terms with Egyptian nationalism in the twentieth century proved fatal. Faruq was the first of the line to feel fully at home speaking Arabic. Fu’ad I cultivated al-Azhar (he harbored ambitions of becoming caliph) and founded Cairo University and other cultural institutions, but he is remembered best for his autocracy and his enmity toward the popular nationalist Wafd Party. By continuing his father’s feud with the Wafd, Faruq forfeited the possibility of becoming a nationalist rallying point like Sultan Muhammad V of Morocco. Faruq’s private life became a national embarrassment and contributed to his overthrow. Because of the dynasty’s alien origins, Gamal Abdel Nasser’s claim to be the first indigenous ruler of Egypt since the pharaohs was not entirely fanciful.
The reigning members of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty (1805-1953) were:
Wālis, self-declared as Khedives (1805-1867)
* Muhammad Ali (9 July 1805-1 September 1848)
* Ibrahim (reigned as Wāli briefly during his father's incapacity) (1 September 1848 - 10 November 1848)
* Abbas I (10 November 1848 - 13 July 1854)
* Sa‘id I (13 July 1854 - 18 January 1863)
* Ismai'l I (18 January 1863 - 8 June 1867)
Khedives (1867-1914)
* Ismai'l I (8 June 1867 - 26 June 1879)
* Tewfik I (26 June 1879 - 7 January 1892)
* Abbas II (8 January 1892 - 19 December 1914)
Sultans (1914-1922)
* Hussein Kamel (19 December 1914 - 9 October 1917)
* Fuad I (9 October 1917 - 16 March 1922)
Kings (1922-1953)
* Fuad I (16 March 1922 - 28 April 1936)
* Farouk I (28 April 1936 - 26 July 1952)
o Prince Muhammad Ali Tewfik (Chairman Council of Regency during Farouk I's minority) (28 April 1936 - 29 July 1937)
* Fuad II (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
o Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim (Chairman Council of Regency during Fuad II's minority) (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
Muhammad ‘Ali dynasty. Dynasty of Albanian-Ottoman origin that reigned in Egypt from 1805 until Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers deposed King Faruq in 1952 and his infant son Ahmad Fu’ad II the following year and established a republic. The rulers bore the titles pasha and wali (governor) until 1867; they were called khedive (viceroy) until 1914, sultan until 1922, and finally king until 1953.
Muhammad ‘Ali and Ibrahim (who ruled only a few months and predeceased his mentally incapacitated father) are usually depicted as able rulers, and Isma‘il and Fu’ad I as energetic if not unflawed ones. ‘Abbas I, Tawfiq, ‘Abbas II, Husayn Kamil, and Faruq are generally seen as capricious, weak, or subservient to Western interests.
Arriving with an Ottoman force sent to expel Napoleon Bonaparte’s French expedition (1798-1801), Muhammad ‘Ali maneuvered until the sultan recognized a fait accompli by naming him governor of Egypt. The ‘ulama’ of al-Azhar mosque helped him to power, but he soon curbed their political influence and economic autonomy. The hard-driving “founder of modern Egypt” dug irrigation canals, promoted cotton as a cash crop for export, centralized taxes, and established monopolies in industry and foreign trade. Western advisers helped him build a modern army and schools to train officers, administrators, and technicians. Muhammad ‘Ali conquered parts of Arabia, the Sudan, and Greece in the name of the sultan, then rebelled in the 1830s and seized Palestine and Syria. The European powers forced him back to his Egyptian base and made him pare down his army, but he obtained the hereditary governorship of Egypt for his line.
Some revisionists have challenged the prevailing view of ‘Abbas I as a xenophobic and reactionary despot. The weak willed Sa‘id went along with the Suez Canal project and opened wide the door to European exploitation. Isma‘il formally opened the Canal, promoted education and public works, and conquered a new African empire. But bankruptcy led to his deposition in 1879, followed by the ‘Urabi revolt, and the British occupation of 1882. Tawfiq was somewhat a tool of the British, and ‘Abbas II was an ineffectual rebel against the powerful British consul general, Lord Cromer.
Young ‘Abbas II and Faruq squandered their initial popularity, and the dynasty’s failure to come to terms with Egyptian nationalism in the twentieth century proved fatal. Faruq was the first of the line to feel fully at home speaking Arabic. Fu’ad I cultivated al-Azhar (he harbored ambitions of becoming caliph) and founded Cairo University and other cultural institutions, but he is remembered best for his autocracy and his enmity toward the popular nationalist Wafd Party. By continuing his father’s feud with the Wafd, Faruq forfeited the possibility of becoming a nationalist rallying point like Sultan Muhammad V of Morocco. Faruq’s private life became a national embarrassment and contributed to his overthrow. Because of the dynasty’s alien origins, Gamal Abdel Nasser’s claim to be the first indigenous ruler of Egypt since the pharaohs was not entirely fanciful.
The reigning members of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty (1805-1953) were:
Wālis, self-declared as Khedives (1805-1867)
* Muhammad Ali (9 July 1805-1 September 1848)
* Ibrahim (reigned as Wāli briefly during his father's incapacity) (1 September 1848 - 10 November 1848)
* Abbas I (10 November 1848 - 13 July 1854)
* Sa‘id I (13 July 1854 - 18 January 1863)
* Ismai'l I (18 January 1863 - 8 June 1867)
Khedives (1867-1914)
* Ismai'l I (8 June 1867 - 26 June 1879)
* Tewfik I (26 June 1879 - 7 January 1892)
* Abbas II (8 January 1892 - 19 December 1914)
Sultans (1914-1922)
* Hussein Kamel (19 December 1914 - 9 October 1917)
* Fuad I (9 October 1917 - 16 March 1922)
Kings (1922-1953)
* Fuad I (16 March 1922 - 28 April 1936)
* Farouk I (28 April 1936 - 26 July 1952)
o Prince Muhammad Ali Tewfik (Chairman Council of Regency during Farouk I's minority) (28 April 1936 - 29 July 1937)
* Fuad II (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
o Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim (Chairman Council of Regency during Fuad II's minority) (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
Muhammad ‘Ali Hujjat-i Zanjani
Muhammad ‘Ali Hujjat-i Zanjani (Zanjani) (1812-1851). Leading exponent of Babism in Zanjan, Iran, and chief protagonist of the Babi uprising there.
Zanjani see Muhammad ‘Ali Hujjat-i Zanjani
Muhammad ‘Ali Hujjat-i Zanjani (Zanjani) (1812-1851). Leading exponent of Babism in Zanjan, Iran, and chief protagonist of the Babi uprising there.
Zanjani see Muhammad ‘Ali Hujjat-i Zanjani
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha (Mehmed ‘Ali Pasha) (Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha) (Mehmet Ali Pasha) (Muhammed Ali Paša) (Mehmet Ali Paşa) (March 4, 1769, Kavala, Macedonia, Ottoman Empire – August 2, 1849, Alexandria, Egypt). Ottoman governor general and effective ruler of Egypt (r.1801-1848). He assumed the title khedive (in Persian, khadiv – “lord”), granted officially in 1867 by the Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz to his grandson Isma‘il Pasha. Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha’s career can be divided into four distinct periods: (1) his rise to the position of governor general and the consolidation of his power [1801-1811]; (2) the period in which he laid the economic and military foundations for what later became a regional empire centered on Egypt [1812-1827]; (3) the height of Egyptian hegemony and the beginning of the disintegration of Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha’s economic control system [1828-1841]; and (4) the post-heroic phase and the setting in of realism and retrenchment [1841-1848].
Muḥammad ʿAlī was the pasha and viceroy of Egypt (1805–48) and the founder of the dynasty that ruled Egypt from the beginning of the 19th century of the Christian calendar to the middle of the 20th. He encouraged the emergence of the modern Egyptian state.
Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ethnic background is unknown, although he may have been an Albanian and was certainly a Muslim and an Ottoman subject. His father, Ibrahim Agha, the commander of a small provincial military force that was maintained by the governor of Kavala, died when Muḥammad ʿAlī was a boy, and he was brought up by the governor. At 18, he was married to one of the governor’s relatives, who became the mother of five of Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ninety-five (95) children. He became involved in the tobacco trade, an experience that may account for his later commercial interests.
In 1798, Egypt, at that time a semi-autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, was occupied by a French force under Napoleon Bonaparte. Muḥammad ʿAlī arrived there in 1801 as second in command of a 300-man Albanian regiment sent by the Ottoman government to oust the French from Egypt. With great political skill, he managed by 1805 to be named the wālī, the Ottoman sultan’s viceroy in Egypt, with the rank of pasha.
Nowhere in the Ottoman Empire was there greater opportunity for a total restructuring of society than in Egypt. The three-year French occupation (1798–1801) had disrupted the country’s traditional political and economic structure. Continuing the task begun by the French, Muḥammad ʿAlī put an end to Egypt’s traditional society. He eliminated the Mamelūkes, the former ruling oligarchy, expropriated the old landholding classes, turned the religious class into pensioners of the government, restricted the activities of the native merchant and artisan groups, neutralized the Bedouins, and crushed all movements of rebellion among the peasants. The task of rebuilding Egypt along modern lines now lay before him.
However, although Muḥammad ʿAlī had considerable native intelligence and great personal charm, he was a man of limited knowledge and narrow horizons. He proved insensitive to the possibilities open to him and governed generally according to Ottoman principles. No group within Egyptian society was capable of forcing fundamental changes on him. Elements that might have served as the instruments of change had been crushed at the outset of his regime. Neither was there an ideology capable of bringing together the ruler and the ruled in a great national effort. Finally, Muḥammad ʿAlī had to devote much of his effort to resisting attempts by his Ottoman overlord to remove him from office. His policies were designed more to entrench himself and his family in Egypt as its hereditary rulers than to create a new society.
To strengthen his position within Egypt and to increase his revenues, Muḥammad ʿAlī instituted sweeping changes. By 1815 most of Egypt’s agricultural land had been converted into state land, and profits from agriculture became available to the ruler. He improved Egypt’s irrigation system, on which its agriculture depended. He introduced new crops, such as cotton, which promised high cash returns; and he reorganized the administrative structure of the government to ensure strict control of the economy. He also attempted to construct a modern industrial system to process Egypt’s raw materials. Disbanding his mercenary army, he created a fleet and an army of Egyptians conscripted from the peasant class but commanded by Turks and others recruited from outside Egypt. To supply services for his armed forces, he created Western-style schools to train doctors, engineers, veterinarians, and other specialists. He also began sending educational missions to European countries for training in modern techniques.
His industrial experiments failed, largely because Egypt lacked sources of power, a native managerial class, and a trained working class. Even the agricultural sector declined ultimately because of administrative mismanagement, excessive taxation, military conscription of the peasantry, and his monopolization of trade. By the mid-1830s Muḥammad ʿAlī’s policy of turning Egypt into a massive plantation for his own benefit had reached a point of diminishing returns. Furthermore, his financial requirements had greatly increased because of his military campaigns.
Muḥammad ʿAlī initially supported the Ottoman sultan in suppressing rebellion both in Arabia and in Greece, and he also invaded the Nilotic Sudan in search of recruits for his army and gold for his treasury. Victorious in all three campaigns, until European intervention in Greece caused the destruction of his fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827, Muḥammad ʿAlī felt that he was strong enough to challenge the sultan. His first war against the sultan (1831–33) gained him control of Syria as far north as Adana. In the second war (1838–41) the decisive defeat of Ottoman troops at the Battle of Nizip (1839) and the desertion of the Ottoman fleet to Muḥammad ʿAlī led to intervention by the European powers. In July 1840, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agreed to end Egyptian rule in Syria, shattering Muḥammad ʿAlī’s hopes for greater independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1841 he and his family were granted the hereditary right to rule Egypt and the Sudan, but his power was still subjected to restraints, and the sultan’s suzerain rights remained intact.
In the late 1840s, owing to his failing lucidity, Muḥammad ʿAlī retired from office. In 1848, rule was officially transferred to Muḥammad ʿAlī’s son Ibrahim, who died shortly thereafter; Muḥammad ʿAlī himself died in the following year. Although many of his reforms and institutions were abandoned—some before his death—he is nevertheless hailed as having cleared the path for the creation of an independent Egyptian state.
Mehmed 'Ali Pasha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Mehmet Ali Pasha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammed Ali Pasa see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Mehmet Ali Pasa see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha (Mehmed ‘Ali Pasha) (Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha) (Mehmet Ali Pasha) (Muhammed Ali Paša) (Mehmet Ali Paşa) (March 4, 1769, Kavala, Macedonia, Ottoman Empire – August 2, 1849, Alexandria, Egypt). Ottoman governor general and effective ruler of Egypt (r.1801-1848). He assumed the title khedive (in Persian, khadiv – “lord”), granted officially in 1867 by the Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz to his grandson Isma‘il Pasha. Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha’s career can be divided into four distinct periods: (1) his rise to the position of governor general and the consolidation of his power [1801-1811]; (2) the period in which he laid the economic and military foundations for what later became a regional empire centered on Egypt [1812-1827]; (3) the height of Egyptian hegemony and the beginning of the disintegration of Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha’s economic control system [1828-1841]; and (4) the post-heroic phase and the setting in of realism and retrenchment [1841-1848].
Muḥammad ʿAlī was the pasha and viceroy of Egypt (1805–48) and the founder of the dynasty that ruled Egypt from the beginning of the 19th century of the Christian calendar to the middle of the 20th. He encouraged the emergence of the modern Egyptian state.
Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ethnic background is unknown, although he may have been an Albanian and was certainly a Muslim and an Ottoman subject. His father, Ibrahim Agha, the commander of a small provincial military force that was maintained by the governor of Kavala, died when Muḥammad ʿAlī was a boy, and he was brought up by the governor. At 18, he was married to one of the governor’s relatives, who became the mother of five of Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ninety-five (95) children. He became involved in the tobacco trade, an experience that may account for his later commercial interests.
In 1798, Egypt, at that time a semi-autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, was occupied by a French force under Napoleon Bonaparte. Muḥammad ʿAlī arrived there in 1801 as second in command of a 300-man Albanian regiment sent by the Ottoman government to oust the French from Egypt. With great political skill, he managed by 1805 to be named the wālī, the Ottoman sultan’s viceroy in Egypt, with the rank of pasha.
Nowhere in the Ottoman Empire was there greater opportunity for a total restructuring of society than in Egypt. The three-year French occupation (1798–1801) had disrupted the country’s traditional political and economic structure. Continuing the task begun by the French, Muḥammad ʿAlī put an end to Egypt’s traditional society. He eliminated the Mamelūkes, the former ruling oligarchy, expropriated the old landholding classes, turned the religious class into pensioners of the government, restricted the activities of the native merchant and artisan groups, neutralized the Bedouins, and crushed all movements of rebellion among the peasants. The task of rebuilding Egypt along modern lines now lay before him.
However, although Muḥammad ʿAlī had considerable native intelligence and great personal charm, he was a man of limited knowledge and narrow horizons. He proved insensitive to the possibilities open to him and governed generally according to Ottoman principles. No group within Egyptian society was capable of forcing fundamental changes on him. Elements that might have served as the instruments of change had been crushed at the outset of his regime. Neither was there an ideology capable of bringing together the ruler and the ruled in a great national effort. Finally, Muḥammad ʿAlī had to devote much of his effort to resisting attempts by his Ottoman overlord to remove him from office. His policies were designed more to entrench himself and his family in Egypt as its hereditary rulers than to create a new society.
To strengthen his position within Egypt and to increase his revenues, Muḥammad ʿAlī instituted sweeping changes. By 1815 most of Egypt’s agricultural land had been converted into state land, and profits from agriculture became available to the ruler. He improved Egypt’s irrigation system, on which its agriculture depended. He introduced new crops, such as cotton, which promised high cash returns; and he reorganized the administrative structure of the government to ensure strict control of the economy. He also attempted to construct a modern industrial system to process Egypt’s raw materials. Disbanding his mercenary army, he created a fleet and an army of Egyptians conscripted from the peasant class but commanded by Turks and others recruited from outside Egypt. To supply services for his armed forces, he created Western-style schools to train doctors, engineers, veterinarians, and other specialists. He also began sending educational missions to European countries for training in modern techniques.
His industrial experiments failed, largely because Egypt lacked sources of power, a native managerial class, and a trained working class. Even the agricultural sector declined ultimately because of administrative mismanagement, excessive taxation, military conscription of the peasantry, and his monopolization of trade. By the mid-1830s Muḥammad ʿAlī’s policy of turning Egypt into a massive plantation for his own benefit had reached a point of diminishing returns. Furthermore, his financial requirements had greatly increased because of his military campaigns.
Muḥammad ʿAlī initially supported the Ottoman sultan in suppressing rebellion both in Arabia and in Greece, and he also invaded the Nilotic Sudan in search of recruits for his army and gold for his treasury. Victorious in all three campaigns, until European intervention in Greece caused the destruction of his fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827, Muḥammad ʿAlī felt that he was strong enough to challenge the sultan. His first war against the sultan (1831–33) gained him control of Syria as far north as Adana. In the second war (1838–41) the decisive defeat of Ottoman troops at the Battle of Nizip (1839) and the desertion of the Ottoman fleet to Muḥammad ʿAlī led to intervention by the European powers. In July 1840, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agreed to end Egyptian rule in Syria, shattering Muḥammad ʿAlī’s hopes for greater independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1841 he and his family were granted the hereditary right to rule Egypt and the Sudan, but his power was still subjected to restraints, and the sultan’s suzerain rights remained intact.
In the late 1840s, owing to his failing lucidity, Muḥammad ʿAlī retired from office. In 1848, rule was officially transferred to Muḥammad ʿAlī’s son Ibrahim, who died shortly thereafter; Muḥammad ʿAlī himself died in the following year. Although many of his reforms and institutions were abandoned—some before his death—he is nevertheless hailed as having cleared the path for the creation of an independent Egyptian state.
Mehmed 'Ali Pasha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Mehmet Ali Pasha see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammed Ali Pasa see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Mehmet Ali Pasa see Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar (Muhammad 'Ali Shah) (Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar) (June 21, 1872 - April 5, 1925, San-Remo). Ruler of the Qajar dynasty (r.1907-1909). The shah wanted to cause the downfall of those who supported the reforms and to restore the power of the royal family. In 1907, he declared the newly created Nationaly Assembly dissolved and the Constitution abolished as it was contrary to Islamic law. In 1909, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad, still a minor. From Odessa, he plotted his return, and in 1911, he landed at Astarabad, but his forces were defeated. In 1912, he went in exile again. Reza Khan (later Shah) Pahlavi got the National Assembly to depose Muhammad ‘Ali’s successor Ahmad Shah (r. 1909-1924), which brought the Qajar dynasty to an end.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar was the Shah of Persia from January 8, 1907 to July 16, 1909. He was against the constitution that was ratified during the reign of his father, Mozzafar-al-Din Shah. In 1907 Mohammad Ali dissolved Majles (Iranian parliament/National assembly) and declared the Constitution abolished because it was contrary to Islamic law. He bombarded the Majles with the military and political support of Russia and Britain. However, he abdicated following a new Constitutional Revolution and he was remembered as a symbol of dictatorship.
He fled to Odessa, Russia (present day Ukraine). Mohammad Ali plotted his return to power from Odessa. In 1911 he landed at Astarabad, Iran, but his forces were defeated. Mohammad Ali Shah fled to Constantinople and died in San Remo, Italy, April 5, 1925. He was buried in the Shrine of Imam Husain, Karbala, Iraq. Ironically, every future shah of Iran since Mohammad Ali Shah would die in exile as well.
His son and successor, Ahmad Shah Qajar was the last ruler in the Qajar dynasty.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar had eight children from two marriages. From his first wife he had one son. From his second marriage to Princess Malekeh Jahan daughter of Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh, he had seven children. The oldest child, Gholam Hossein Mirza, died in infancy.
* From Robabeh Khanoum Malih-e Saltaneh
o Prince Hossein Ali Mirza E'tezad Saltaneh
* From Malakeh Jahan daughter of Kamran Mirza
o Prince Gholam Hossein Mirza, died in infancy]
o Prince Soltan Ahmad Shah (January 21, 1898, Tabriz - February 27, 1930, Neuilly-sur-Seine, Paris, France)
o Prince Mohammad Hassan Mirza (February 20, 1899, Tabriz - January 7, 1943, Maidenhead, England)
o Prince Soltan Mahmoud Mirza (October 15, 1905, Tehran - July 2, 1988, Évian-les-Bains, France)
o Prince Soltan Majid Mirza (January 7, 1907, Tehran - May 24, 1986, Paris, France)
o Princess Khadijeh (1900, Tabriz - 1956, Tehran, Iran)
o Princess Assieh (1908, Tehran - 1953, Isfahan, Iran)
Qajar, Muhammad ‘Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Muhammad 'Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Qajar, Mohammad Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar (Muhammad 'Ali Shah) (Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar) (June 21, 1872 - April 5, 1925, San-Remo). Ruler of the Qajar dynasty (r.1907-1909). The shah wanted to cause the downfall of those who supported the reforms and to restore the power of the royal family. In 1907, he declared the newly created Nationaly Assembly dissolved and the Constitution abolished as it was contrary to Islamic law. In 1909, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad, still a minor. From Odessa, he plotted his return, and in 1911, he landed at Astarabad, but his forces were defeated. In 1912, he went in exile again. Reza Khan (later Shah) Pahlavi got the National Assembly to depose Muhammad ‘Ali’s successor Ahmad Shah (r. 1909-1924), which brought the Qajar dynasty to an end.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar was the Shah of Persia from January 8, 1907 to July 16, 1909. He was against the constitution that was ratified during the reign of his father, Mozzafar-al-Din Shah. In 1907 Mohammad Ali dissolved Majles (Iranian parliament/National assembly) and declared the Constitution abolished because it was contrary to Islamic law. He bombarded the Majles with the military and political support of Russia and Britain. However, he abdicated following a new Constitutional Revolution and he was remembered as a symbol of dictatorship.
He fled to Odessa, Russia (present day Ukraine). Mohammad Ali plotted his return to power from Odessa. In 1911 he landed at Astarabad, Iran, but his forces were defeated. Mohammad Ali Shah fled to Constantinople and died in San Remo, Italy, April 5, 1925. He was buried in the Shrine of Imam Husain, Karbala, Iraq. Ironically, every future shah of Iran since Mohammad Ali Shah would die in exile as well.
His son and successor, Ahmad Shah Qajar was the last ruler in the Qajar dynasty.
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar had eight children from two marriages. From his first wife he had one son. From his second marriage to Princess Malekeh Jahan daughter of Kamran Mirza Nayeb es-Saltaneh, he had seven children. The oldest child, Gholam Hossein Mirza, died in infancy.
* From Robabeh Khanoum Malih-e Saltaneh
o Prince Hossein Ali Mirza E'tezad Saltaneh
* From Malakeh Jahan daughter of Kamran Mirza
o Prince Gholam Hossein Mirza, died in infancy]
o Prince Soltan Ahmad Shah (January 21, 1898, Tabriz - February 27, 1930, Neuilly-sur-Seine, Paris, France)
o Prince Mohammad Hassan Mirza (February 20, 1899, Tabriz - January 7, 1943, Maidenhead, England)
o Prince Soltan Mahmoud Mirza (October 15, 1905, Tehran - July 2, 1988, Évian-les-Bains, France)
o Prince Soltan Majid Mirza (January 7, 1907, Tehran - May 24, 1986, Paris, France)
o Princess Khadijeh (1900, Tabriz - 1956, Tehran, Iran)
o Princess Assieh (1908, Tehran - 1953, Isfahan, Iran)
Qajar, Muhammad ‘Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Muhammad 'Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Qajar, Mohammad Ali Shah see Muhammad ‘Ali Shah Qajar
Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Mahdi (Muhammad al-Muntazar) (868/869-941). Twelfth and last imam of the Twelver Shi‘a. He is also known as Muhammad al-Muntazar (the awaited). His death was the beginning of the complete or greater occultation (in Arabic, al-ghayba al-kubra) that will last until the reappearance of the twelfth Imam in eschatological times.
Very little can be said of Muhammad al-Mahdi with any certainty. In fact, the non-Twelver might very well question whether there was an historical person associated with the name. Jafar, the brother of the eleventh imam denied the existence of any child and claimed the imamate for himself. In fact, accounts of public appearances by Muhammad al-Mahdi often involve his mysterious arrival at key moments to challenge his uncle’s claims.
In brief, the Twelver Shi‘a believe that he was born to a Byzantine slave named Narjis Khatun, and that his birth was kept quiet by his father, the eleventh imam, Hassan al-Askari, because of the intense persecution of the Shi‘a at that time.
Hidden since birth, he reappeared at the age of six to assert his claim to the Imamate, only to then disappear to avoid the sad fate of his father and grandfather. For the next seventy years, he maintained contact with his followers through a succession of four assistants, each known as Bab (Gate), Uthman al Amir; his son Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Uthman; Abu’l Qasim Husayn ibn Ruh as Nawbakhti; and Abu’l Husayn Ali ibn Muhammad as Samarri. The period when he used the four Babs as his form of contacting the Shi‘a is known as the Lesser Occultation.
On his deathbed in 941, the fourth Bab, as Samarri produced a letter from the Imam stating that there should be no successor to as-Samarri and that from that time forward the Mahdi would not be seen until he reappeared as champion of the faithful in the events leading to the Judgment Day. Therefore, after 941 of the Christian calendar, there has been no earthly expression of the Imamate. This period is known as the Greater Occultation. However, it is still possible to seek the Twelfth Imam’s advice or intercession by writing him a letter and leaving it at one of the Shi‘a shrines. To explain the doctrine of the Occultation, Shi‘a theologians draw an analogy to the idea of the sun being occulted by clouds. While the sun is out of sight, it still exists and warms the earth.
There is much that is miraculous associated with al-Mahdi. The various traditions are rich in stories and are often contradictory. Tales range from speaking from the womb, growing at so astonishing a rate that he was full grown by age 6, being raised by birds and with the ability to appear and disappear at will.
While there was much controversy over the succession of the Twelfth Imam, as the Lesser Occultation proceeded, dissent gradually diminished. This can be attributed in part to the active support of the Caliphate for the institution of the Bab. Several opponents of the doctrine of the Occultation were executed and others were persecuted in various ways. Another factor explaining the acceptance of the Lesser Occultation, and by extension the Greater Occultation, was due to the house arrest of the Tenth and Eleventh Imams. Hence, most Shi‘a were already accustomed to the idea of their Imam being hidden from their view.
In the time of the Tenth and Eleventh Imams, a network of wikala (agents) had developed to act as intermediaries between the Imam and his followers, handling money and carrying messages back and forth. In fact, Uthman al-Amri, the first Bab of the Twelfth Imam had held the same position as head of the wikala under the Eleventh Imam. Therefore, for most Shi‘a, there was not a significant change in their relation to their Imam after the death of the Eleventh Imam.
Some titles of the Twelfth Imam include: Sahib az-Zaman (Master of the Age); Sahib al-Amr (Master of Command); al-Qa’im (the one to arise); Bagiyyat Allah (remnant of Allah); and Imam al-Muntazar (the awaited Imam).
Muhammad al-Muntazar see Muhammad al-Mahdi
The Awaited Imam see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Imam al-Muntazar see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Sahib az-Zaman see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Sahib al-Amr see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Qaim see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Mahdi (Muhammad al-Muntazar) (868/869-941). Twelfth and last imam of the Twelver Shi‘a. He is also known as Muhammad al-Muntazar (the awaited). His death was the beginning of the complete or greater occultation (in Arabic, al-ghayba al-kubra) that will last until the reappearance of the twelfth Imam in eschatological times.
Very little can be said of Muhammad al-Mahdi with any certainty. In fact, the non-Twelver might very well question whether there was an historical person associated with the name. Jafar, the brother of the eleventh imam denied the existence of any child and claimed the imamate for himself. In fact, accounts of public appearances by Muhammad al-Mahdi often involve his mysterious arrival at key moments to challenge his uncle’s claims.
In brief, the Twelver Shi‘a believe that he was born to a Byzantine slave named Narjis Khatun, and that his birth was kept quiet by his father, the eleventh imam, Hassan al-Askari, because of the intense persecution of the Shi‘a at that time.
Hidden since birth, he reappeared at the age of six to assert his claim to the Imamate, only to then disappear to avoid the sad fate of his father and grandfather. For the next seventy years, he maintained contact with his followers through a succession of four assistants, each known as Bab (Gate), Uthman al Amir; his son Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Uthman; Abu’l Qasim Husayn ibn Ruh as Nawbakhti; and Abu’l Husayn Ali ibn Muhammad as Samarri. The period when he used the four Babs as his form of contacting the Shi‘a is known as the Lesser Occultation.
On his deathbed in 941, the fourth Bab, as Samarri produced a letter from the Imam stating that there should be no successor to as-Samarri and that from that time forward the Mahdi would not be seen until he reappeared as champion of the faithful in the events leading to the Judgment Day. Therefore, after 941 of the Christian calendar, there has been no earthly expression of the Imamate. This period is known as the Greater Occultation. However, it is still possible to seek the Twelfth Imam’s advice or intercession by writing him a letter and leaving it at one of the Shi‘a shrines. To explain the doctrine of the Occultation, Shi‘a theologians draw an analogy to the idea of the sun being occulted by clouds. While the sun is out of sight, it still exists and warms the earth.
There is much that is miraculous associated with al-Mahdi. The various traditions are rich in stories and are often contradictory. Tales range from speaking from the womb, growing at so astonishing a rate that he was full grown by age 6, being raised by birds and with the ability to appear and disappear at will.
While there was much controversy over the succession of the Twelfth Imam, as the Lesser Occultation proceeded, dissent gradually diminished. This can be attributed in part to the active support of the Caliphate for the institution of the Bab. Several opponents of the doctrine of the Occultation were executed and others were persecuted in various ways. Another factor explaining the acceptance of the Lesser Occultation, and by extension the Greater Occultation, was due to the house arrest of the Tenth and Eleventh Imams. Hence, most Shi‘a were already accustomed to the idea of their Imam being hidden from their view.
In the time of the Tenth and Eleventh Imams, a network of wikala (agents) had developed to act as intermediaries between the Imam and his followers, handling money and carrying messages back and forth. In fact, Uthman al-Amri, the first Bab of the Twelfth Imam had held the same position as head of the wikala under the Eleventh Imam. Therefore, for most Shi‘a, there was not a significant change in their relation to their Imam after the death of the Eleventh Imam.
Some titles of the Twelfth Imam include: Sahib az-Zaman (Master of the Age); Sahib al-Amr (Master of Command); al-Qa’im (the one to arise); Bagiyyat Allah (remnant of Allah); and Imam al-Muntazar (the awaited Imam).
Muhammad al-Muntazar see Muhammad al-Mahdi
The Awaited Imam see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Imam al-Muntazar see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Sahib az-Zaman see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Sahib al-Amr see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Qaim see Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Muntazar
Muhammad al-Muntazar. See Muhammad al-Mahdi.
Muhammad al-Muntazar. See Muhammad al-Mahdi.
Muhammad al-Qa’im
Muhammad al-Qa’im. See Muhammad al-Mahdi.
Muhammad al-Qa’im. See Muhammad al-Mahdi.
Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey
Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey (1814-1882). Bey of the Husaynid dynasty in Tunisia (r.1859-1882). The doubling of the personal tax (in Arabic, majba) in 1863 triggered off serious upheavals, which led to pitiless repression by the minister Mustafa Khaznadar. The situation was somewhat redressed by Khayr al-Din Pasha, but the foreign consuls pressed for concessions and privileges. In 1881, Tunisia was occupied by French troops.
Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey was the son of Husayn Bey (ruler of Tunisia, 1824 - 1835) and the third Husaynid mushir (marshal). His reign saw Tunisia's first experiment with constitutionalism, parliamentary rule, and restrictions on the bey's authority; the unbridled control of Prime Minister Mustafa Khaznader; disastrous foreign loans; increased taxes; a bitter revolt; Europe's economic control; the reformist ministry of Khayr al-Din (1873 - 1877); and the imposition of a protectorate by France (1881).
From all reports, Muhammad al-Sadiq was a weak ruler who was easily influenced by his political entourage of Mamelukes, especially Khaznader. Like his predecessor, Ahmad Bey, al-Sadiq evinced an early fascination with the military and showed some talent in that area. Soon after his accession, he sought to reconstitute the army and introduced a military code that provided for conscription of all able-bodied male adults for a period of eight years. However, an individual could send a proxy if he chose not to enter the army.
Upon assuming the throne in 1859, al-Sadiq declared that he would uphold the principles of the Fundamental Pact of 1857. He proclaimed a new constitution in April 1861. It included the principle of ministerial responsibility, financial control vested in the Grand Council, a strict budget controlled by the Grand Council, and a secular court system. Also provided was a "bill of rights" that included provisions for religious freedom and conversion from Islam.
Although the document appeared to guarantee constitutionalism and individual rights, it actually provided for a system that perpetuated the Turkish-Mameluke political elite and increased their power at the bey's expense. It was not, therefore, a parliamentary democracy that emerged, but a traditional elitist oligarchy. The limitations placed on the bey's authority by the constitution increased Khaznader's confidence and freedom of action. He used the constitution to eliminate his enemies on the Grand Council and install his close associates. He increased his financial exactions from the state treasury and more than doubled the national debt within one year. For this reason, he floated his first foreign loan in 1863. To pay for that loan, Khaznader increased the unpopular personal majba tax twofold. This led to the revolt of 1864.
From 1865 to 1869, Khaznader ran the state. In the latter year, after poor harvests, famines, and epidemics, al-Sadiq accepted the International Finance Commission, which aimed to ensure Tunisia's payment of its financial obligations. Khayr al-Din, Khaznader's son-in-law, represented Tunisia on the commission. In 1873, he persuaded the bey to remove Khaznader and install himself as prime minister.
Under Khayr al-Din's prime ministry, a number of reforms were instituted: regulation of the education at Zaytuna University, the founding of Sadiqi College, elimination of abuses in the administration of hubus (religious trust) properties, reformation of the tax system, abolition of the mahallas, improvements in administrative accountability, introduction of protective tariffs on imports, and numerous public works projects. Sharp curtailment of public spending by the bey and support for Ottoman claims to sovereignty over Tunisia forced Khayr al-Din to resign in July 1877. Constraints on the bey's powers were lifted, and the weak Mustafa ibn Ismaʿil became prime minister.
Using the excuse of Tunisia's violations of its border with Algeria, France invaded Tunisia in 1881. On May 12, 1881, Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey signed the treaty, known as the Treaty of Bardo, officially establishing France's protectorate, which lasted until 1956. It was later repudiated by the bey, an action that forced the signature of a second treaty in July. Although this second treaty was never ratified, the La Marsa Convention of June 1883 (signed by Ali Bey, ruler of Tunisia from 1882 to 1900) confirmed the provisions of the Bardo treaty and France's imposition of a protectorate.
Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey (1814-1882). Bey of the Husaynid dynasty in Tunisia (r.1859-1882). The doubling of the personal tax (in Arabic, majba) in 1863 triggered off serious upheavals, which led to pitiless repression by the minister Mustafa Khaznadar. The situation was somewhat redressed by Khayr al-Din Pasha, but the foreign consuls pressed for concessions and privileges. In 1881, Tunisia was occupied by French troops.
Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey was the son of Husayn Bey (ruler of Tunisia, 1824 - 1835) and the third Husaynid mushir (marshal). His reign saw Tunisia's first experiment with constitutionalism, parliamentary rule, and restrictions on the bey's authority; the unbridled control of Prime Minister Mustafa Khaznader; disastrous foreign loans; increased taxes; a bitter revolt; Europe's economic control; the reformist ministry of Khayr al-Din (1873 - 1877); and the imposition of a protectorate by France (1881).
From all reports, Muhammad al-Sadiq was a weak ruler who was easily influenced by his political entourage of Mamelukes, especially Khaznader. Like his predecessor, Ahmad Bey, al-Sadiq evinced an early fascination with the military and showed some talent in that area. Soon after his accession, he sought to reconstitute the army and introduced a military code that provided for conscription of all able-bodied male adults for a period of eight years. However, an individual could send a proxy if he chose not to enter the army.
Upon assuming the throne in 1859, al-Sadiq declared that he would uphold the principles of the Fundamental Pact of 1857. He proclaimed a new constitution in April 1861. It included the principle of ministerial responsibility, financial control vested in the Grand Council, a strict budget controlled by the Grand Council, and a secular court system. Also provided was a "bill of rights" that included provisions for religious freedom and conversion from Islam.
Although the document appeared to guarantee constitutionalism and individual rights, it actually provided for a system that perpetuated the Turkish-Mameluke political elite and increased their power at the bey's expense. It was not, therefore, a parliamentary democracy that emerged, but a traditional elitist oligarchy. The limitations placed on the bey's authority by the constitution increased Khaznader's confidence and freedom of action. He used the constitution to eliminate his enemies on the Grand Council and install his close associates. He increased his financial exactions from the state treasury and more than doubled the national debt within one year. For this reason, he floated his first foreign loan in 1863. To pay for that loan, Khaznader increased the unpopular personal majba tax twofold. This led to the revolt of 1864.
From 1865 to 1869, Khaznader ran the state. In the latter year, after poor harvests, famines, and epidemics, al-Sadiq accepted the International Finance Commission, which aimed to ensure Tunisia's payment of its financial obligations. Khayr al-Din, Khaznader's son-in-law, represented Tunisia on the commission. In 1873, he persuaded the bey to remove Khaznader and install himself as prime minister.
Under Khayr al-Din's prime ministry, a number of reforms were instituted: regulation of the education at Zaytuna University, the founding of Sadiqi College, elimination of abuses in the administration of hubus (religious trust) properties, reformation of the tax system, abolition of the mahallas, improvements in administrative accountability, introduction of protective tariffs on imports, and numerous public works projects. Sharp curtailment of public spending by the bey and support for Ottoman claims to sovereignty over Tunisia forced Khayr al-Din to resign in July 1877. Constraints on the bey's powers were lifted, and the weak Mustafa ibn Ismaʿil became prime minister.
Using the excuse of Tunisia's violations of its border with Algeria, France invaded Tunisia in 1881. On May 12, 1881, Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey signed the treaty, known as the Treaty of Bardo, officially establishing France's protectorate, which lasted until 1956. It was later repudiated by the bey, an action that forced the signature of a second treaty in July. Although this second treaty was never ratified, the La Marsa Convention of June 1883 (signed by Ali Bey, ruler of Tunisia from 1882 to 1900) confirmed the provisions of the Bardo treaty and France's imposition of a protectorate.
Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad at-Taqi (Muhammad al-Taqī) (Muhammad al-Jawād) (Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Musa) (April 8, 811 – November 24, 835). Ninth Imam of the Twelver Shi‘a. Muhammad at-Taqi was the son of a Nubian slave and only seven years of age when he succeeded his father to the Imamate. His youth proved controversial, with many questioning how such a young child could have the necessary wisdom to be the Imam. However, the patronage of the ruling Caliph Mamun proved instrumental in his succession. He was called to Baghdad from Medina where his father had left him, and was married to Mamun’s daughter, Umm al-Fadl. After a few years in Baghdad, he retired to Medina, where his relations with his wife were strained. Soon after the succession of Ma’mun’s brother, Mu’tasim to the Caliphate, Muhammad at Taqi was called back to Baghdad where he died shortly thereafter. Some Shi‘a sources claim that he was poisoned by his wife at Mu’tasim’s bidding. Though he died very young, Muhammad at-Taqi was known for his intelligence and skill in debate. He is buried next to his grandfather at the shrine of the Kazimayan (near Baghdad, Iraq). He was succeeded by Ali al-Hadl.
Muhammad al-Taqī was the ninth of the Twelve Shi'a Imams. His given name was Muhammad ibn ‘Alī ibn Mūsā, and among his titles, al-Taqī and al-Jawād are the most renowned. Muhammad al-Taqī was the shortest-lived of the Twelve Imāms, dying at the age of 25.
His mother was Khaizaran, a woman from the family of Maria al-Qibtiyya. Hakima, the sister of Ali ar Rida, is reported saying that on the night of al-Taqi’s birth her brother advised her to be present beside his wife. According to legend, al-Taqi at his birth looked at the sky and uttered confirmation of the oneness of Allah and the prophethood of Muhammad.
He undertook the responsibility of Imamate at the age of eight years.
He was a child when his father was killed. By reports, he did not act upon childish or whimsical impulses and he accepted adult responsibility and behaviors at an early age. Shi'a writers have propagated claims about his possession of extraordinary knowledge at a young age by likening his circumstances to that of the Islamic tradition of Jesus – a figure called to leadership and prophetic mission while still a child.
After Al-Ma'mun had poisoned Ali al-Raza to death he endeavored to show that the death had come by a natural cause. Al-Ma'mun also brought al-Taqi from Medina to Baghdad with the plan of marrying him to his daughter, Umul Fazal. Although the Abbasids made strenuous attempts to forestall it, the marriage was duly solemnized.
After living in Baghdad for eight years, al-Taqi and Umul Fazal returned to Medina. There he found his relationship with his wife strained and upon the death of al-Ma'mun in 833 his fortunes deteriorated. The successor to his father-in-law was Al-Mu'tasim. With the new Abbasid ruler in power al-Taqi was no longer protected and his interests and position were imperilled by the dislike that al-Mu'tasim had for him.
In 835, al-Mu'tasim called al-Taqi back to Baghdad. The latter left his son Ali al-Hadi (the tenth Shi’ah Imam) with Somaneh (the mother of Ali al-Hadi) in Medina and set out for Baghdad. He resided there for one more year, becoming a well known scholar and popular in debates.
Ultimately, Al-Mu'tasim encouraged Umul Fazal to murder al-Taqi. She duly poisoned him to death on the twenty-ninth of Dhu al-Qi'dah.
Muhammad at-Taqi is buried beside the grave of his grandfather Musa al-Kadhim (the seventh Shi’a Imam) within Al Kadhimiya Mosque, in Kadhimayn, Iraq – a popular site for visitation and pilgrimage by Shi’a Muslims.
Muhammad al-Taqi see Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad al-Jawad see Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Musa see Muhammad at-Taqi
In 835, al-Mu'tasim called al-Taqi back to Baghdad. The latter left his son Ali al-Hadi (the tenth Shi’ah Imam) with Somaneh (the mother of Ali al-Hadi) in Medina and set out for Baghdad. He resided there for one more year, becoming a well known scholar and popular in debates.
Ultimately, Al-Mu'tasim encouraged Umul Fazal to murder al-Taqi. She duly poisoned him to death on the twenty-ninth of Dhu al-Qi'dah.
Muhammad at-Taqi is buried beside the grave of his grandfather Musa al-Kadhim (the seventh Shi’a Imam) within Al Kadhimiya Mosque, in Kadhimayn, Iraq – a popular site for visitation and pilgrimage by Shi’a Muslims.
Muhammad al-Taqi see Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad al-Jawad see Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Musa see Muhammad at-Taqi
Muhammad Ayub
Muhammad Ayub (Muhammad Ayyub). Son of Amir Shir Ali and the full brother of Yaqub Khan. Upon the death of Muhammad Ayub’s father, Yaqub Khan was crowned King at Kabul, and Ayub took over the governorship of Herat. When he learned of the British occupation of Kabul, he incited the Afghan sardars to rise and expel the invaders. In June 1880, the ulama at Herat proclaimed him amir, and he had coins struck in his name as a sign of his sovereignty. He then marched his army against Kandahar and, on July 27, 1880, he met General Burrows at Maiwand and virtually wiped out Burrow’s forces. Ayub then proceeded to Kandahar and laid siege to the city, but General Roberts came to the rescue, and he was forced to retreat to his base at Herat. He again moved on Kandahar in June 1881, at a time when Britain had recognized Abdul Rahman as Amir of Kabul. The “Iron Amir” easily defeated Ayub’s forces at Kandahar in September 1881 and at the same time dispatched his general Abdul Quddus Khan to capture the lightly garrisoned city of Herat. Being deprived of his base, Ayub was forced to flee to Iran and after a number of years accepted asylum in India for himself and his retinue of 814 individuals.
Ayub, Muhammad see Muhammad Ayub
Muhammad Ayyub see Muhammad Ayub
Ayyub, Muhammad see Muhammad Ayub
Muhammad Ayub (Muhammad Ayyub). Son of Amir Shir Ali and the full brother of Yaqub Khan. Upon the death of Muhammad Ayub’s father, Yaqub Khan was crowned King at Kabul, and Ayub took over the governorship of Herat. When he learned of the British occupation of Kabul, he incited the Afghan sardars to rise and expel the invaders. In June 1880, the ulama at Herat proclaimed him amir, and he had coins struck in his name as a sign of his sovereignty. He then marched his army against Kandahar and, on July 27, 1880, he met General Burrows at Maiwand and virtually wiped out Burrow’s forces. Ayub then proceeded to Kandahar and laid siege to the city, but General Roberts came to the rescue, and he was forced to retreat to his base at Herat. He again moved on Kandahar in June 1881, at a time when Britain had recognized Abdul Rahman as Amir of Kabul. The “Iron Amir” easily defeated Ayub’s forces at Kandahar in September 1881 and at the same time dispatched his general Abdul Quddus Khan to capture the lightly garrisoned city of Herat. Being deprived of his base, Ayub was forced to flee to Iran and after a number of years accepted asylum in India for himself and his retinue of 814 individuals.
Ayub, Muhammad see Muhammad Ayub
Muhammad Ayyub see Muhammad Ayub
Ayyub, Muhammad see Muhammad Ayub
Muhammad Ayyub
Muhammad Ayyub. See Ayub Khan.
Muhammad Ayyub. See Ayub Khan.
Muhammad Bello
Muhammad Bello. See Muhammadu Bello.
Muhammad Bello. See Muhammadu Bello.
Muhammad Bey
Muhammad Bey. Bey of the Husaynid dynasty in Tunisia (r.1855-1859). The intervention of Great Britain and France in 1857 caused him to proclaim the “Fundamental Pact,” a charter which guaranteed equality and security, and which granted to all, and to foreigners in particular, freedom of trade and the right to own property in the country.
Muhammad Bey. Bey of the Husaynid dynasty in Tunisia (r.1855-1859). The intervention of Great Britain and France in 1857 caused him to proclaim the “Fundamental Pact,” a charter which guaranteed equality and security, and which granted to all, and to foreigners in particular, freedom of trade and the right to own property in the country.
Muhammad Bey ‘Uthman Jalal
Muhammad Bey ‘Uthman Jalal (1826-1898). Egyptian writer. His importance lies in his endeavor to translate Moliere’s comedies into the modern vernacular of Egypt, freely adapting them to Arab conditions.
Jalal, Muhammad Bey 'Uthman see Muhammad Bey ‘Uthman Jalal
Muhammad Bey ‘Uthman Jalal (1826-1898). Egyptian writer. His importance lies in his endeavor to translate Moliere’s comedies into the modern vernacular of Egypt, freely adapting them to Arab conditions.
Jalal, Muhammad Bey 'Uthman see Muhammad Bey ‘Uthman Jalal
Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad bin Qasim (Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi) (Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi) (c. 693 – July 18, 715). Arab general known for his conquest of Sind in 711 at the age of seventeen. Having consolidated his authority at Debulk, he defeated Dahir and captured Brahmanabad, becoming master of Lower Sind. Aror (near modern day Rohri), Multan, and the outskirts of Kashmir came under his control. A military leader par excellence, he was recalled at the zenith of his success and executed. It is untrue that he fell from grace for having molested slave girls meant for the caliph. Instead, the death of his father-in-law, Hajjaj, and the consequent political changes were responsible for his fall. His Brahmanabad Declaration assured religious and economic freedom to the Indians and won the cooperation of Indian officers like Moka, Sisakar, and Kaksa. The Sindhis constructed statues of him at Kiraj.
Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi was an Umayyad general who, at the age of 17, began the conquest of the Sindh and Punjab regions along the Indus River (now a part of Pakistan) for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born in the city of Taif (in modern day Saudi Arabia). Qasim's conquest of Sindh and Punjab laid the foundations and began the era of Islamic rule in South Asia.
A member of the Thaqeef tribe, which is still settled in and around the city of Taif, Muhammad bin Qasim's father was Qasim bin Yusuf who died when Muhammad bin Qasim was young, leaving his mother in charge of his education. The Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Muhammad bin Qasim's paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Hajjaj's daughter, shortly before going to Sindh. Another paternal uncle of Muhammad bin Qasim was Muhammad bin Yusuf, governor of Yemen. Under Hajjaj's patronage, Muhammad bin Qasim was made governor of Persia, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by Caliph Al-Walid I to lead an army towards the Indian sub-continent to release the Muslim children and women who were kidnapped by Hindu pirates, when they reached the port of Debul (Karachi) in what are today the Sindh and Punjab regions of Pakistan.
Umayyad interest in the region stemmed from their desire to control the trade route down the Indus River valley to the seaports of Sindh, an important link in the ancient Silk Road. They had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber Pass, from the Turki-Shahis of Gandhara. But by taking Sindh, Gandhara's southern neighbor, they were able to open a second front against Gandhara; a feat they had, on occasion, attempted before.
Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Mids and others. They had preyed upon Sassanid shipping in the past, from the mouth of the Tigris to the Sri Lankan coast, in their bawarij and now were able to prey on Arab shipping from their bases at Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar. At the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Muslim sources insist that it was these persistent activities along increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal pirates and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the nucleus, as well as, the overland passage. During Hajjaj's governorship, the Mids of Debal in one of their raids had kidnapped Muslim women travelling from Sri Lanka to Arabia, thus providing a casus belli to the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate that enabled them to gain a foothold in the Makran, Balochistan and Sindh regions.
The campaign for the conquest of Sindh under Qasim was launched during the same period as the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and an offensive against the Kabul Shahan. It was a period of great expansion of the Umayyads under the governorship of Hajjaj, the first governor of both the Arabi and Ajami halves of the ex-Sassanid domains. Conflict was endemic among the frontier Muslims, with a considerable number seeking refuge with the king of Sindh. The period also experienced an intensification of the rivalry between Arab conquerors and the mawali; new non-Arab converts; who were usually allied with Hajjaj's political opponents and thus were frequently forced to participate in the Jihads on the frontier - such as Kabul, Sindh and Transoxania. Through conquest, the Umayyad Caliphate intended to protect its maritime interest, while also cutting off refuge for fleeing rebel chieftains as well as Sindhi military support to the Sassanid rump state. An actual push into the region had been out of favor as an Arab policy since the time of the Rashidun Caliph Umar bin Khattab, who upon receipt of reports of it being an inhospitable and poor land had stopped further expeditionary ventures into the region.
Muhammad bin Qasim's expedition was actually the third attempt, the first having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat exhaustion. Hajjaj put more care and planning into the campaign of Muhammad bin Qasim than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa. Hajjaj superintended this campaign from Kufa by maintaining close contact with Muhammad bin Qasim in the form of regular reports and then regularly issuing orders. The army which departed from Shiraz in 710 under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq. At the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and six thousand camel riders and later reinforcements from the governor of Makran transferred directly to Debal by sea along with five catapults. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Jats and Mids as well as other irregulars that heard of successes in Sindh. When Muhammad bin Qasim passed through Makran while raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive Umayyad towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela). The first town assaulted was Debal and, upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj, Muhammad bin Qasim exacted a bloody retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to its residents or priests and destroying its great temple in the process of freeing the kidnapped women. He then settled a garrison of four thousand colonists in one quarter of Debal, building a masjid over the remains of the original temple.
From Debal, the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan (Sehwan) peacefully. Again the main temples were razed and masjid were built to replace them, often using their components; additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph. The conquest of these towns was accomplished easily; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus were yet to be fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by Hajjaj. Camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta and the western Jats.
At Ar-rur (Nawabshah) he was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sind. In the wake of the battle enemy soldiers were put to death - but not artisans, merchants or farmers - and Dahir and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves was sent on to Hajjaj. Soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Aror) and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to Hajjaj. The general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.
With Sindh secured Qasim sent expeditions to Surashtra, where his generals made peaceful treaty settlements with the Rashtrakuta. Sea trade from Central India passed to Byzantium via the ports there. Muhammad bin Qasim wrote out letters to "kings of Hind" to surrender and accept Islam, and subsequently 10,000 cavalry were sent to Kannauj asking them to submit and pay tribute before his recall ended the campaign.
The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure. Towns were given two options: submit to Islamic authority peacefully or be attacked by force (anwattan), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture. The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards. There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh" or "ahd-e-wasiq (capitulation)" and "aman (surrender/ peace)". Among towns and fortresses that were captured through force of arms, Muhammad bin Qasim performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to the ahl-i-harb (fighting men), whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.
Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad bin Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar, between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan. Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred. Sulh appeared to be Muhammad bin Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than sixty percent (60%) of the towns and tribes recorded by Baladhuri or the Chachnama. At one point, he was actually berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient. Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working. Hajajj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.
After each major phase of his conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim attempted to establish law and order in the newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling class – the Brahmins and Shramanas – into his administration.
Muhammad bin Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a Buddhist majority who saw Chach of Alor and his kin as usurpers of the Rai Dynasty. This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat and Meds. Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century.
Along with this were:
1. Superior military equipment; such as siege engines and the Mongol bow.
2. Troop discipline and leadership.
3. The concept of Jihad as a morale booster.
4. Religion; the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success, as well as Dahir's marriage to his sister which alienated him from others.
5. The Samanis persuading the population to submit and not take up arms in self-defense because Buddhism was a religion of peace.
6. The laboring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats.
7. Defections from among Dahirs chiefs and nobles.
After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims. He adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious practice, so long as the natives paid their taxes and tribute. He established Islamic Sharia law over the people of the region. However Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws, and traditional hierarchical institutions, including the Village Headmen (Rais) and Chieftains (dihqans) were maintained. A Muslim officer called an amil was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis.
Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj) were settled and hostages taken - occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples. Non-Muslim natives were excused from military service and payment of the religiously mandated tax system levied upon Muslim subjects - Zakat, the tax system levied upon them instead was known as the jizya - it was a progressive tax, being heavier on the upper classes and light for the poor. In addition, three percent of government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.
During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors. A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration. Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.
No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden. However, Qasim was not entirely deferential to the native religions. Many town temples containing idols were converted into mosques. At Multan, 6000 custodians of the Sun-temple were made captive and their wealth confiscated. The temple housing the great idol (sanam) was a source of great wealth for the town, receiving pilgrims from across the region. Muhammad bin Qasim left the idol where it was; but he hung a piece of cow flesh on its neck by way of mockery, and he then built a mosque in the same bazaar at the center of the town.
A small minority who converted to Islam were granted exemption from Jizya. Hindus and Buddhists were given the status of Dhimmi (protected people).
An eccelastical office, "sadru-I-Islam al affal", was created to oversee the secular governors. While some proselytization occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other regions newly conquered by Muslim forces such as Egypt, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries.
Muhammad bin Qasim had begun preparations for further expansions when Hajjaj died, as did Caliph Al-Walid I, who was succeeded by Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, who then took revenge against all who had been close to Hajjaj. Sulayman owed political support to opponents of Hajjaj and so recalled both of Hajjaj's successful generals Qutaibah bin Muslim and Qasim. He also appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, once tortured by Hajjaj and a son of Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, as the governor of Fars, Kirman, Makran and Sindh. He immediately placed Qasim in chains.
There are two different accounts regarding the details of Qasim's fate:
1. The account from the Chachnama narrates a tale in which Qasim's demise is attributed to the daughters of Dahir who had been taken captive during the campaign. Upon capture they had been sent on as presents to the Khalifa for his harem. The account relates that they then tricked the Khalifa into believing that Muhammad bin Qasim had violated them before sending them on and as a result of this subterfuge, Muhammad bin Qasim was wrapped in oxen hides and returned to Syria, which resulted in his death en route from suffocation. This narrative attributes their motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.
2. The Persian historian Baladhuri, however, states that the new Khalifa was a political enemy of the Umayyad ex-governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Muhammad bin Qasim’s paternal uncle and thus persecuted all those who were considered close to Hajjaj. Muhammad bin Qasim was therefore recalled in the midst of a campaign of capturing more territory up north. Upon arrival, he was promptly imprisoned in Mosul, (in modern day Iraq) and subjected to torture, resulting in his death.
Whichever account is true, is unknown. What is known however is that he was 22 years old when he was killed by his own Caliph.
Muhammad bin Qasim had a son named Umro bin Muhammad who later became governor of Sindh.
Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi see Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi see Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad bin Qasim (Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi) (Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi) (c. 693 – July 18, 715). Arab general known for his conquest of Sind in 711 at the age of seventeen. Having consolidated his authority at Debulk, he defeated Dahir and captured Brahmanabad, becoming master of Lower Sind. Aror (near modern day Rohri), Multan, and the outskirts of Kashmir came under his control. A military leader par excellence, he was recalled at the zenith of his success and executed. It is untrue that he fell from grace for having molested slave girls meant for the caliph. Instead, the death of his father-in-law, Hajjaj, and the consequent political changes were responsible for his fall. His Brahmanabad Declaration assured religious and economic freedom to the Indians and won the cooperation of Indian officers like Moka, Sisakar, and Kaksa. The Sindhis constructed statues of him at Kiraj.
Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi was an Umayyad general who, at the age of 17, began the conquest of the Sindh and Punjab regions along the Indus River (now a part of Pakistan) for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born in the city of Taif (in modern day Saudi Arabia). Qasim's conquest of Sindh and Punjab laid the foundations and began the era of Islamic rule in South Asia.
A member of the Thaqeef tribe, which is still settled in and around the city of Taif, Muhammad bin Qasim's father was Qasim bin Yusuf who died when Muhammad bin Qasim was young, leaving his mother in charge of his education. The Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Muhammad bin Qasim's paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Hajjaj's daughter, shortly before going to Sindh. Another paternal uncle of Muhammad bin Qasim was Muhammad bin Yusuf, governor of Yemen. Under Hajjaj's patronage, Muhammad bin Qasim was made governor of Persia, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by Caliph Al-Walid I to lead an army towards the Indian sub-continent to release the Muslim children and women who were kidnapped by Hindu pirates, when they reached the port of Debul (Karachi) in what are today the Sindh and Punjab regions of Pakistan.
Umayyad interest in the region stemmed from their desire to control the trade route down the Indus River valley to the seaports of Sindh, an important link in the ancient Silk Road. They had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber Pass, from the Turki-Shahis of Gandhara. But by taking Sindh, Gandhara's southern neighbor, they were able to open a second front against Gandhara; a feat they had, on occasion, attempted before.
Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Mids and others. They had preyed upon Sassanid shipping in the past, from the mouth of the Tigris to the Sri Lankan coast, in their bawarij and now were able to prey on Arab shipping from their bases at Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar. At the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Muslim sources insist that it was these persistent activities along increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal pirates and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the nucleus, as well as, the overland passage. During Hajjaj's governorship, the Mids of Debal in one of their raids had kidnapped Muslim women travelling from Sri Lanka to Arabia, thus providing a casus belli to the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate that enabled them to gain a foothold in the Makran, Balochistan and Sindh regions.
The campaign for the conquest of Sindh under Qasim was launched during the same period as the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and an offensive against the Kabul Shahan. It was a period of great expansion of the Umayyads under the governorship of Hajjaj, the first governor of both the Arabi and Ajami halves of the ex-Sassanid domains. Conflict was endemic among the frontier Muslims, with a considerable number seeking refuge with the king of Sindh. The period also experienced an intensification of the rivalry between Arab conquerors and the mawali; new non-Arab converts; who were usually allied with Hajjaj's political opponents and thus were frequently forced to participate in the Jihads on the frontier - such as Kabul, Sindh and Transoxania. Through conquest, the Umayyad Caliphate intended to protect its maritime interest, while also cutting off refuge for fleeing rebel chieftains as well as Sindhi military support to the Sassanid rump state. An actual push into the region had been out of favor as an Arab policy since the time of the Rashidun Caliph Umar bin Khattab, who upon receipt of reports of it being an inhospitable and poor land had stopped further expeditionary ventures into the region.
Muhammad bin Qasim's expedition was actually the third attempt, the first having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat exhaustion. Hajjaj put more care and planning into the campaign of Muhammad bin Qasim than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa. Hajjaj superintended this campaign from Kufa by maintaining close contact with Muhammad bin Qasim in the form of regular reports and then regularly issuing orders. The army which departed from Shiraz in 710 under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq. At the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and six thousand camel riders and later reinforcements from the governor of Makran transferred directly to Debal by sea along with five catapults. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Jats and Mids as well as other irregulars that heard of successes in Sindh. When Muhammad bin Qasim passed through Makran while raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive Umayyad towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela). The first town assaulted was Debal and, upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj, Muhammad bin Qasim exacted a bloody retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to its residents or priests and destroying its great temple in the process of freeing the kidnapped women. He then settled a garrison of four thousand colonists in one quarter of Debal, building a masjid over the remains of the original temple.
From Debal, the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan (Sehwan) peacefully. Again the main temples were razed and masjid were built to replace them, often using their components; additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph. The conquest of these towns was accomplished easily; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus were yet to be fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by Hajjaj. Camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta and the western Jats.
At Ar-rur (Nawabshah) he was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sind. In the wake of the battle enemy soldiers were put to death - but not artisans, merchants or farmers - and Dahir and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves was sent on to Hajjaj. Soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Aror) and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to Hajjaj. The general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.
With Sindh secured Qasim sent expeditions to Surashtra, where his generals made peaceful treaty settlements with the Rashtrakuta. Sea trade from Central India passed to Byzantium via the ports there. Muhammad bin Qasim wrote out letters to "kings of Hind" to surrender and accept Islam, and subsequently 10,000 cavalry were sent to Kannauj asking them to submit and pay tribute before his recall ended the campaign.
The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure. Towns were given two options: submit to Islamic authority peacefully or be attacked by force (anwattan), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture. The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards. There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh" or "ahd-e-wasiq (capitulation)" and "aman (surrender/ peace)". Among towns and fortresses that were captured through force of arms, Muhammad bin Qasim performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to the ahl-i-harb (fighting men), whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.
Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad bin Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar, between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan. Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred. Sulh appeared to be Muhammad bin Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than sixty percent (60%) of the towns and tribes recorded by Baladhuri or the Chachnama. At one point, he was actually berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient. Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to continue working. Hajajj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.
After each major phase of his conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim attempted to establish law and order in the newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling class – the Brahmins and Shramanas – into his administration.
Muhammad bin Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a Buddhist majority who saw Chach of Alor and his kin as usurpers of the Rai Dynasty. This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat and Meds. Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two religions up to the 7th century.
Along with this were:
1. Superior military equipment; such as siege engines and the Mongol bow.
2. Troop discipline and leadership.
3. The concept of Jihad as a morale booster.
4. Religion; the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success, as well as Dahir's marriage to his sister which alienated him from others.
5. The Samanis persuading the population to submit and not take up arms in self-defense because Buddhism was a religion of peace.
6. The laboring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats.
7. Defections from among Dahirs chiefs and nobles.
After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims. He adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious practice, so long as the natives paid their taxes and tribute. He established Islamic Sharia law over the people of the region. However Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws, and traditional hierarchical institutions, including the Village Headmen (Rais) and Chieftains (dihqans) were maintained. A Muslim officer called an amil was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis.
Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj) were settled and hostages taken - occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples. Non-Muslim natives were excused from military service and payment of the religiously mandated tax system levied upon Muslim subjects - Zakat, the tax system levied upon them instead was known as the jizya - it was a progressive tax, being heavier on the upper classes and light for the poor. In addition, three percent of government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.
During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors. A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration. Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.
No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden. However, Qasim was not entirely deferential to the native religions. Many town temples containing idols were converted into mosques. At Multan, 6000 custodians of the Sun-temple were made captive and their wealth confiscated. The temple housing the great idol (sanam) was a source of great wealth for the town, receiving pilgrims from across the region. Muhammad bin Qasim left the idol where it was; but he hung a piece of cow flesh on its neck by way of mockery, and he then built a mosque in the same bazaar at the center of the town.
A small minority who converted to Islam were granted exemption from Jizya. Hindus and Buddhists were given the status of Dhimmi (protected people).
An eccelastical office, "sadru-I-Islam al affal", was created to oversee the secular governors. While some proselytization occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other regions newly conquered by Muslim forces such as Egypt, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries.
Muhammad bin Qasim had begun preparations for further expansions when Hajjaj died, as did Caliph Al-Walid I, who was succeeded by Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, who then took revenge against all who had been close to Hajjaj. Sulayman owed political support to opponents of Hajjaj and so recalled both of Hajjaj's successful generals Qutaibah bin Muslim and Qasim. He also appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, once tortured by Hajjaj and a son of Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, as the governor of Fars, Kirman, Makran and Sindh. He immediately placed Qasim in chains.
There are two different accounts regarding the details of Qasim's fate:
1. The account from the Chachnama narrates a tale in which Qasim's demise is attributed to the daughters of Dahir who had been taken captive during the campaign. Upon capture they had been sent on as presents to the Khalifa for his harem. The account relates that they then tricked the Khalifa into believing that Muhammad bin Qasim had violated them before sending them on and as a result of this subterfuge, Muhammad bin Qasim was wrapped in oxen hides and returned to Syria, which resulted in his death en route from suffocation. This narrative attributes their motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.
2. The Persian historian Baladhuri, however, states that the new Khalifa was a political enemy of the Umayyad ex-governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Muhammad bin Qasim’s paternal uncle and thus persecuted all those who were considered close to Hajjaj. Muhammad bin Qasim was therefore recalled in the midst of a campaign of capturing more territory up north. Upon arrival, he was promptly imprisoned in Mosul, (in modern day Iraq) and subjected to torture, resulting in his death.
Whichever account is true, is unknown. What is known however is that he was 22 years old when he was killed by his own Caliph.
Muhammad bin Qasim had a son named Umro bin Muhammad who later became governor of Sindh.
Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi see Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi see Muhammad bin Qasim
Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Dawud Khan (Mohammed Daoud (Daud) Khan) (Muḥammad Dāwud Ḫān) (Mohammad Daud Khan) (July 18, 1909, Kabul, Afghanistan – April 27, 1978, Kabul, Afghanistan). First president of Afghanistan. He served as prime minister from 1953 to 1963, pushing a policy of economic development, notably road construction, and of social change. His autocratic style contributed to his resignation. After King Zahir Shah (r. 1933-1973) had been deposed, Dawud Khan was chosen president for six years but was overthrown by a military coup in 1978 in which he was killed.
Educated in Kabul and France, Daud Khan, a cousin and brother-in-law of Zahir Shah, pursued a career in the military. He rose to command an army corps in 1939 and held the post of minister of defense from 1946 to 1953. As prime minister (1953–63) he instituted educational and social reforms and implemented a pro-Soviet policy. He was also an advocate of Pashtun irredentism, the creation of a greater “Pashtunistan” in Pashtun areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. This caused the relationship between the two countries to deteriorate and eventually led to Daud Khan’s resignation. His overt participation in politics was severely curbed in 1964 when a new constitution barred members of the royal family from holding political office.
On July 17, 1973, Daud Khan led a coup that overthrew Zahir Shah. He declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as president. Once in power, Daud Khan sought to suppress the left and lessen the country’s dependence on the Soviet Union. On April 27, 1978, however, he was killed in a coup that brought to power a communist government under Nur Mohammad Taraki.
Mohammed Daoud Khan see Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Dawud Han see Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Daud Khan see Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Dawud Khan (Mohammed Daoud (Daud) Khan) (Muḥammad Dāwud Ḫān) (Mohammad Daud Khan) (July 18, 1909, Kabul, Afghanistan – April 27, 1978, Kabul, Afghanistan). First president of Afghanistan. He served as prime minister from 1953 to 1963, pushing a policy of economic development, notably road construction, and of social change. His autocratic style contributed to his resignation. After King Zahir Shah (r. 1933-1973) had been deposed, Dawud Khan was chosen president for six years but was overthrown by a military coup in 1978 in which he was killed.
Educated in Kabul and France, Daud Khan, a cousin and brother-in-law of Zahir Shah, pursued a career in the military. He rose to command an army corps in 1939 and held the post of minister of defense from 1946 to 1953. As prime minister (1953–63) he instituted educational and social reforms and implemented a pro-Soviet policy. He was also an advocate of Pashtun irredentism, the creation of a greater “Pashtunistan” in Pashtun areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. This caused the relationship between the two countries to deteriorate and eventually led to Daud Khan’s resignation. His overt participation in politics was severely curbed in 1964 when a new constitution barred members of the royal family from holding political office.
On July 17, 1973, Daud Khan led a coup that overthrew Zahir Shah. He declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as president. Once in power, Daud Khan sought to suppress the left and lessen the country’s dependence on the Soviet Union. On April 27, 1978, however, he was killed in a coup that brought to power a communist government under Nur Mohammad Taraki.
Mohammed Daoud Khan see Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Dawud Han see Muhammad Dawud Khan
Muhammad Daud Khan see Muhammad Dawud Khan
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