Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-
Hariri, Abu Muhammad al- (Abu Muhammad al-Hariri) (Abu Muhammed al-Qasim al-Hariri) Muhammad al-Qasim ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Hariri) (al-Hariri of Basra) (1054–1122). Arabic poet and philologist. His best known work is the Sessions, which imitate very closely those of al-Hamadhani, but of which they are no more than a pale reflection. On the other hand, al-Hariri possessed an unequalled mastery of the Arabic language and a perfect command of its inexhaustible vocabulary.
Al-Hariri was a native of Basra in Iraq where he held a small administrative post. Al-Hariri produced a volume of 50 maqamat, which, although often longer and more elaborate than those of al-Hamadhani, follow almost exactly the same pattern. Their hero was another vagabond, Abu Zaid of Saruj.
The maqamat are written in rhymed prose, with interpolated passages of verse, and they are designed principally to exhibit the author’s skill in the manipulation of the Arabic language, the depth of his erudition in all branches of learning, and his adeptness at refined obscurity of allusion. In all of these al-Hariri’s writing is considered to be superior to that of al-Hamadhani. Al-Hamadhani perhaps tells a better story than al-Hariri, but, in this too, the latter is by no means deficient. Indeed, al-Hariri’s Maqamat could hardly have remained so populist had they not possessed the power of entertaining as well as that of exercising the learned. Some commentators have noted that for the better part of seven centuries, the Maqamat of al-Hariri “has been esteemed as, next to the Qur’an, the chief treasure of the Arabic tongue.”
The Maqamat of both al-Hariri and al-Hamadhani are particularly interesting to us as representing a picture of life in a Muslim community in the tenth and twelfth centuries.
Abu Muhammad al-Hariri see Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-
Abu Muhammed al-Qasim al-Hariri see Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-
Muhammad al-Qasim ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Hariri see Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-
Hariri of Basra, al- see Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-
Hariri, Rafiq
Hariri, Rafiq (Rafik Hariri) (Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri) (November 1, 1944 – February 14, 2005). Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1992 to 1998 and again from 2000 until his resignation on October 20, 2004. (1944-2005).
Hariri was born into a Sunni Muslim family in Sayda. In 1965, Hariri enrolled as a student of business administration at Beirut Arab University. He left the university in 1966, reportedly because he lacked sufficient funds to pay tuition. Hariri emigrated to Saudi Arabia and began working for a construction company.
In 1969, Hariri established his own construction company, CICONEST, which benefited greatly from the oil boom of Saudi Arabia in the 1970s. In 1975, the Lebanese Civil War began. Hariri stayed in Saudi Arabia, but was involved in both help projects in Lebanon, as well as in funding opposing militia groups.
In 1978, Hariri was granted Saudi citizenship as a reward from the royal family for his high quality of entrepreneurial services. Hariri subsequently purchased the French construction company Oger, and became the largest in the construction sector in the Middle East.
Hariri’s rise to power in Lebanon has a doubtful background. He bought support from Syria in the 1980s, and following the end of the Civil War he also bought support from leading politicians in Lebanon. Soon he had control over most of the reconstruction work, as well as control over Lebanese media: the radio and television stations, newspapers and magazines. The Lebanese media typically portrayed Hariri as the economic savior of Lebanon.
In the 1980s, Hariri was ranked one of the 100 richest men in the world. By that time, much of his activities were also based in Lebanon. Aiming at good political relations with Syria, Hariri constructed a new presidential palace in Damascus. This was, however, not to the liking of Hafiz al-Assad, who soon turned it into a conference center.
In August of 1987, Hariri tried to buy president Amin Gemayel out of office before the end of this term, and tried also to buy Syrian support for making Johnny Abdo president. Abdo had promised to make Hariri prime minister in such a case. However, Gemayel rejected this commitment.
In 1989, according to some sources, Hariri bought support from Lebanese delegates for allowing Syrian control over Lebanon during the reconciliation conference held in At Ta’if, Saudi Arabia.
In 1990, Hariri returned to Lebanon, where he started a campaign for involvement in the reconstruction process after the end of the civil war. Hariri donated a mansion to president Elias Hrawi and gave great sums of money to other leading politicians.
In 1992, President Hrawi appointed Hariri prime minister, hoping that the latter’s influential position in business would help bring the reconstruction process forward. This appointment occurred after Hariri had expressed his pro-Syrian attitude. The reactions in Lebanese society to Hariri’s appointment were very positive. Among Hariri’s first changes was the cutting of income and corporate taxes to ten percent. Hariri also borrowed billions of dollars to rebuild the infrastructure of Lebanon, in particular the infrastructure of Beirut. Hariri appointed many of his closest staff members from his own companies as ministers of the government, letting them fill important positions like finance minister (Fouad Siniora) and justice minister (Bahij Tabbara).
The matter of the economy was one where Hariri had little reason to blame anyone but himself, as Syria gave him wide autonomy in this field when he first became prime minister in 1992. He focused on rebuilding Beirut instead of the other cities of Lebanon. He was focused on the financial sector instead of the industries and the agriculture. According to his own ideology, if the financial sector ran well the rest of the economy would follow. This did not happen, and through the 1990s Lebanon went into a financial crisis.
Hariri was both the architect behind the reconstruction work of Beirut, as well as the one profiting most from it. The work was performed by The Company for the Development and Reconstruction of Beirut’s Central District, in which Hariri was the main shareholder. The company expropriated lands in exchange for shares, and the Lebanese state paid for the construction work with foreign loans.
In 1994, Hariri was accused of corruption and offered his resignation to the president. Hrawi refused. Later in the year, Hariri banned public demonstrations.
In 1995, with the possible start of a general strike, Hariri dispatched the army into the streets to quell the opposition and, in 1996, the Lebanese security forces cracked down on two initiatives for general strikes.
In 1998, the failure of Hariri’s corrupt economic politics became increasingly evident. The growth rate had dropped from an annual eight to two percent, and the foreign debt had risen above what Lebanon could handle. The heir apparent of the Syrian presidency, Bashar al-Assad started a campaign to remove potential opposition to his future presidency. With this, many of Hariri’s Syrian allies were stripped of their positions in the society. Bashar soon had Hariri removed from his position and Hariri was replaced by Salim al-Hoss.
In 2000, after the politics of Hoss did not result in increased economic growth in Lebanon, Damascus began transferring its support back to Hariri. At the parliamentary elections, Hariri received the necessary support to become prime minister for the second time. Hariri embarked on a policy that involved reform in Lebanon’s bureaucracy and some more independence from the directions of Damascus.
In his second term in office, Hariri showed more independence towards Syria, which angered the rulers in Damascus. He also established better contacts with the United States. It is speculated that Syria wanted to remove him from office, but hesitated as they saw him as important for Lebanon’s economy, and Lebanon’s economy was important for Syria.
Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005, in a car bombing, which United Nations investigators later tied to Syrian government officials. The assassination led to peaceful demonstrations. The demonstrations culminated in a March 14, 2005 rally in Beirut, Lebanon's capital, in which 1.5 million people -- almost forty percent (40%) of the entire Lebanese population -- participated. The demonstrators carried placards calling for the immediate withdrawal of Syrian troops and the Syrian intelligence services. The demonstrators also demanded to know the truth about Hariri's assassination and the assassinations of other political and religious leaders allegedly ordered by Syrian officials.
The demonstrators achieved their goal on April 26, when Syria withdrew its troops and intelligence services. Political commentators dubbed the popular movement that forced the withdrawal "the Cedar Revolution," in reference to Lebanon's national symbol, the cedars of Lebanon referred to in the Bible.
Rafik Hariri see Hariri, Rafiq
Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri see Hariri, Rafiq
Hariri, Rafiq (Rafik Hariri) (Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri) (November 1, 1944 – February 14, 2005). Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1992 to 1998 and again from 2000 until his resignation on October 20, 2004. (1944-2005).
Hariri was born into a Sunni Muslim family in Sayda. In 1965, Hariri enrolled as a student of business administration at Beirut Arab University. He left the university in 1966, reportedly because he lacked sufficient funds to pay tuition. Hariri emigrated to Saudi Arabia and began working for a construction company.
In 1969, Hariri established his own construction company, CICONEST, which benefited greatly from the oil boom of Saudi Arabia in the 1970s. In 1975, the Lebanese Civil War began. Hariri stayed in Saudi Arabia, but was involved in both help projects in Lebanon, as well as in funding opposing militia groups.
In 1978, Hariri was granted Saudi citizenship as a reward from the royal family for his high quality of entrepreneurial services. Hariri subsequently purchased the French construction company Oger, and became the largest in the construction sector in the Middle East.
Hariri’s rise to power in Lebanon has a doubtful background. He bought support from Syria in the 1980s, and following the end of the Civil War he also bought support from leading politicians in Lebanon. Soon he had control over most of the reconstruction work, as well as control over Lebanese media: the radio and television stations, newspapers and magazines. The Lebanese media typically portrayed Hariri as the economic savior of Lebanon.
In the 1980s, Hariri was ranked one of the 100 richest men in the world. By that time, much of his activities were also based in Lebanon. Aiming at good political relations with Syria, Hariri constructed a new presidential palace in Damascus. This was, however, not to the liking of Hafiz al-Assad, who soon turned it into a conference center.
In August of 1987, Hariri tried to buy president Amin Gemayel out of office before the end of this term, and tried also to buy Syrian support for making Johnny Abdo president. Abdo had promised to make Hariri prime minister in such a case. However, Gemayel rejected this commitment.
In 1989, according to some sources, Hariri bought support from Lebanese delegates for allowing Syrian control over Lebanon during the reconciliation conference held in At Ta’if, Saudi Arabia.
In 1990, Hariri returned to Lebanon, where he started a campaign for involvement in the reconstruction process after the end of the civil war. Hariri donated a mansion to president Elias Hrawi and gave great sums of money to other leading politicians.
In 1992, President Hrawi appointed Hariri prime minister, hoping that the latter’s influential position in business would help bring the reconstruction process forward. This appointment occurred after Hariri had expressed his pro-Syrian attitude. The reactions in Lebanese society to Hariri’s appointment were very positive. Among Hariri’s first changes was the cutting of income and corporate taxes to ten percent. Hariri also borrowed billions of dollars to rebuild the infrastructure of Lebanon, in particular the infrastructure of Beirut. Hariri appointed many of his closest staff members from his own companies as ministers of the government, letting them fill important positions like finance minister (Fouad Siniora) and justice minister (Bahij Tabbara).
The matter of the economy was one where Hariri had little reason to blame anyone but himself, as Syria gave him wide autonomy in this field when he first became prime minister in 1992. He focused on rebuilding Beirut instead of the other cities of Lebanon. He was focused on the financial sector instead of the industries and the agriculture. According to his own ideology, if the financial sector ran well the rest of the economy would follow. This did not happen, and through the 1990s Lebanon went into a financial crisis.
Hariri was both the architect behind the reconstruction work of Beirut, as well as the one profiting most from it. The work was performed by The Company for the Development and Reconstruction of Beirut’s Central District, in which Hariri was the main shareholder. The company expropriated lands in exchange for shares, and the Lebanese state paid for the construction work with foreign loans.
In 1994, Hariri was accused of corruption and offered his resignation to the president. Hrawi refused. Later in the year, Hariri banned public demonstrations.
In 1995, with the possible start of a general strike, Hariri dispatched the army into the streets to quell the opposition and, in 1996, the Lebanese security forces cracked down on two initiatives for general strikes.
In 1998, the failure of Hariri’s corrupt economic politics became increasingly evident. The growth rate had dropped from an annual eight to two percent, and the foreign debt had risen above what Lebanon could handle. The heir apparent of the Syrian presidency, Bashar al-Assad started a campaign to remove potential opposition to his future presidency. With this, many of Hariri’s Syrian allies were stripped of their positions in the society. Bashar soon had Hariri removed from his position and Hariri was replaced by Salim al-Hoss.
In 2000, after the politics of Hoss did not result in increased economic growth in Lebanon, Damascus began transferring its support back to Hariri. At the parliamentary elections, Hariri received the necessary support to become prime minister for the second time. Hariri embarked on a policy that involved reform in Lebanon’s bureaucracy and some more independence from the directions of Damascus.
In his second term in office, Hariri showed more independence towards Syria, which angered the rulers in Damascus. He also established better contacts with the United States. It is speculated that Syria wanted to remove him from office, but hesitated as they saw him as important for Lebanon’s economy, and Lebanon’s economy was important for Syria.
Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005, in a car bombing, which United Nations investigators later tied to Syrian government officials. The assassination led to peaceful demonstrations. The demonstrations culminated in a March 14, 2005 rally in Beirut, Lebanon's capital, in which 1.5 million people -- almost forty percent (40%) of the entire Lebanese population -- participated. The demonstrators carried placards calling for the immediate withdrawal of Syrian troops and the Syrian intelligence services. The demonstrators also demanded to know the truth about Hariri's assassination and the assassinations of other political and religious leaders allegedly ordered by Syrian officials.
The demonstrators achieved their goal on April 26, when Syria withdrew its troops and intelligence services. Political commentators dubbed the popular movement that forced the withdrawal "the Cedar Revolution," in reference to Lebanon's national symbol, the cedars of Lebanon referred to in the Bible.
Rafik Hariri see Hariri, Rafiq
Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri see Hariri, Rafiq
Harith ibn Jabala, al-
Harith ibn Jabala, al- (529-569). Most famous king of the Ghassanids. He was an ally of Byzantium and fought the Persians and their Arab allies, the Lakhmids.
Harith ibn Jabala, al- (529-569). Most famous king of the Ghassanids. He was an ally of Byzantium and fought the Persians and their Arab allies, the Lakhmids.
Harith ibn Kalada, al-
Harith ibn Kalada, al- (Nafi ibn al-Harith bin Kalada al-Thaqafi) (d. 670). Traditionally considered to be the oldest known Arab physician. His personality is surrounded by a host of legends.
Nafi ibn al-Harith bin Kalada al-Thaqafi was an Arab physician of the Banu Thaqif and was recommended by the Prophet Muhammad and treated Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas. When Abu Bakr was dying, he designated his illness as poisoning.
Trained in the Academy of Jundishapur in Persia, he is
reported to have written a book named Dialog in Medicine.
He was half brother of Nufay ibn al-Harith (also known as Abu Bakra bin Kalada al-Thaqafi at-Thaifi).
He was half brother of Nufay ibn al-Harith (also known as Abu Bakra bin Kalada al-Thaqafi at-Thaifi).
Harithi, Salih ibn ‘Ali al-
Harithi, Salih ibn ‘Ali al- (Salih ibn ‘Ali al-Harithi) (1834-1896). Ibadi leader. He was the shaykh of the confederation of tribes of eastern Oman known as the Sharqiyya Hinawis.
Salih ibn ‘Ali al-Harithi see Harithi, Salih ibn ‘Ali al-
Harithi, Salih ibn ‘Ali al- (Salih ibn ‘Ali al-Harithi) (1834-1896). Ibadi leader. He was the shaykh of the confederation of tribes of eastern Oman known as the Sharqiyya Hinawis.
Salih ibn ‘Ali al-Harithi see Harithi, Salih ibn ‘Ali al-
Harun al-Rashid
Harun al-Rashid (Harun ar-Rashid) (English: "Aaron the Upright," "Aaron the Just," or "Aaron the Rightly Guided") (March 17, 763 – March 24, 809). Fifth and most famous Abbasid Caliph (r.786-809). He was the son of the third Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdi (r. 775-785), and succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother al-Hadi (r. 785-786).
Thanks to the “Thousand and One Nights,” Harun al-Rashid is almost a legendary figure which obscures his true historic personality. In fact, his reign initiated the political disintegration of the Islamic empire.
Syria, inhabited by tribes with Umayyad sympathies, remained the bitter enemy of the ‘Abbasids and Egypt witnessed risings due to poor administration and arbitrary taxation. The Umayyads had been established in Spain in 755, the Idrisids in the Maghrib in 788 and the Aghlabids in Ifriqiya in 800. Besides, unrest flared up in Yemen, and the Kharijites rose in rebellion in Daylam, Kirman, Fars and Sistan. Revolts also broke out in Khurasan. A great part of Harun al-Rashid’s fame was due to his interest in Holy War against the Byzantines, in which he occasionally participated personally. From 791 to 809, Harun’s empire was at war with the Byzantine Empire, and in 807 his forces occupied the Byzantine province of Cyprus. He also paid attention to naval power.
The period of Harun al-Rashid’s reign marked a notable development of culture. Until 803, administrative power was entrusted to Yahya ibn-Khalid (d. about 803), the grand vizier, or councillor of state, and head of the illustrious family of the Barmakids. During this time, Baghdad, the capital of Harun’s realm, became the most flourishing city of the period. Tribute was paid to the caliph by many rulers, and splendid edifices were erected in his honor at enormous cost. He is said to have exchanged gifts with Charlemagne. However, Arabic sources do not substantiate that such an exchange ever occurred.
Harun was a generous patron of learning, poetry, and music, and his court was visited by the most eminent Muslims of the age. He was celebrated in countless songs and stories, and is perhaps best known to the Western world as the caliph whose court is described in the Arabian Nights. Toward the end of his reign, Harun was influenced to depose the Barmakids, and in 803 he imprisoned the grand vizier.
Harun ruled from 786 to 809, and his time was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. Art and music also flourished significantly during his reign. He established the legendary library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom").
Since Harun was intellectually, politically and militarily resourceful, his life and the court over which he held sway have been the subject of many tales: some are claimed to be factual but most are believed to be fictitious. Among what is known to be fictional is The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, which contains many stories that are fantasized about Harun's magnificent court and even Harun al-Rashid himself.
Harun virtually dismembered the empire by apportioning it between his two sons al-Amin and al-Ma’mun. The caliph died while on his way to put down an insurrection in the eastern part of his empire.
Harun ar-Rashid see Harun al-Rashid
“Aaron the Upright” see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Just" see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Rightly Guided" see Harun al-Rashid
Harun al-Rashid (Harun ar-Rashid) (English: "Aaron the Upright," "Aaron the Just," or "Aaron the Rightly Guided") (March 17, 763 – March 24, 809). Fifth and most famous Abbasid Caliph (r.786-809). He was the son of the third Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdi (r. 775-785), and succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother al-Hadi (r. 785-786).
Thanks to the “Thousand and One Nights,” Harun al-Rashid is almost a legendary figure which obscures his true historic personality. In fact, his reign initiated the political disintegration of the Islamic empire.
Syria, inhabited by tribes with Umayyad sympathies, remained the bitter enemy of the ‘Abbasids and Egypt witnessed risings due to poor administration and arbitrary taxation. The Umayyads had been established in Spain in 755, the Idrisids in the Maghrib in 788 and the Aghlabids in Ifriqiya in 800. Besides, unrest flared up in Yemen, and the Kharijites rose in rebellion in Daylam, Kirman, Fars and Sistan. Revolts also broke out in Khurasan. A great part of Harun al-Rashid’s fame was due to his interest in Holy War against the Byzantines, in which he occasionally participated personally. From 791 to 809, Harun’s empire was at war with the Byzantine Empire, and in 807 his forces occupied the Byzantine province of Cyprus. He also paid attention to naval power.
The period of Harun al-Rashid’s reign marked a notable development of culture. Until 803, administrative power was entrusted to Yahya ibn-Khalid (d. about 803), the grand vizier, or councillor of state, and head of the illustrious family of the Barmakids. During this time, Baghdad, the capital of Harun’s realm, became the most flourishing city of the period. Tribute was paid to the caliph by many rulers, and splendid edifices were erected in his honor at enormous cost. He is said to have exchanged gifts with Charlemagne. However, Arabic sources do not substantiate that such an exchange ever occurred.
Harun was a generous patron of learning, poetry, and music, and his court was visited by the most eminent Muslims of the age. He was celebrated in countless songs and stories, and is perhaps best known to the Western world as the caliph whose court is described in the Arabian Nights. Toward the end of his reign, Harun was influenced to depose the Barmakids, and in 803 he imprisoned the grand vizier.
Harun ruled from 786 to 809, and his time was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. Art and music also flourished significantly during his reign. He established the legendary library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom").
Since Harun was intellectually, politically and militarily resourceful, his life and the court over which he held sway have been the subject of many tales: some are claimed to be factual but most are believed to be fictitious. Among what is known to be fictional is The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, which contains many stories that are fantasized about Harun's magnificent court and even Harun al-Rashid himself.
Harun virtually dismembered the empire by apportioning it between his two sons al-Amin and al-Ma’mun. The caliph died while on his way to put down an insurrection in the eastern part of his empire.
Harun ar-Rashid see Harun al-Rashid
“Aaron the Upright” see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Just" see Harun al-Rashid
"Aaron the Rightly Guided" see Harun al-Rashid
Harut and Marut
Harut and Marut. Names of two angels, mentioned in the Qur’an, who are a reminiscent of the “fallen angels” of Genesis 6:1-4.
Harut and Marut are two angels mentioned in the second Surah of the Qur'an, who were sent down to test the people at Babel or Babylon by performing deeds of magic. (Sura Al-Baqara, verse 102). The Qur'an indicates that although they warned the Babylonians not to imitate them or do as they were doing, some members of their audience failed to obey and became sorcerers, thus damning their own souls.
Harut and Marut. Names of two angels, mentioned in the Qur’an, who are a reminiscent of the “fallen angels” of Genesis 6:1-4.
Harut and Marut are two angels mentioned in the second Surah of the Qur'an, who were sent down to test the people at Babel or Babylon by performing deeds of magic. (Sura Al-Baqara, verse 102). The Qur'an indicates that although they warned the Babylonians not to imitate them or do as they were doing, some members of their audience failed to obey and became sorcerers, thus damning their own souls.
Hasan I
Hasan I (Hasan I ibn Muhammad, al-) (b.1836). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1873-1894). On his initiative and that of Britain, the first international conference concerned with Morocco was held at Madrid in 1880. It initiated the process which was to lead to the French Protectorate of 1912.
Hasan I ibn Muhammad, al- see Hasan I
Hasan I (Hasan I ibn Muhammad, al-) (b.1836). Filali Sharif of Morocco (r.1873-1894). On his initiative and that of Britain, the first international conference concerned with Morocco was held at Madrid in 1880. It initiated the process which was to lead to the French Protectorate of 1912.
Hasan I ibn Muhammad, al- see Hasan I
Hasan al-A‘sam, al-
Hasan al-A‘sam, al- (891-977). Carmathian leader of Bahrain. He took Damascus and fought the Fatimids.
Hasan al-A‘sam, al- (891-977). Carmathian leader of Bahrain. He took Damascus and fought the Fatimids.
Hasan al-Banna'
Hasan al-Banna’ (Hassan al-Banna) (b. October 14, 1906, Mahmoudiyah, Beheira, Egypt – d. February 12, 1949, Cairo, Egypt), was an Egyptian social and political reformer, best known for founding the Muslim Brotherhood, one of the largest and most influential 20th century Muslim revivalist organizations. Al-Banna's leadership was critical to the growth of the brotherhood during the 1930s and 1940s. Convinced that Islamic society should return to the Qur’an and the hadith, Hasan al-Banna’ founded the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928. He was arrested several times and was assassinated in 1949 after the Brotherhood had been suppressed.
Hasan al-Banna’ was born on October 14, 1906 in Mohammediya in northern Egypt as the oldest son of a watch repairman. Banna’s family was very religious. In 1923, Banna went to Cairo Teachers College and finished his education as a teacher at the top of his class. He was then admitted to the famous al-Azhar University.
In 1927, Banna' began working as a teacher in a state school in the city of Ismailiyya near the Suez Canal. In March 1928, he established the al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (Ikhwanu al-Muslimin) -- the Muslim Brothers -- together with his brother and five others.
The main inspiration for his religious involvement was from the magazine Al Manar which published the writings of Muhammad Rashid Rida. The organization he started when he was 22 was initially a moderate one in its instruments, but changes in the political climate and reorientations in its ideology, made the Brotherhood active in violent operations from the late 1940s.
The first Brotherhood was a youth club stressing moral and social reform, promoting this through education and propaganda.
In 1933, Banna' moved the headquarters to the capital Cairo, and, in 1942 to 1945, he travelled many times to Jordan, where he set up Brotherhood branches in many towns over the entire country.
In 1948, Banna' declared that the Egyptian government was responsible for the Arab weakness in the First Palestinian War against newly formed Israel.
On February 12, 1949, Banna' was shot dead in Cairo by secret service agents.
Banna' was a prolific writer. He wrote memoirs, as well as numerous articles and speeches. Among his most important books is his “Letter to a Muslim Student,” a book in which Banna' explains the principles of his movement.
Banna’s legacy is still active, and his movement has spread to many other Muslim countries.
Hasan al-Banna’ see Banna’, Hasan al-
Hassan al-Banna see Banna’, Hasan al-
Hasan al-Basri
Hasan al-Basri (Abu Sa'id al-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yasar al-Basri) (642-728). Preacher of Basra. The fragments of his sermons which have been preserved are among the best surviving specimens of early Arabic prose.
Hasan al-Basri, also known as Imam Hasan al Basri, was a well-known Muslim theologian and scholar of Islam who was born at Medina of Persian parents. His father, Pirouz (later called Abul Hasan, or Hasan's Father, in Arabic), was a Persian landowner in a village of Khuzestan who was enslaved during a military campaign of Umar, the Second Caliph, and taken back to Medina. In the course of dividing spoils of war, Pirouz, along with a woman from his own village, was given to Umm Salama, a wife of Muhammad. Umm Salama gifted both to one of her close relatives where they were ultimately wed and freed by the couple who received them.
Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one of the Tabi'een (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Sahabah). According to Abu Zur'a, at the age of 14 years, Hasan became the murid of 'Ali. Thereafter, Hasan migrated to Iraq.
Hasan did not take sides in the fitna of Ibn al-Zubayr. In 700 C. C., he joined the camp of Ibn al-Ash'ath during his revolt, as an amir. Hasan is not known to have supported any Caliph after Abu Bakr, but he was on decent terms with Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.
After the revolt Hasan became a teacher in Basra (Iraq) and founded a madrasa (school) there. Among his many followers were Amr Ibn Ubayd (d.761) and Wasil ibn Ata (d.749), the founder of the Mu'tazilites - which name derives from the Arabic verb i'tizàl ("to part from", "to separate from"). Wasil ibn Ata broke all relations with his ancient Master. Among Hasan's juristic students were the Imam Ayyub al-Sakhtiyani and also Humayd.
Hasan married a woman of the Ahl al-Kitab (that is, he married a Jew or a Christian). They had three sons: 'Ali, Muhammad, and Sa'id. Hasan was buried in Basra.
Under the reign of Caliph 'Abd al-Malik and his governor in Iraq al-Hajjaj, Hasan came to oppose the inherited caliphate of the Umayyads (r.660-750).
Hasan held to a doctrine of human free will, called "Qadarism" by its enemies, as opposed to predestination. In particular, he refused to believe that a just God would predetermine a man to sin. His stance on this upset his non-Mutazil pupils Ayyub and Humayd, and embarrassed later Sunnis. Some, like Dawud bin Abi Hind, went so far as to forge anti-"Qadarite" opinions in Hasan's name.
Hasan was a great supporter of asceticism in the time of its first development. According to him, fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions. Al-Basri is also held in high regard by the Sufis for his asceticism, though he predated Sufism as a self-aware movement. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling in the virtues of Muhammad's own companions.
Hasan is associated with the authorship of several epistles, many of which are known to be forged. Among the forgeries is an epistle to Abd al-Malik espousing human free will, first attested to by Abd al-Jabbar (d. 1024). This epistle, despite claiming "some of the ... best examples of Arabic linguistic prose style", is based on the theology of al-Rassi's Kitab al-Radd and on the politics of the Zaydi Shi'a. That is, it comes from Abd al-Jabbar's circle if not from Abd al-Jabbar himself.
Abu Sa'id al-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yasar al-Basri see Hasan al-Basri
Hasan al-Basri (Abu Sa'id al-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yasar al-Basri) (642-728). Preacher of Basra. The fragments of his sermons which have been preserved are among the best surviving specimens of early Arabic prose.
Hasan al-Basri, also known as Imam Hasan al Basri, was a well-known Muslim theologian and scholar of Islam who was born at Medina of Persian parents. His father, Pirouz (later called Abul Hasan, or Hasan's Father, in Arabic), was a Persian landowner in a village of Khuzestan who was enslaved during a military campaign of Umar, the Second Caliph, and taken back to Medina. In the course of dividing spoils of war, Pirouz, along with a woman from his own village, was given to Umm Salama, a wife of Muhammad. Umm Salama gifted both to one of her close relatives where they were ultimately wed and freed by the couple who received them.
Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one of the Tabi'een (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Sahabah). According to Abu Zur'a, at the age of 14 years, Hasan became the murid of 'Ali. Thereafter, Hasan migrated to Iraq.
Hasan did not take sides in the fitna of Ibn al-Zubayr. In 700 C. C., he joined the camp of Ibn al-Ash'ath during his revolt, as an amir. Hasan is not known to have supported any Caliph after Abu Bakr, but he was on decent terms with Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.
After the revolt Hasan became a teacher in Basra (Iraq) and founded a madrasa (school) there. Among his many followers were Amr Ibn Ubayd (d.761) and Wasil ibn Ata (d.749), the founder of the Mu'tazilites - which name derives from the Arabic verb i'tizàl ("to part from", "to separate from"). Wasil ibn Ata broke all relations with his ancient Master. Among Hasan's juristic students were the Imam Ayyub al-Sakhtiyani and also Humayd.
Hasan married a woman of the Ahl al-Kitab (that is, he married a Jew or a Christian). They had three sons: 'Ali, Muhammad, and Sa'id. Hasan was buried in Basra.
Under the reign of Caliph 'Abd al-Malik and his governor in Iraq al-Hajjaj, Hasan came to oppose the inherited caliphate of the Umayyads (r.660-750).
Hasan held to a doctrine of human free will, called "Qadarism" by its enemies, as opposed to predestination. In particular, he refused to believe that a just God would predetermine a man to sin. His stance on this upset his non-Mutazil pupils Ayyub and Humayd, and embarrassed later Sunnis. Some, like Dawud bin Abi Hind, went so far as to forge anti-"Qadarite" opinions in Hasan's name.
Hasan was a great supporter of asceticism in the time of its first development. According to him, fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions. Al-Basri is also held in high regard by the Sufis for his asceticism, though he predated Sufism as a self-aware movement. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling in the virtues of Muhammad's own companions.
Hasan is associated with the authorship of several epistles, many of which are known to be forged. Among the forgeries is an epistle to Abd al-Malik espousing human free will, first attested to by Abd al-Jabbar (d. 1024). This epistle, despite claiming "some of the ... best examples of Arabic linguistic prose style", is based on the theology of al-Rassi's Kitab al-Radd and on the politics of the Zaydi Shi'a. That is, it comes from Abd al-Jabbar's circle if not from Abd al-Jabbar himself.
Abu Sa'id al-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yasar al-Basri see Hasan al-Basri
Hasan al-Utrush
Hasan al-Utrush (844-917). Ruler in Tabaristan. The Zaydis in Yemen recognize him as Imam under the official name al-Nasir al-Kabir.
Hasan al-Utrush (844-917). Ruler in Tabaristan. The Zaydis in Yemen recognize him as Imam under the official name al-Nasir al-Kabir.
Hasan Bey-zade
Hasan Bey-zade (d. 1636). Ottoman historian. His History of the Ottomans is of great importance since it depends on his own experiences. He also left a collection of maxims of government.
Hasan Bey-zade (d. 1636). Ottoman historian. His History of the Ottomans is of great importance since it depends on his own experiences. He also left a collection of maxims of government.
Hasani
Hasani (in plural form, Hasaniyyun). Name of the ‘Alid Sharifs descended from ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. In Morocco, the Hasani family have given birth to the Sharifian dynasties of the Sa‘dids and of the Filalis.
Hasaniyyun see Hasani
Hasani (in plural form, Hasaniyyun). Name of the ‘Alid Sharifs descended from ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. In Morocco, the Hasani family have given birth to the Sharifian dynasties of the Sa‘dids and of the Filalis.
Hasaniyyun see Hasani
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, al-
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, al- (Al-Hassan ibn Ali ibn Talib) (c.624-669). Grandson of Muhammad, son of ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib (final Rashidun Caliph and first Shī‘a Imām) and Fātimah al-Zahraā (daughter of Muhammad). Hasan is an important figure in Islām as he is a member of the Ahl ul Bayt (the household of Muhammad) and Ahl ul Kisā, as well as being a Shī‘ah Imām, and one of The Fourteen Infallibles of the Twelver Shī‘a.
Hasan is portrayed as the favorite of the prophet Muhammad, his grandfather. However, he did not get along well with his father and brother, Husayn, after the death of his mother, Fatima, in 633.
After Ali’s assassination in 661, Hasan was proclaimed caliph by his followers in Persia. These followers were principally interested in ousting Syria from its position of power. These followers wanted Hasan to start a war between Arabia and Syria. However, after about six months, Hasan reached an agreement with the first Umayyad caliph Mu’awiya.
This was done in the mosque of Kufa in 661 and Hasan subsequently retired with wealth to Medina.
While Shi’i texts try to blame Mu’awiya for the death of Hasan, these texts are probably erroneous. After all, at the time of his death, Hasan posed no threat to Mu’awiya. The most likely conclusion is that Hassan died of consumption. After his death his brother Husayn became the head of the 'Alids.
According to most Shi‘ites, Hasan was the rightful successor to 'Ali, and thus was the second imam. However, there seems to have been, at least until his death, a faction of Shi‘ites who refused to recognize Hasan as imam because he renounced the caliphate. Nevertheless, in the eyes of the Shi‘is, Hasan is the second Imam and in the Persian religious dramas he is one of the principal characters.
Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, al- (Al-Hassan ibn Ali ibn Talib) (c.624-669). Grandson of Muhammad, son of ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib (final Rashidun Caliph and first Shī‘a Imām) and Fātimah al-Zahraā (daughter of Muhammad). Hasan is an important figure in Islām as he is a member of the Ahl ul Bayt (the household of Muhammad) and Ahl ul Kisā, as well as being a Shī‘ah Imām, and one of The Fourteen Infallibles of the Twelver Shī‘a.
Hasan is portrayed as the favorite of the prophet Muhammad, his grandfather. However, he did not get along well with his father and brother, Husayn, after the death of his mother, Fatima, in 633.
After Ali’s assassination in 661, Hasan was proclaimed caliph by his followers in Persia. These followers were principally interested in ousting Syria from its position of power. These followers wanted Hasan to start a war between Arabia and Syria. However, after about six months, Hasan reached an agreement with the first Umayyad caliph Mu’awiya.
This was done in the mosque of Kufa in 661 and Hasan subsequently retired with wealth to Medina.
While Shi’i texts try to blame Mu’awiya for the death of Hasan, these texts are probably erroneous. After all, at the time of his death, Hasan posed no threat to Mu’awiya. The most likely conclusion is that Hassan died of consumption. After his death his brother Husayn became the head of the 'Alids.
According to most Shi‘ites, Hasan was the rightful successor to 'Ali, and thus was the second imam. However, there seems to have been, at least until his death, a faction of Shi‘ites who refused to recognize Hasan as imam because he renounced the caliphate. Nevertheless, in the eyes of the Shi‘is, Hasan is the second Imam and in the Persian religious dramas he is one of the principal characters.
Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, al-
Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, al- (d. c. 710). Grandson of the Prophet’s son-in-law ‘Ali. He is the author of the two earliest texts on Islamic theology.
Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, al- (d. c. 710). Grandson of the Prophet’s son-in-law ‘Ali. He is the author of the two earliest texts on Islamic theology.
Hasan ibn Ustadh-Hurmuz
Hasan ibn Ustadh-Hurmuz (c. 960-1011). Leading figure of the Buyid regime. He is praised for the impartial energy of his administration, which restored order and established a sound financial system. {See also Buyids.}
Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ustadh-Hurmuz was a governor and military buwàyhida.
El seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz fou hudjdjab d' Adud al-Dawla i després (983) del seu fill i successor al Fars Sharaf al-Dawla , que el va nomenar governador d' Oman . His father Ustadh-Hurmuz was hudjdjab of Adud al-Dawla and after (983) of his son and successor to the lighthouses Sharaf al-Dawla, who appointed him governor of Oman. Quan va tranferir la seva lleialtat a Samsan al-Dawla , germà de Sharaf, fou obligat a retirar-se ( 984 ). When tranferir his loyalty to al-Dawla Samsan brother Sharaf, was forced to retire (984).
Llavors Hasan tenia uns 23 anys i ja estava al servei de Samsan al-Dawla que governava a Bagdad ; però al cap de pocs anys Samsan fou expulsat de l'Iraq per Sharaf al-Dawla ( 987 ); a aquest el va succeir el seu germà Baha al-Dawla ( 989 ). Then Hasan was about 23 years and was already serving Samsan al-Dawla who ruled Baghdad, but after a few years Samsan was expelled from Iraq by Sharaf al-Dawla (987), this was succeeded by his brother Baha al-Dawla (989). Samsan es va trobar amb el poder a Fars ( 990 ) a més de Kirman (que ja dominava des de el 983 ). Samsan found power in Fars (990) in addition to Kirman (already dominated from the 983). Hasan va anar a Fars i es va entrevistar amb Samsan al que va cònvencer de donar el govern de Kirman al seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz. Hasan went Lighthouses and met Samsan that convinced the government to give his father Ustadh Kirman-Hurmuz. Hasan va romandre aquestos anys al Fars i va derrotar la revolta dels fills d' Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar (cosins de Samsan al-Dawla). Hasan remained in these years and lighthouses defeated the revolt of the sons of Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar (cousins Samsan al-Dawla). Fou també Hasan el que va sostenir la lluita a Ahwaz contra Baha al-Dawla. Hasan was also argued that the struggle in Ahwaz against Baha al-Dawla.
Mort Samsan el 998 en una segona revolta dels fills d'Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar, Hasan va trespassar la seva lleialtat (i les seves tropes daylamites) a Baha. Death Samsan the 998 in a second rebellion of the sons of Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar, Hassan was Trespasser their loyalty (and his troops daylamites) in Baha. Fars i Kirman van passar a Baha al-Dawla. Fars and Kirman went to Baha al-Dawla. El 1001 va nomenar a Hasan governador d' Ahwaz i el 1002 li va donar l'administració de l' Iraq , mentre el seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz era nomenat al seu lloc a Ahwaz. In 1001 Hasan was appointed governor of Ahvaz and in 1002 gave the government rating of Iraq, while his father was appointed Ustadh-Hurmuz place in Ahvaz. En general es considera que va governar encertadament; al Iraq no va poder derrotar al rebel senyor de la Batiha Ibn Wasil ia les muntanyes no va poder amb al kurd Badr ibn Hasanawayh amb el que va acabar pactant. Generally considered to be rightly ruled, in Iraq could not defeat the rebel Lord Batiha Ibn Wasil and the mountains could not with the Kurdish Badr ibn Hasanawayh which ended with agreement being reached.
Va administrar Iraq fins a la seva sobtada mort el 1011 quan tenia uns 50 anys. Was administered Iraq until his sudden death in 1011 when he was about 50 years. El seu pare el va sobreviure quatre anys en els que va restar al govern d'Ahwaz. His father survived four years in which the government remained Ahvaz.
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Hasan ibn Ustadh-Hurmuz (c. 960-1011). Leading figure of the Buyid regime. He is praised for the impartial energy of his administration, which restored order and established a sound financial system. {See also Buyids.}
Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ustadh-Hurmuz was a governor and military buwàyhida.
El seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz fou hudjdjab d' Adud al-Dawla i després (983) del seu fill i successor al Fars Sharaf al-Dawla , que el va nomenar governador d' Oman . His father Ustadh-Hurmuz was hudjdjab of Adud al-Dawla and after (983) of his son and successor to the lighthouses Sharaf al-Dawla, who appointed him governor of Oman. Quan va tranferir la seva lleialtat a Samsan al-Dawla , germà de Sharaf, fou obligat a retirar-se ( 984 ). When tranferir his loyalty to al-Dawla Samsan brother Sharaf, was forced to retire (984).
Llavors Hasan tenia uns 23 anys i ja estava al servei de Samsan al-Dawla que governava a Bagdad ; però al cap de pocs anys Samsan fou expulsat de l'Iraq per Sharaf al-Dawla ( 987 ); a aquest el va succeir el seu germà Baha al-Dawla ( 989 ). Then Hasan was about 23 years and was already serving Samsan al-Dawla who ruled Baghdad, but after a few years Samsan was expelled from Iraq by Sharaf al-Dawla (987), this was succeeded by his brother Baha al-Dawla (989). Samsan es va trobar amb el poder a Fars ( 990 ) a més de Kirman (que ja dominava des de el 983 ). Samsan found power in Fars (990) in addition to Kirman (already dominated from the 983). Hasan va anar a Fars i es va entrevistar amb Samsan al que va cònvencer de donar el govern de Kirman al seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz. Hasan went Lighthouses and met Samsan that convinced the government to give his father Ustadh Kirman-Hurmuz. Hasan va romandre aquestos anys al Fars i va derrotar la revolta dels fills d' Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar (cosins de Samsan al-Dawla). Hasan remained in these years and lighthouses defeated the revolt of the sons of Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar (cousins Samsan al-Dawla). Fou també Hasan el que va sostenir la lluita a Ahwaz contra Baha al-Dawla. Hasan was also argued that the struggle in Ahwaz against Baha al-Dawla.
Mort Samsan el 998 en una segona revolta dels fills d'Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar, Hasan va trespassar la seva lleialtat (i les seves tropes daylamites) a Baha. Death Samsan the 998 in a second rebellion of the sons of Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiar, Hassan was Trespasser their loyalty (and his troops daylamites) in Baha. Fars i Kirman van passar a Baha al-Dawla. Fars and Kirman went to Baha al-Dawla. El 1001 va nomenar a Hasan governador d' Ahwaz i el 1002 li va donar l'administració de l' Iraq , mentre el seu pare Ustadh-Hurmuz era nomenat al seu lloc a Ahwaz. In 1001 Hasan was appointed governor of Ahvaz and in 1002 gave the government rating of Iraq, while his father was appointed Ustadh-Hurmuz place in Ahvaz. En general es considera que va governar encertadament; al Iraq no va poder derrotar al rebel senyor de la Batiha Ibn Wasil ia les muntanyes no va poder amb al kurd Badr ibn Hasanawayh amb el que va acabar pactant. Generally considered to be rightly ruled, in Iraq could not defeat the rebel Lord Batiha Ibn Wasil and the mountains could not with the Kurdish Badr ibn Hasanawayh which ended with agreement being reached.
Va administrar Iraq fins a la seva sobtada mort el 1011 quan tenia uns 50 anys. Was administered Iraq until his sudden death in 1011 when he was about 50 years. El seu pare el va sobreviure quatre anys en els que va restar al govern d'Ahwaz. His father survived four years in which the government remained Ahvaz.
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Hasan ibn Zayd ibn Muhammad, al-
Hasan ibn Zayd ibn Muhammad, al- (d. 884). Descendant of the Prophet’s son-in-law ‘Ali. He founded the Zaydiyya in Tabaristan, which ruled there from 864 to 928.
Hasan ibn Zayd ibn Muhammad, al- (d. 884). Descendant of the Prophet’s son-in-law ‘Ali. He founded the Zaydiyya in Tabaristan, which ruled there from 864 to 928.
Hasan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbah (Hasan al-Sabbah) (Hassan-i Sabbāh) (Hassan aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ) (Hasan ibn Sabbah) (Hassan Ben Sabbah) (1050s-1124) . First chief propagandist (in Arabic, da‘i) of the Nizari Isma‘ilis at Alamut. He seized the fortress in 1090 and held it against many Saljuq attacks. His exposition of the Shi‘a doctrine that absolute authority in religious faith must be accepted greatly affected Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. {See also Ghazali, Abu Hamid al-; Nizari Isma'ilis; Saljuq; and Shi'a.}
Hasan-i Sabbāh was a Persian Nizārī Ismā'īlī missionary who converted a community in the late 11th century in the heart of the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran. The place was called Alamut and was attributed to an ancient king of Daylam. He founded a group whose members are sometimes referred to as the Hashshashin.
Hassan is thought to have written an autobiography, which does not survive but seems to underlie the first part of an anonymous Isma'ili biography entitled Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā. The latter is known only from quotations made by later Persian authors. Hassan also wrote a Persian treatise on the doctrine of ta'līm, i.e. the teachings of the imam. The text is no longer extant, but fragments are cited or paraphrased by al-Shahrastānī and several Persian historians.
The possibly autobiographical information found in Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā is the main source for Hassan's background and early life. According to this, Hassan-i Sabbāh was born in the city of Qom (modern Iran) in Persia in the 1050s to a family of Twelver Shī‘a. His father was an Arab claiming Yemeni descent, who left the Sawād of Kufa (modern Iraq) to settle in the (predominantly Shi'a) town of Qom.
Early in his life, his family moved to Rayy (Rey, modern Iran). Rayy was a city that had seen a lot of radical thought since the 9th century and it had seen Hamdan Qarmaṭ as one of its voices. It had also seen a lot of missionary work by various sects.
It was in this center of religious matrices that Hassan developed a keen interest in metaphysical matters and adhered to the Twelver code of instruction. From 7 to 17, he studied at home, and mastered palmistry, languages, philosophy, astronomy and mathematics (especially geometry).
Rayy was also home to the activities of Ismā‘īlī missionaries in the Jibal. At the time, Isma'ilism was a growing movement in Persia and other lands east of Egypt. The Persian Isma'ilis supported the da'wa ("mission") directed by the Fatimid caliphate of Cairo and recognized the authority of the Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir (d. 1094). However, after some time, Isfahan rather than Cairo came to function as their principal headquarters. The Ismā'īlī mission worked on three layers: the lowest was the foot soldier or fidā'ī, followed by the rafīk or "comrade", and finally the dā‘ī or "missionary". It has been suggested that its popularity in Persia owed something to dissatisfaction with their Seljuk rulers, who had recently removed local rulers.
In Rayy, young Hassan came in touch with Amira Darrab, a comrade, who introduced him to Ismā'īlī doctrine. Hassan was initially unimpressed. As he met Darrab, participating in many passionate debates that discussed the merits of Ismā‘īl over Mūsā, Hassan's respect grew. Impressed with the conviction of Darrab, Hassan decided to delve deeper into Ismā'īlī doctrines and beliefs. Hassan began to see merit in switching to Ismā‘īlī.
At the age of 17, Hassan converted and swore allegiance to the Fatimid Caliph in Cairo. Hassan's studies did not end with his crossing over. He further studied under two other dā‘iyyayn, and as he proceeded on his path, he was looked upon with eyes of respect.
Hassan's austere and devoted commitment to the da'wa brought him an audience with the chief missionary of the region: ‘Abdul-Malik ibn Attash. Ibn Attash, suitably impressed with the young seventeen year old Hassan, made him Deputy Missionary and advised him to go to Cairo to further his studies.
However, Hassan did not go to Cairo. Some historians have postulated that Hassan, following his conversion, was playing host to some members of the Fatimid caliphate, and this was leaked to the anti-Fatimid and anti-Shī‘a Nizam al-Mulk. This prompted his abandoning Rayy and heading to Cairo in 1076.
Hassan took about 2 years to reach Cairo. Along the way he toured many other regions that did not fall in the general direction of Egypt. Isfahan was the first city that he visited. He was hosted by one of the Missionaries of his youth, a man who had taught the youthful Hassan in Rayy. His name was Resi Abufasl and he further instructed Hassan.
From here he went to Azerbaijan, hundreds of miles to the north, and from there to Turkey. There he attracted the ire of priests following a heated discussion, and Hassan was thrown out of the town he was in.
He then turned south and traveled through Iraq, reaching Damascus in Syria. He left for Egypt from Palestine. Records exist, some in the fragmentary remains of his autobiography, and from another biography written by Rashid ad-Din Tabib in 1310, to date his arrival in Egypt at August 30, 1078.
It is unclear how long Hassan stayed in Egypt - about 3 years is the usually accepted amount of time. He continued his studies there, and became a full missionary.
While he was in Cairo, studying and preaching, he upset the highly excitable Chief of the Army, Badr al-Jamalī. It is also said by later sources that the Ismaili Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir informed Hassan that his elder son Nizar would be the next Imam. Hassan was briefly imprisoned by Badr al-Jamali. The collapse of a minaret of the jail was taken to be an omen in the favor of Hassan and he was promptly released and deported. The ship that he was traveling on was wrecked. He was rescued and taken to Syria. Traveling via Aleppo and Baghdad, he terminated his journey at Isfahan in 1081.
Hassan’s life now was totally devoted to the mission. Hassan toured extensively throughout Iran. To the north of Iran, and touching the south shore of the Caspian Sea, are the mountains of Alborz. These mountains were home to a people who had traditionally resisted all attempts at subjugation. This place was also of Shī‘a leaning. Within these mountains, in the region of Daylam, Hassan chose to pursue his missionary activities. Hassan became the Chief Missionary of that area and sent his personally trained missionaries into the rest of the region.
The news of this Ismā'īlī's activities reached Nizam al-Mulk, who dispatched his soldiers with the orders for Hassan's capture. Hassan evaded them, and went deeper into the mountains.
Hassan's search for a base from where to guide his mission ended when he found the castle of Alamut in the Rudbar area in 1088. It was a fort that stood guard to a valley that was about fifty kilometers long and five kilometers wide. The fort had been built about the year 865. Legend has it that it was built by a king who saw his eagle fly up to and perch upon a rock, of which the king, Wah Sudan ibn Marzuban, understood the importance. Likening the perching of the eagle to a lesson given by it, he called the fort Aluh Amut - the "Eagles Teaching".
Hassan’s takeover of the fort was one of silent surrender in the face of defeated odds. To effect this takeover Hassan employed an ingenious strategy. It took the better part of two years to accomplish. First Hassan sent his Daˤiyyīn and Rafīks to win the villages in the valley over. Next, key people were converted and in 1090 Hassan took over the fort. It is said that Hassan offered 3000 gold dinars to the fort owner for the amount of land that would fit a buffalo’s hide. The term having been agreed upon, Hassan cut the hide in to strips and joined them all over along the perimeter of the fort. The owner was defeated. (This story bears striking resemblance to Virgil's account of Dido's founding of Carthage.) Hassan gave him a draft on the name of a wealthy landlord and told him to take the money from him. Legend further has it that when the landlord saw the draft with Hassan’s signature, he immediately paid the amount to the fort owner, astonishing him.
With Alamut as his, Hassan devoted himself so faithfully to study, that it is said that in all the years that he was there – almost 35, he never left his quarters, except the two times when he went up to the roof. He was studying, translating, praying, fasting, and directing the activities of the Daˤwa. The propagation of the Nizarī doctrine was headquartered at Alamut. He knew the Qur'ān by heart, could quote extensively from the texts of most Muslim sects, and, apart from philosophy, he was well versed in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, architecture, and the major science fields of his time. Hassan was one who found solace in austerity and frugality. A pious life was one of prayer and devotion. Hassan was a charismatic revolutionary. It was said that by the sheer gravity of his conviction he could pierce the hardest and most orthodox of hearts and win them over to his side.
Hassan's community and its branches spread throughout Iran and Syria and came to be called Hashshashin or Assassins, an Islamic mystery cult.
Hassan was extremely strict and disciplined. The event of the Great Resurrection (al-qiyāmat al-kubrā) occurred under the later Ismaili Imam Hasan ala-dhikrihi as-salaam in 1164.
Not much is known about Hassan from first hand sources, but legends abound as to the tactics used to induct members. They either stem from Sunni polemicists who were motivated to discredit the Nizari Isma'ili on political and religious grounds, and Crusaders returning to Europe. Marco Polo also claimed to have visited Alamut, although the timeframe he gives makes his assertion dubious.
According to polemical accounts which would evolve into legend, a future assassin was subjected to rites very similar to those of other mystery cults in which the subject was made to believe that he was in imminent danger of death. But the twist of the assassins was that they drugged the person to simulate a "dying" to later have them awaken in a garden flowing with wine and served a sumptuous feast by virgins. The supplicant was then convinced he was in Heaven and that Sabbah was a representative of the divinity and that all of his orders should be followed, even to death. This legend derives from Marco Polo, who visited Alamut just after it fell to the Mongols in the thirteenth century.
Other accounts of the indoctrination attest that the future assassins were brought to Alamut at a young age and, while they matured, inhabited the aforementioned paradisaical gardens and were kept drugged with hashish. As in the previous version, Hassan occupied this garden as a divine emissary. At a certain point (when their initiation could be said to have begun) the drug was withdrawn from them, and they were removed from the gardens and flung into a dungeon. There they were informed that, if they wished to return to the paradise they had so recently enjoyed it would be at Sabbah's discretion, and that they must, therefore, follow his directions exactly, up to and including murder and self-sacrifice.
Given the pillars of devoted adherence to the path of the faith, it is unlikely that the usually accepted "Assassin" postulate is accurate. Hassan had his son executed for drinking wine and another person was banished from Alamut for playing the flute. Furthermore there have emerged traces that there was a name given to Alamut by the people with Nizarī leanings: al-Assas "the foundation". It was the base for all operations that Hassan wished to effect. Members of al-Assas became known as al-Assasīn.
Hasan al-Sabbah see Hasan-i Sabbah
Sabbah, Hasan al- see Hasan-i Sabbah
Sabbah, Hasan-i see Hasan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbah (Hasan al-Sabbah) (Hassan-i Sabbāh) (Hassan aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ) (Hasan ibn Sabbah) (Hassan Ben Sabbah) (1050s-1124) . First chief propagandist (in Arabic, da‘i) of the Nizari Isma‘ilis at Alamut. He seized the fortress in 1090 and held it against many Saljuq attacks. His exposition of the Shi‘a doctrine that absolute authority in religious faith must be accepted greatly affected Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. {See also Ghazali, Abu Hamid al-; Nizari Isma'ilis; Saljuq; and Shi'a.}
Hasan-i Sabbāh was a Persian Nizārī Ismā'īlī missionary who converted a community in the late 11th century in the heart of the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran. The place was called Alamut and was attributed to an ancient king of Daylam. He founded a group whose members are sometimes referred to as the Hashshashin.
Hassan is thought to have written an autobiography, which does not survive but seems to underlie the first part of an anonymous Isma'ili biography entitled Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā. The latter is known only from quotations made by later Persian authors. Hassan also wrote a Persian treatise on the doctrine of ta'līm, i.e. the teachings of the imam. The text is no longer extant, but fragments are cited or paraphrased by al-Shahrastānī and several Persian historians.
The possibly autobiographical information found in Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā is the main source for Hassan's background and early life. According to this, Hassan-i Sabbāh was born in the city of Qom (modern Iran) in Persia in the 1050s to a family of Twelver Shī‘a. His father was an Arab claiming Yemeni descent, who left the Sawād of Kufa (modern Iraq) to settle in the (predominantly Shi'a) town of Qom.
Early in his life, his family moved to Rayy (Rey, modern Iran). Rayy was a city that had seen a lot of radical thought since the 9th century and it had seen Hamdan Qarmaṭ as one of its voices. It had also seen a lot of missionary work by various sects.
It was in this center of religious matrices that Hassan developed a keen interest in metaphysical matters and adhered to the Twelver code of instruction. From 7 to 17, he studied at home, and mastered palmistry, languages, philosophy, astronomy and mathematics (especially geometry).
Rayy was also home to the activities of Ismā‘īlī missionaries in the Jibal. At the time, Isma'ilism was a growing movement in Persia and other lands east of Egypt. The Persian Isma'ilis supported the da'wa ("mission") directed by the Fatimid caliphate of Cairo and recognized the authority of the Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir (d. 1094). However, after some time, Isfahan rather than Cairo came to function as their principal headquarters. The Ismā'īlī mission worked on three layers: the lowest was the foot soldier or fidā'ī, followed by the rafīk or "comrade", and finally the dā‘ī or "missionary". It has been suggested that its popularity in Persia owed something to dissatisfaction with their Seljuk rulers, who had recently removed local rulers.
In Rayy, young Hassan came in touch with Amira Darrab, a comrade, who introduced him to Ismā'īlī doctrine. Hassan was initially unimpressed. As he met Darrab, participating in many passionate debates that discussed the merits of Ismā‘īl over Mūsā, Hassan's respect grew. Impressed with the conviction of Darrab, Hassan decided to delve deeper into Ismā'īlī doctrines and beliefs. Hassan began to see merit in switching to Ismā‘īlī.
At the age of 17, Hassan converted and swore allegiance to the Fatimid Caliph in Cairo. Hassan's studies did not end with his crossing over. He further studied under two other dā‘iyyayn, and as he proceeded on his path, he was looked upon with eyes of respect.
Hassan's austere and devoted commitment to the da'wa brought him an audience with the chief missionary of the region: ‘Abdul-Malik ibn Attash. Ibn Attash, suitably impressed with the young seventeen year old Hassan, made him Deputy Missionary and advised him to go to Cairo to further his studies.
However, Hassan did not go to Cairo. Some historians have postulated that Hassan, following his conversion, was playing host to some members of the Fatimid caliphate, and this was leaked to the anti-Fatimid and anti-Shī‘a Nizam al-Mulk. This prompted his abandoning Rayy and heading to Cairo in 1076.
Hassan took about 2 years to reach Cairo. Along the way he toured many other regions that did not fall in the general direction of Egypt. Isfahan was the first city that he visited. He was hosted by one of the Missionaries of his youth, a man who had taught the youthful Hassan in Rayy. His name was Resi Abufasl and he further instructed Hassan.
From here he went to Azerbaijan, hundreds of miles to the north, and from there to Turkey. There he attracted the ire of priests following a heated discussion, and Hassan was thrown out of the town he was in.
He then turned south and traveled through Iraq, reaching Damascus in Syria. He left for Egypt from Palestine. Records exist, some in the fragmentary remains of his autobiography, and from another biography written by Rashid ad-Din Tabib in 1310, to date his arrival in Egypt at August 30, 1078.
It is unclear how long Hassan stayed in Egypt - about 3 years is the usually accepted amount of time. He continued his studies there, and became a full missionary.
While he was in Cairo, studying and preaching, he upset the highly excitable Chief of the Army, Badr al-Jamalī. It is also said by later sources that the Ismaili Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir informed Hassan that his elder son Nizar would be the next Imam. Hassan was briefly imprisoned by Badr al-Jamali. The collapse of a minaret of the jail was taken to be an omen in the favor of Hassan and he was promptly released and deported. The ship that he was traveling on was wrecked. He was rescued and taken to Syria. Traveling via Aleppo and Baghdad, he terminated his journey at Isfahan in 1081.
Hassan’s life now was totally devoted to the mission. Hassan toured extensively throughout Iran. To the north of Iran, and touching the south shore of the Caspian Sea, are the mountains of Alborz. These mountains were home to a people who had traditionally resisted all attempts at subjugation. This place was also of Shī‘a leaning. Within these mountains, in the region of Daylam, Hassan chose to pursue his missionary activities. Hassan became the Chief Missionary of that area and sent his personally trained missionaries into the rest of the region.
The news of this Ismā'īlī's activities reached Nizam al-Mulk, who dispatched his soldiers with the orders for Hassan's capture. Hassan evaded them, and went deeper into the mountains.
Hassan's search for a base from where to guide his mission ended when he found the castle of Alamut in the Rudbar area in 1088. It was a fort that stood guard to a valley that was about fifty kilometers long and five kilometers wide. The fort had been built about the year 865. Legend has it that it was built by a king who saw his eagle fly up to and perch upon a rock, of which the king, Wah Sudan ibn Marzuban, understood the importance. Likening the perching of the eagle to a lesson given by it, he called the fort Aluh Amut - the "Eagles Teaching".
Hassan’s takeover of the fort was one of silent surrender in the face of defeated odds. To effect this takeover Hassan employed an ingenious strategy. It took the better part of two years to accomplish. First Hassan sent his Daˤiyyīn and Rafīks to win the villages in the valley over. Next, key people were converted and in 1090 Hassan took over the fort. It is said that Hassan offered 3000 gold dinars to the fort owner for the amount of land that would fit a buffalo’s hide. The term having been agreed upon, Hassan cut the hide in to strips and joined them all over along the perimeter of the fort. The owner was defeated. (This story bears striking resemblance to Virgil's account of Dido's founding of Carthage.) Hassan gave him a draft on the name of a wealthy landlord and told him to take the money from him. Legend further has it that when the landlord saw the draft with Hassan’s signature, he immediately paid the amount to the fort owner, astonishing him.
With Alamut as his, Hassan devoted himself so faithfully to study, that it is said that in all the years that he was there – almost 35, he never left his quarters, except the two times when he went up to the roof. He was studying, translating, praying, fasting, and directing the activities of the Daˤwa. The propagation of the Nizarī doctrine was headquartered at Alamut. He knew the Qur'ān by heart, could quote extensively from the texts of most Muslim sects, and, apart from philosophy, he was well versed in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, architecture, and the major science fields of his time. Hassan was one who found solace in austerity and frugality. A pious life was one of prayer and devotion. Hassan was a charismatic revolutionary. It was said that by the sheer gravity of his conviction he could pierce the hardest and most orthodox of hearts and win them over to his side.
Hassan's community and its branches spread throughout Iran and Syria and came to be called Hashshashin or Assassins, an Islamic mystery cult.
Hassan was extremely strict and disciplined. The event of the Great Resurrection (al-qiyāmat al-kubrā) occurred under the later Ismaili Imam Hasan ala-dhikrihi as-salaam in 1164.
Not much is known about Hassan from first hand sources, but legends abound as to the tactics used to induct members. They either stem from Sunni polemicists who were motivated to discredit the Nizari Isma'ili on political and religious grounds, and Crusaders returning to Europe. Marco Polo also claimed to have visited Alamut, although the timeframe he gives makes his assertion dubious.
According to polemical accounts which would evolve into legend, a future assassin was subjected to rites very similar to those of other mystery cults in which the subject was made to believe that he was in imminent danger of death. But the twist of the assassins was that they drugged the person to simulate a "dying" to later have them awaken in a garden flowing with wine and served a sumptuous feast by virgins. The supplicant was then convinced he was in Heaven and that Sabbah was a representative of the divinity and that all of his orders should be followed, even to death. This legend derives from Marco Polo, who visited Alamut just after it fell to the Mongols in the thirteenth century.
Other accounts of the indoctrination attest that the future assassins were brought to Alamut at a young age and, while they matured, inhabited the aforementioned paradisaical gardens and were kept drugged with hashish. As in the previous version, Hassan occupied this garden as a divine emissary. At a certain point (when their initiation could be said to have begun) the drug was withdrawn from them, and they were removed from the gardens and flung into a dungeon. There they were informed that, if they wished to return to the paradise they had so recently enjoyed it would be at Sabbah's discretion, and that they must, therefore, follow his directions exactly, up to and including murder and self-sacrifice.
Given the pillars of devoted adherence to the path of the faith, it is unlikely that the usually accepted "Assassin" postulate is accurate. Hassan had his son executed for drinking wine and another person was banished from Alamut for playing the flute. Furthermore there have emerged traces that there was a name given to Alamut by the people with Nizarī leanings: al-Assas "the foundation". It was the base for all operations that Hassan wished to effect. Members of al-Assas became known as al-Assasīn.
Hasan al-Sabbah see Hasan-i Sabbah
Sabbah, Hasan al- see Hasan-i Sabbah
Sabbah, Hasan-i see Hasan-i Sabbah
Hasan Pasha
Hasan Pasha (Hasan Pasha ibn Khayr al-Din). Commander in Algiers in the years 1544 to 1551; 1557 to 1561; and 1562 to 1567. He fought the Spaniards and tried to enroll the Kabyles in his service against the Moroccans.
Hasan Pasha ibn Khayr al-Din see Hasan Pasha
Pasha, Hasan see Hasan Pasha
Hasan Pasha (Hasan Pasha ibn Khayr al-Din). Commander in Algiers in the years 1544 to 1551; 1557 to 1561; and 1562 to 1567. He fought the Spaniards and tried to enroll the Kabyles in his service against the Moroccans.
Hasan Pasha ibn Khayr al-Din see Hasan Pasha
Pasha, Hasan see Hasan Pasha
Hasanwayhids
Hasanwayhids (Hasanuyid). Name of a Kurdish dynasty descended from Hasanawayh. Between 959 and 1015, they maintained more or less autonomous principalities in Western Persia.
The Hasanawayhid or Hasanuyid was a Kurdish principality from 959 to 1015, centered at Dinawar (northeast of present-day Kermanshah). The principality ruled western Iran and upper Mesopotamia. The founder of the dynasty was Hasanwayh bin Husayn from the Kurdish tribe of Barzikani. He managed to successfully resist Sahlan bin Musafir, the Buyid governor of Hamadan, and the Buyid vizier, Ibn Al-Amed. In 970, he reached a compromise with Amed's successor which guaranteed his autonomy. Hasanwayh died in 979 at Sarmaj, located in south of Bisitun.
After Hasanwayh's death, conflict broke out between several of his sons. The intervention of Buyid Muayyid al-Dawla of Ray led to the defeat of Fakhr al-Dawla, one of Hasanwayh's sons. Then another heir, Abul-Najm Badr (Nasir Al-Dawla), was installed as the leader of Bazikani Kurds, and the principality became a vassal of Buyids. Abul-Najm expanded Hasanwayhid's control to Shapur-Khwast, Dinawar, Nahavand, Asadabad, Borujerd, Ahwaz, Ilam, Kermanshah, Hulwan and Sharazur (Kirkuk).
Around 1006, the principality came into conflict with the Annazid to the west. Abul-Najm Badr finally died in a minor battle in 1014. The principality was conquered by Abul-Shawk, the Annazid ruler. However the princely family continued to rule their stronghold at Sarmaj until Seljuk Ibrahim Inal entered their territory in 1047.
Hasanuyid see Hasanwayhids
Hasanwayhids (Hasanuyid). Name of a Kurdish dynasty descended from Hasanawayh. Between 959 and 1015, they maintained more or less autonomous principalities in Western Persia.
The Hasanawayhid or Hasanuyid was a Kurdish principality from 959 to 1015, centered at Dinawar (northeast of present-day Kermanshah). The principality ruled western Iran and upper Mesopotamia. The founder of the dynasty was Hasanwayh bin Husayn from the Kurdish tribe of Barzikani. He managed to successfully resist Sahlan bin Musafir, the Buyid governor of Hamadan, and the Buyid vizier, Ibn Al-Amed. In 970, he reached a compromise with Amed's successor which guaranteed his autonomy. Hasanwayh died in 979 at Sarmaj, located in south of Bisitun.
After Hasanwayh's death, conflict broke out between several of his sons. The intervention of Buyid Muayyid al-Dawla of Ray led to the defeat of Fakhr al-Dawla, one of Hasanwayh's sons. Then another heir, Abul-Najm Badr (Nasir Al-Dawla), was installed as the leader of Bazikani Kurds, and the principality became a vassal of Buyids. Abul-Najm expanded Hasanwayhid's control to Shapur-Khwast, Dinawar, Nahavand, Asadabad, Borujerd, Ahwaz, Ilam, Kermanshah, Hulwan and Sharazur (Kirkuk).
Around 1006, the principality came into conflict with the Annazid to the west. Abul-Najm Badr finally died in a minor battle in 1014. The principality was conquered by Abul-Shawk, the Annazid ruler. However the princely family continued to rule their stronghold at Sarmaj until Seljuk Ibrahim Inal entered their territory in 1047.
Hasanuyid see Hasanwayhids
Hashid wa-Bakil
Hashid wa-Bakil. Large confederation of tribes in the highlands of northern Yemen between San‘a’ and Sa‘da, which has played a role since the dawn of history.
The Bakil federation is the second largest tribal federation in Yemen. Imam Yahya's campaign to subject the country, and more specifically the tribes, to his control, led him to undertake massive campaigns against their influence and power; in fact, his efforts succeeded in permanently eliminating all but two of the ancient confederations (the Hashid is the other one to survive). The member tribes of the Bakil Confederation are found primarily in the far north of the country; its leaders today are the Abu Luhum clan, of the Nihm tribe.
Hashid and Bakil the sons of Jashim bin Jubran bin Nawf bin Tuba'a bin Zayd bin Amro bin Hamdan, Bani Hamdan was already a well known tribe in the 1st century of yhr Chtisyian calendar and it was mentioned in Sabean inscripts. Therefore, Hashid and Bakil (the brothers) must have lived in the B.C.T. era. In the 3rd century most of Hamdan migrated to Syria. Hashid and Bakil switched their alliance to Himyar.
In the year 622, the Prophet Muhammad sent Khalid ibn Al-Walid to Yemen to call them to Islam. However, Khaled managed to push the Najrani and Tihami Yemenis into Islam but he did not get a warm response from the Hamdani Yemenis of the highlands. So the Prophet Muhammad sent over Ali bin Abi Talib and he was much more successful in converting the Hamdani Yemenis.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad the Hamdan tribe remained Muslim and neutral. It did not join in the wars against other Yemeni tribes that backed Islam.
The Hamdan tribe remained on the side of Ali, after the defeat of Ali and later his sons. The tribes remained in alliance to Ali but did not oppose the Ummayads or ally themselves with the other Shi'as.
At that time Yemen was experiencing a great population movement forming the bulk of the Islamic Expansion mainly settling and Arabizing North Africa/Spain. However, the majority of the Hamdan tribe remained in Yemen which later helped the Hashid/Bakil Hamdani tribes become the biggest local key player, benefiting from the departure of the bulk of the most powerful Nomadic Yemeni tribes of that time into North Africa/Spain in Wetsward movements that continued until the 13th century.
By the 10th century, the Imam al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim (a scion of Imam al-Hasan, grandson of the Prophet) arrived in the Northern Highlands on invitation from the Hamdan tribe and from that time until the present day the Zaidi moderate Shia teachings became dominant in north Yemen.
Imam Yahya's campaign to subject the country, and more specifically the tribes, to his control, led him to undertake massive campaigns against their influence and power. Indeed, his efforts succeeded in permanently eliminating all but two of the ancient confederations (the Bakil is the other one to survive).
Many writers have referred to the Hashid and Bakil confederations as the "two wings" of the Zaidi imamate in the sense that many of the tribes that belong to these confederations are and were strongly committed to Zaidi Islam. The imams were recognized - to a greater or lesser degree - as the heads of the Zaidi community and could, therefore, count on a measure of support and loyalty. Not all the tribes, however, accepted the temporal and even legal role that the imams arrogated to themselves. Consequently, many imams (Imam Yahya and Imam Ahmad in the twentieth century included) complained bitterly about the tribes' inordinate political power.
wa-Bakil, Hashid see Hashid wa-Bakil.
Bakil, Hashid wa- see Hashid wa-Bakil.
Hashid wa-Bakil. Large confederation of tribes in the highlands of northern Yemen between San‘a’ and Sa‘da, which has played a role since the dawn of history.
The Bakil federation is the second largest tribal federation in Yemen. Imam Yahya's campaign to subject the country, and more specifically the tribes, to his control, led him to undertake massive campaigns against their influence and power; in fact, his efforts succeeded in permanently eliminating all but two of the ancient confederations (the Hashid is the other one to survive). The member tribes of the Bakil Confederation are found primarily in the far north of the country; its leaders today are the Abu Luhum clan, of the Nihm tribe.
Hashid and Bakil the sons of Jashim bin Jubran bin Nawf bin Tuba'a bin Zayd bin Amro bin Hamdan, Bani Hamdan was already a well known tribe in the 1st century of yhr Chtisyian calendar and it was mentioned in Sabean inscripts. Therefore, Hashid and Bakil (the brothers) must have lived in the B.C.T. era. In the 3rd century most of Hamdan migrated to Syria. Hashid and Bakil switched their alliance to Himyar.
In the year 622, the Prophet Muhammad sent Khalid ibn Al-Walid to Yemen to call them to Islam. However, Khaled managed to push the Najrani and Tihami Yemenis into Islam but he did not get a warm response from the Hamdani Yemenis of the highlands. So the Prophet Muhammad sent over Ali bin Abi Talib and he was much more successful in converting the Hamdani Yemenis.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad the Hamdan tribe remained Muslim and neutral. It did not join in the wars against other Yemeni tribes that backed Islam.
The Hamdan tribe remained on the side of Ali, after the defeat of Ali and later his sons. The tribes remained in alliance to Ali but did not oppose the Ummayads or ally themselves with the other Shi'as.
At that time Yemen was experiencing a great population movement forming the bulk of the Islamic Expansion mainly settling and Arabizing North Africa/Spain. However, the majority of the Hamdan tribe remained in Yemen which later helped the Hashid/Bakil Hamdani tribes become the biggest local key player, benefiting from the departure of the bulk of the most powerful Nomadic Yemeni tribes of that time into North Africa/Spain in Wetsward movements that continued until the 13th century.
By the 10th century, the Imam al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim (a scion of Imam al-Hasan, grandson of the Prophet) arrived in the Northern Highlands on invitation from the Hamdan tribe and from that time until the present day the Zaidi moderate Shia teachings became dominant in north Yemen.
Imam Yahya's campaign to subject the country, and more specifically the tribes, to his control, led him to undertake massive campaigns against their influence and power. Indeed, his efforts succeeded in permanently eliminating all but two of the ancient confederations (the Bakil is the other one to survive).
Many writers have referred to the Hashid and Bakil confederations as the "two wings" of the Zaidi imamate in the sense that many of the tribes that belong to these confederations are and were strongly committed to Zaidi Islam. The imams were recognized - to a greater or lesser degree - as the heads of the Zaidi community and could, therefore, count on a measure of support and loyalty. Not all the tribes, however, accepted the temporal and even legal role that the imams arrogated to themselves. Consequently, many imams (Imam Yahya and Imam Ahmad in the twentieth century included) complained bitterly about the tribes' inordinate political power.
wa-Bakil, Hashid see Hashid wa-Bakil.
Bakil, Hashid wa- see Hashid wa-Bakil.
Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf
Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf (Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf) (d. ca. 497). Great-grandfather of the Prophet and the name giving ancestor of the Hashimites -- the clan to which the Prophet belonged. He had made the tribe of Quraysh dominant in Mecca and had reorganized the pilgrimage. He is said to have died at Gaza on a journey to Syria.
Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf was the great-grandfather of both Muhammad and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (the first Shi'a imam and the fourth Sunni caliph). He also was the originator of the Banu Hashim clan of the distinguished Quraysh tribe in Mecca. His grave can be found in Jannatul Mualla cemetery, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
His real name was Amr which means "ruler" or "commander," but he was given the nickname "Hashim," which translates as "pulverizer" in Arabic, because he initiated the practice of providing crumbled bread in broth for the pilgrims to the Kaaba in Mecca. According to tradition, he was a descendant of Ishmael and thus Ibrahim (Abraham). He married Salma bint Amr, a woman of Medina. He is said to have died while doing business in Gaza, Palestine in 497. His grave is preserved, and Gaza is called "Ghazzah Hashim" or Hashim's Gaza.
Hashim is credited with initiating trade caravans of the Quraysh after obtaining an edict from the Byzantine emperor, exempting Quraysh from duties or taxes when operating in the countries under his domain. He obtained the same concession from the emperor of Ethiopia. Thus, the Quraysh engaged in trade in Yemen, Syria, and Ankara which allowed them to flourish economically.
Hashim's father was 'Abd Manaf ibn Qusai and he had two brothers that are known to history, the elder 'Abd Shams ibn 'Abd Manaf and a younger brother Muttalib ibn 'Abd Manaf who would become his successor.
Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf see Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf
Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf (Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf) (d. ca. 497). Great-grandfather of the Prophet and the name giving ancestor of the Hashimites -- the clan to which the Prophet belonged. He had made the tribe of Quraysh dominant in Mecca and had reorganized the pilgrimage. He is said to have died at Gaza on a journey to Syria.
Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf was the great-grandfather of both Muhammad and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (the first Shi'a imam and the fourth Sunni caliph). He also was the originator of the Banu Hashim clan of the distinguished Quraysh tribe in Mecca. His grave can be found in Jannatul Mualla cemetery, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
His real name was Amr which means "ruler" or "commander," but he was given the nickname "Hashim," which translates as "pulverizer" in Arabic, because he initiated the practice of providing crumbled bread in broth for the pilgrims to the Kaaba in Mecca. According to tradition, he was a descendant of Ishmael and thus Ibrahim (Abraham). He married Salma bint Amr, a woman of Medina. He is said to have died while doing business in Gaza, Palestine in 497. His grave is preserved, and Gaza is called "Ghazzah Hashim" or Hashim's Gaza.
Hashim is credited with initiating trade caravans of the Quraysh after obtaining an edict from the Byzantine emperor, exempting Quraysh from duties or taxes when operating in the countries under his domain. He obtained the same concession from the emperor of Ethiopia. Thus, the Quraysh engaged in trade in Yemen, Syria, and Ankara which allowed them to flourish economically.
Hashim's father was 'Abd Manaf ibn Qusai and he had two brothers that are known to history, the elder 'Abd Shams ibn 'Abd Manaf and a younger brother Muttalib ibn 'Abd Manaf who would become his successor.
Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf see Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf
Hashimids
Hashimids (al-Hawashim). Collective name of the four main branches of Hasanid Sharifs, who ruled Mecca from 960 to 1924. The name al-Hawashim is used to distinguish them from the Hashimites of the Hejaz, Iraq and Jordan. The eponym of the Hashimids was Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf. They were descended from Musa I al-Jawn, a great-grandson of ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. Musa I’s son ‘Abd Allah al-Shaykh al-Salih was the sire of the Meccan Sharifs, and from the latter’s son Musa II sprang the four main branches of the dynasty -- the Musawids, the Sulaymanids, the Hashimids and the Qatadids. A Hashimid is also a supporter of the militant mawali Shi‘a sect in the late Umayyad times.
Hawashim, al- see Hashimids
Hashimids (al-Hawashim). Collective name of the four main branches of Hasanid Sharifs, who ruled Mecca from 960 to 1924. The name al-Hawashim is used to distinguish them from the Hashimites of the Hejaz, Iraq and Jordan. The eponym of the Hashimids was Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf. They were descended from Musa I al-Jawn, a great-grandson of ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. Musa I’s son ‘Abd Allah al-Shaykh al-Salih was the sire of the Meccan Sharifs, and from the latter’s son Musa II sprang the four main branches of the dynasty -- the Musawids, the Sulaymanids, the Hashimids and the Qatadids. A Hashimid is also a supporter of the militant mawali Shi‘a sect in the late Umayyad times.
Hawashim, al- see Hashimids
Hashimite
Hashimite (Hashemite). Name of two Arabian dynasties, both of which claim descent from Hashim of the tribe of Koreish, traditionally the custodians of the sacred Muslim shrine, the Ka‘ba, at Mecca. The Hashimites included the founders of Islam, notably the Prophet Muhammad. His paternal uncle Abbas, progenitory of the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, which ruled Islam from 750 to 1258, and his son-in-law, the caliph Ali. The modern Arabian dynasty, by tradition descended from Muhammad, was founded in 1916 by Husein ibn Ali (1856-1931), sharif of Mecca, who at that time made himself king of the Hijaz (al-Hijaz). Sons of Husein ibn Ali were Ali ibn Husein (1878-1935), who succeeded his father in 1924 but was overthrown in 1925 by Ibn Saud, king of Saudi Arabia; Abdullah ibn Husein, king of Jordan; and Faisal I, king of Iraq. King Hussein I of Jordan is a grandson of Abdullah ibn Husein, Faisal II, the last king of Iraq, was a grandson of Faisal I.
Hashimite, today, is the term used to describe a member of the dynasty which ruled the Hijaz (1908-1925), Syria (1918-1920), Iraq (1921-1958), and which rules Jordan (1921- ) to this day. The family belongs to the Dhawu ‘Awn, one of the branches of the Hasanid Sharifs of Mecca. They claimed descent from the Prophet’s grandson, al-Hasan.
In 1908, the Ottoman sultan appointed Husayn ibn ‘Ali as sharif and amir of Mecca and of the Hijaz. Emir Husayn (Hussain or Hussein) I ibn Ali (1856-1931), sharif of Mecca from 1908 under Ottoman sovereignty, conducted negotiations with the British in 1915 over an Arab kingdom under British mandate. Following the Sykes-Picot Agreement, under which the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire were divided into British and French zones of influence, he became king of the Hijaz (central Arabia with Mecca and Medina) in 1916. In 1924, he was expelled by Ibn Saud. His eldest son, Ali, who assumed the title of king in 1924, also had to yield in 1925. Of his younger sons, Faisal I (1883-1933), was elected king of Syria in 1920 by the Arab National Congress (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine). Driven out by the French, he became King of Iraq in 1921 at the initiative of the British. The Iraqi Hashimite branch was brutally removed by Iraqi officers in 1958 with the assassination of his grandson, Faisal II. His brother, Abdallah I (1882-1951), became emir of Transjordania and Palestine under British sovereignty in 1921/23 (in return for assurances of an Israeli state for the Jews) and in 1946 king of the independent Jordan. Following his assassination, his grandson, Hussain II (Hussein II) (1952-1999), steered a tricky course between national independence, support for the Palestinians expelled to Jordan, foreign and economic policy dependence on the United States, resistance to Egyptian influence (President Nasser’s pan-Arabism), and reconciliation with Israel while fending off several attempted coups. In February 1999, Hussain II was succeeded to the throne by his son, Abdallah II.
Hashemite see Hashimite
Hashimite (Hashemite). Name of two Arabian dynasties, both of which claim descent from Hashim of the tribe of Koreish, traditionally the custodians of the sacred Muslim shrine, the Ka‘ba, at Mecca. The Hashimites included the founders of Islam, notably the Prophet Muhammad. His paternal uncle Abbas, progenitory of the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, which ruled Islam from 750 to 1258, and his son-in-law, the caliph Ali. The modern Arabian dynasty, by tradition descended from Muhammad, was founded in 1916 by Husein ibn Ali (1856-1931), sharif of Mecca, who at that time made himself king of the Hijaz (al-Hijaz). Sons of Husein ibn Ali were Ali ibn Husein (1878-1935), who succeeded his father in 1924 but was overthrown in 1925 by Ibn Saud, king of Saudi Arabia; Abdullah ibn Husein, king of Jordan; and Faisal I, king of Iraq. King Hussein I of Jordan is a grandson of Abdullah ibn Husein, Faisal II, the last king of Iraq, was a grandson of Faisal I.
Hashimite, today, is the term used to describe a member of the dynasty which ruled the Hijaz (1908-1925), Syria (1918-1920), Iraq (1921-1958), and which rules Jordan (1921- ) to this day. The family belongs to the Dhawu ‘Awn, one of the branches of the Hasanid Sharifs of Mecca. They claimed descent from the Prophet’s grandson, al-Hasan.
In 1908, the Ottoman sultan appointed Husayn ibn ‘Ali as sharif and amir of Mecca and of the Hijaz. Emir Husayn (Hussain or Hussein) I ibn Ali (1856-1931), sharif of Mecca from 1908 under Ottoman sovereignty, conducted negotiations with the British in 1915 over an Arab kingdom under British mandate. Following the Sykes-Picot Agreement, under which the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire were divided into British and French zones of influence, he became king of the Hijaz (central Arabia with Mecca and Medina) in 1916. In 1924, he was expelled by Ibn Saud. His eldest son, Ali, who assumed the title of king in 1924, also had to yield in 1925. Of his younger sons, Faisal I (1883-1933), was elected king of Syria in 1920 by the Arab National Congress (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine). Driven out by the French, he became King of Iraq in 1921 at the initiative of the British. The Iraqi Hashimite branch was brutally removed by Iraqi officers in 1958 with the assassination of his grandson, Faisal II. His brother, Abdallah I (1882-1951), became emir of Transjordania and Palestine under British sovereignty in 1921/23 (in return for assurances of an Israeli state for the Jews) and in 1946 king of the independent Jordan. Following his assassination, his grandson, Hussain II (Hussein II) (1952-1999), steered a tricky course between national independence, support for the Palestinians expelled to Jordan, foreign and economic policy dependence on the United States, resistance to Egyptian influence (President Nasser’s pan-Arabism), and reconciliation with Israel while fending off several attempted coups. In February 1999, Hussain II was succeeded to the throne by his son, Abdallah II.
Hashemite see Hashimite
Hashimiyya
Hashimiyya. In Umayyad times, the term was applied to a religio-political faction who believed that the Imamate had passed from the ‘Alid Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya to his son Abu Hashim (d. 716). The ‘Abbasids inherited Abu Hashim’s party and organization, the Hashimiyya, which was the main instrument of the ‘Abbasid propaganda and movement in Khurasan. The term was then applied to members of the ‘Abbasid house, and understood as denoting the descendants of Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf, the common ancestor of the Prophet, of the latter’s son-in-law ‘Ali and of al-‘Abbas.
Hashimiyya. In Umayyad times, the term was applied to a religio-political faction who believed that the Imamate had passed from the ‘Alid Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya to his son Abu Hashim (d. 716). The ‘Abbasids inherited Abu Hashim’s party and organization, the Hashimiyya, which was the main instrument of the ‘Abbasid propaganda and movement in Khurasan. The term was then applied to members of the ‘Abbasid house, and understood as denoting the descendants of Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf, the common ancestor of the Prophet, of the latter’s son-in-law ‘Ali and of al-‘Abbas.
Hashishiyya
Hashishiyya. See Assassins.
Hashishiyya. See Assassins.
Hassan
Hassan (El-Hassan bin Talal) (b. March 20, 1947). Crown prince of Jordan from 1965 to 1999. He was born on March 20, 1947, in Amman as the son of crown prince Talal (later king) and Zeini ash-Sharaf bint Jamil. In 1965, he was named crown prince of Jordan by King Hussein, thereby deposing his nephew, the then three year old Abdullah. The background for this change was that Hussein was exposed to a number of assassination attempts, and did not want to take the risk of leaving Jordan in the hands of an infant. In 1968, Hassan married Indian born Sarvath Ikramullah. In January 1999, Abdullah was appointed crown prince, deposing Hassan. During his tenure as crown prince, Hassan was one of King Hussein’s closest advisors. He was active in the work of bringing different religions together for interfaith dialogue, and was educated in Oriental studies from the Christ Church in Oxford.
Hassan is the son of King Talal and Queen Zein al-Sharaf. He is the brother of the late King Hussein, was Crown Prince from 1965 to 1999, and is uncle to the King Abdullah II of Jordan.
In 1968, Prince Hassan married Sarvath Ikramullah, daughter of Pakistani politician Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, whom he first met in London in 1958, when they were both youngsters. They have four children together:
Princess Rahma (born August 13, 1969)
Princess Sumaya (born May 14, 1971)
Princess Badiya (born March 28, 1974)
Prince Rashid (born May 20, 1979)
Prince Hassan was educated first in Amman. He then attended Summer Fields School, then Harrow School in England as well as Christ Church, Oxford University, where he received a bachelor's degree in Oriental Studies followed by an master's degree. Prince Hassan became fluent in Arabic, English, French and German; developed a working knowledge of Turkish and Spanish; and studied Hebrew in university.
From 1965 to 1999, he served as Crown Prince of Jordan.
In 2002 Prince Hassan was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of York in recognition of his contribution to the field of post-war reconstruction and development.
In 2009, he joined the project "Soldiers of Peace", a movie against all wars and for a global peace.
El-Hassan bin Talal see Hassan
Hassan (El-Hassan bin Talal) (b. March 20, 1947). Crown prince of Jordan from 1965 to 1999. He was born on March 20, 1947, in Amman as the son of crown prince Talal (later king) and Zeini ash-Sharaf bint Jamil. In 1965, he was named crown prince of Jordan by King Hussein, thereby deposing his nephew, the then three year old Abdullah. The background for this change was that Hussein was exposed to a number of assassination attempts, and did not want to take the risk of leaving Jordan in the hands of an infant. In 1968, Hassan married Indian born Sarvath Ikramullah. In January 1999, Abdullah was appointed crown prince, deposing Hassan. During his tenure as crown prince, Hassan was one of King Hussein’s closest advisors. He was active in the work of bringing different religions together for interfaith dialogue, and was educated in Oriental studies from the Christ Church in Oxford.
Hassan is the son of King Talal and Queen Zein al-Sharaf. He is the brother of the late King Hussein, was Crown Prince from 1965 to 1999, and is uncle to the King Abdullah II of Jordan.
In 1968, Prince Hassan married Sarvath Ikramullah, daughter of Pakistani politician Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, whom he first met in London in 1958, when they were both youngsters. They have four children together:
Princess Rahma (born August 13, 1969)
Princess Sumaya (born May 14, 1971)
Princess Badiya (born March 28, 1974)
Prince Rashid (born May 20, 1979)
Prince Hassan was educated first in Amman. He then attended Summer Fields School, then Harrow School in England as well as Christ Church, Oxford University, where he received a bachelor's degree in Oriental Studies followed by an master's degree. Prince Hassan became fluent in Arabic, English, French and German; developed a working knowledge of Turkish and Spanish; and studied Hebrew in university.
From 1965 to 1999, he served as Crown Prince of Jordan.
In 2002 Prince Hassan was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of York in recognition of his contribution to the field of post-war reconstruction and development.
In 2009, he joined the project "Soldiers of Peace", a movie against all wars and for a global peace.
El-Hassan bin Talal see Hassan
Hassan II
Hassan II (Muhammad Hassan) (July 9, 1929-July 23, 1999). King who ruled Morocco for 38 years and played an important role as mediator between Israel and the Arab nations of the Middle East.
Hassan was born Moulay Hassan ben Mohammed Alaoui in Rabat on July 9, 1929, the eldest of six children of Muhammad V (Sultan Sidi Mohammed ben Youssef, 1913-1961). Most of Morocco was then a protectorate of France, except for sections governed by Spain in the northwest and on the southern coast and the city of Tangier, an international zone.
As World War II unfolded, resistance to colonial rule grew. After the fall of France, the Free French forces promised independence if Morocco would cooperate in the war against the Axis, a promise that Paris proved unwilling to keep.
After the war, tension rose between the Sultan and the French, but the young Prince Moulay Hassan was educated as befitted the heir of two traditions: He attended the Imperial College at Rabat, where instruction was in Arabic and French. Later he earned a law degree from the University of Bordeaux and served in the French Navy aboard the battleship Jeanne d'Arc.
Hassan started at the Qur’anic school at the Royal Palace in 1934 and finished his Qur’anic training in 1936, when he began modern school. In 1941, Hassan’s secondary training commenced at the Imperial College at the Royal College, where he was taught by the best Moroccan and foreign teachers.
In April of 1947,
Hassan accompanied his father to Tangier, where king Muhammad V, for the first time, officially announced a goal of Moroccan independence.
In 1948, Hassan received his Baccalaureate. Hassan then began studying at the Institute of Higher Juridical Studies in Rabat, an institute that was part of the College of Law of Bordeaux, France.
In 1951, Hassan received his bachelor of arts degree in law.
On August 20, 1953, Hassan, along with the rest of the royal family, was exiled to Corsica, France. This was done in reaction to the king’s unwillingness to cooperate with the French colonial powers and his agitation for Moroccan independence. In January 1954, the royal family was forced to leave Corsica for Madagascar.
In 1954 and 1955, as rioting and guerrilla warfare increased, Prince Moulay's father regained his title. In November 1955, the royal family returned to Morocco, with the promise of Moroccan independence. Prince Moulay worked with his father, now Mohammed V, to maintain the monarchy's authority during a time of social discontent and the conflicting expectations of those who fought for Moroccan independence.
In 1956, France granted Morocco independence. In May 1956, Hassan was appointed commander of the Royal Armed Forces.
On July 9, 1957, Hassan was invested as crown prince, and became the commander in chief of the Moroccan army. At the time, the army was splintered between officers who had been loyal to the French and the former rebels. Prince Moulay kept the military occupied with civilian projects, and led it to victory against rebel Berber tribesmen in the Rif mountains in 1958.
However, in the shantytowns of Rabat, Casablanca and other cities, opposition simmered against the royal house. Though the monarchy looked to Paris and Washington for financial support, it needed to placate the leftist opposition. Declaring neutrality in the cold war, the Prince made overtures to Moscow and accepted Soviet military aid.
In 1960, Hassan was appointed minister of defense, and deputy premier. Hassan led the negotiations with France, Spain and the United States which ensured the withdrawal of foreign troops from Morocco.
On February 26, 1961, immediately following the death of Muhammad V of heart failure following what was expected to be a minor operation, Prince Moulay, who had been named Prime Minister in 1960, moved quickly to establish his rule. Hassan became the new king of Morocco, and on March 3, he was officially crowned as the new king. His Constitution, which was ratified in 1962, guaranteed freedom of the press and of religion, and created an elected legislature. However, the new Parliament, fractured by bitter rivalries, proved ineffectual. The new king retained the power to name the Prime Minister, disband the legislature and control the army.
In the mid-1960's, student agitation led to a wave of rioting and arrests. In response, in 1965, Hassan began to exercise authoritarian rule because of fear of the strength of the opposition. Subsequently, opposition figures fled abroad or were imprisoned. Some were executed. Mehdi Ben Barka, a prominent nationalist and opposition leader, was kidnapped in Paris and never seen again. The King's right-hand man, the Minister of Interior, Mohammed Oufkir, was linked to the disappearance, but the case was never pressed.
In June of 1965, Hassan dissolved Parliament and instituted a state of emergency, wielding absolute power until a new Constitution was adopted in 1970. The Constitution restored limited parliamentary government, but discontent simmered amid continuing poverty and official corruption.
In 1971, Hassan survived an attempt on his life. On July 10, 1971, Hassan invited some 400 prominent Moroccans, diplomats and other guests to his seaside palace of Skhirat near Rabat to celebrate his 42nd birthday. The festivities ended in a burst of gunfire as more than 1,000 muntinous troops attacked the palace, hurling grenades and spraying the grounds with small arms fire. Nearly 100 guests were killed and more than 125 wounded. The King hid in a bathroom. When the firing died down, Hassan re-emerged to find himself face to face with one of the rebel commanders. Keeping eye contact, Hassan recited the opening verse of the Qur'an, and the rebel knelt and kissed his hand. Loyal troops crushed the revolt, killing more than 150 rebels and capturing 900 others, many of them young military cadets. A dozen high-ranking, conservative officers were executed. Mohammed Oufkir was named Minister of Defense.
Hassan survived another attempt in 1972. On August 16, 1972, the King was returning from Paris aboard his private Boeing 727 when it encountered an unscheduled escort of four Royal Moroccan Air Force F-5 fighters. As the Boeing approached Rabat's airport, the fighters fired on the plane, knocking out an engine and scoring other hits. The Boeing landed safely, but the renegade pilots continued to strafe the runway until Hassan radioed them, saying the King had been killed. The rebels broke off the attack. Within hours, key participants in the coup were arrested and shot. One of their leaders proved to be General Oufkir, who apparently had been secretly involved in the earlier attack on the palace. According to official reports, the general committed suicide, but his body was supposedly found with several wounds. His widow and six children were placed under house arrest and were not released until February 1991, in an amnesty marking the King's thirty (30) years in power.
A third coup attempt in 1973 was averted and avenged.
As the 1970's unfolded, the King took several steps to dampen domestic turmoil. In 1973, Hassan put through measures to increase Moroccan ownership and employment in companies doing business in Morocco and also redistributed farmland owned by foreigners to rural peasants.
In November of 1975, Hassan initiated the Green March, where 350,000 civilians marched into the former Spanish colony, later named Western Sahara, claiming that the territory was Moroccan. Morocco seized control over the northern two thirds of the territory and ignited a war with guerrillas of the Polisario Front, who had been fighting for independence from Spain. Libya and Algeria supported the guerrillas in their war against the Moroccan Army.
In 1976, the part of the Western Sahara occupied by Morocco the preceding year, was officially annexed. This act was not accepted by any foreign state.
In 1979, after the Mauritanian withdrawal from the southern part of the Western Sahara, Morocco annexed the rest, without taking control over the border town of La Gouera.
In 1984, the King signed an accord with Colonel Muammar el-Qaddafi that ended Libyan backing for the insurgents. Algeria, plagued by its own domestic problems, could give them only minimal support. Militarily, Morocco eventually triumphed, agreeing to a cease-fire with Polisario in 1991 that left the country in control of most of the region.
In 1991, Morocco was the only Maghrib country to send troops in support of the United Nations actions against Iraq in Kuwait.
King Hassan was adept at managing Arab-Israeli relations, and he liked to say he viewed Morocco's Jewish population, which numbered around 8,000, as a bridge between Israelis and Arabs. During World War II, his father, Mohammed V, had defied the Axis and protected his country's Jews. In 1956, the year of Moroccan independence, there were about 275,000 Jews in Morocco. Most were allowed to emigrate to Israel, Europe and elsewhere.
During the Arab-Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973, King Hassan contributed a nominal number of troops to support Egypt and Syria. Nevertheless, Hassan kept his channels open with Israel. In 1982, Hassan was the host of a meeting of Arab leaders in Fez where he pushed through agreement on a peace plan that called for the creation of a Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital but implicitly recognized Israel's right to exist. The plan, though rejected by Israel, laid the groundwork for the King to meet with Prime Minister Peres in 1986, a meeting that caused the King to be criticized by Arab leaders. Hassan responded by saying they had neither the ability to make war on Israel nor the willingness to make peace.
In September 1993, Morocco gave de facto recognition to Israel by welcoming Prime Minister Rabin, marking the first official visit by an Israeli leader to an Arab nation other than Egypt.
Despite such bold gestures, he was careful to play both sides of a conflict when necessary. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, he sent 1,300 troops to Saudi Arabia. Morocco was the only Maghrib country to send troops in support of the United Nations actions, a gesture that pleased the West. However, at the time, Hassan also expressed sympathy for the plight of Iraqi suffering under United Nations sanctions and ordered members of the Moroccan royal family to supervise the collection of supplies to ease their plight.
On July 23, 1999, Hassan died in Rabat from a heart attack. He was survived by his two sons (Sidi Mohammed and Moulay Rashid); his wife, Lalla Latifa, a commoner who was officially described as the "Mother of the Royal Children;" and three daughters. He was buried on July 25, 1999, in the mausoleum next to his father. The funeral was attended by many prominent world leaders and members of royal families, in addition to enormous crowds of Moroccans.
Hassan conducted politics with relative conservatism, but with emphasis on the market economy. His relations with neighboring countries (Algeria and Mauritania) were at times tense, and inside Morocco strict efforts were sometimes used to uphold the king’s position and the stability of the country.
Hassan’s politics were the most Western friendly in North Africa, and in many cases Hassan played an important role in international affairs. He was recognized for being one of the most important participants in the peace process in the Middle East that went on for more than ten of the last years of his rule.
Much of Hassan’s success at home, especially confronting the Islamists, rested in his family’s claim on being sharifs, descendants of Muhammad, a claim that was widely accepted in Morocco as well as abroad. Also, Hassan was careful in taking care of Moroccan heritage and religion. The world’s highest mosque, completed in 1993, was constructed under his initiative and was named for him.
On the political scene, an effective secret police and heavy handed reactions against political opposition, provided for political stability, or more precisely, to an absence of political activity. Anyone involved in politics in Morocco was forced to swear loyalty to Hassan II. Hassan II was, at times, severely criticized by organizations in other countries for what was seen as violations of human rights, political oppression and cruel punishment of prisoners. At the same time, Hassan was widely respected for keeping together a country which always had been ruled by strong, freedom loving tribes all over, but especially in the mountains.
Despite strong efforts by Hassan, Morocco saw relatively little economic progress. Indeed, there were several elements which made economic growth difficult: a strong increase in population, isolation from neighboring countries (i.e., Algeria) which had conducted politics quite different from Hassan’s, Europe which imposed strong limitations on economic relations with Morocco, and all the countries in the south which are separated by the Sahara desert and no continuous roads or railways.
Morocco, at the time of Hassan’s death, suffered from high unemployment, an educational system that does not meet the needs of Moroccan society, an unresolved situation in Western Sahara, and strong tensions inside the population. On the brighter side, Morocco, during the last decades of Hassan’s rule, developed an excellent infrastructure, and in some sectors, the Moroccan economy saw very positive growth, such as in information technology and tourism.
Hassan became fairly popular among his own population, even though many Moroccans felt that they had gained little from Hassan’s policies.
Muhammad Hassan see Hassan II
Moulay Hassan ben Mohammed Alaoui see Hassan II
Alaoui, Moulay Hassan ben Mohammed see Hassan II
In 1948, Hassan received his Baccalaureate. Hassan then began studying at the Institute of Higher Juridical Studies in Rabat, an institute that was part of the College of Law of Bordeaux, France.
In 1951, Hassan received his bachelor of arts degree in law.
On August 20, 1953, Hassan, along with the rest of the royal family, was exiled to Corsica, France. This was done in reaction to the king’s unwillingness to cooperate with the French colonial powers and his agitation for Moroccan independence. In January 1954, the royal family was forced to leave Corsica for Madagascar.
In 1954 and 1955, as rioting and guerrilla warfare increased, Prince Moulay's father regained his title. In November 1955, the royal family returned to Morocco, with the promise of Moroccan independence. Prince Moulay worked with his father, now Mohammed V, to maintain the monarchy's authority during a time of social discontent and the conflicting expectations of those who fought for Moroccan independence.
In 1956, France granted Morocco independence. In May 1956, Hassan was appointed commander of the Royal Armed Forces.
On July 9, 1957, Hassan was invested as crown prince, and became the commander in chief of the Moroccan army. At the time, the army was splintered between officers who had been loyal to the French and the former rebels. Prince Moulay kept the military occupied with civilian projects, and led it to victory against rebel Berber tribesmen in the Rif mountains in 1958.
However, in the shantytowns of Rabat, Casablanca and other cities, opposition simmered against the royal house. Though the monarchy looked to Paris and Washington for financial support, it needed to placate the leftist opposition. Declaring neutrality in the cold war, the Prince made overtures to Moscow and accepted Soviet military aid.
In 1960, Hassan was appointed minister of defense, and deputy premier. Hassan led the negotiations with France, Spain and the United States which ensured the withdrawal of foreign troops from Morocco.
On February 26, 1961, immediately following the death of Muhammad V of heart failure following what was expected to be a minor operation, Prince Moulay, who had been named Prime Minister in 1960, moved quickly to establish his rule. Hassan became the new king of Morocco, and on March 3, he was officially crowned as the new king. His Constitution, which was ratified in 1962, guaranteed freedom of the press and of religion, and created an elected legislature. However, the new Parliament, fractured by bitter rivalries, proved ineffectual. The new king retained the power to name the Prime Minister, disband the legislature and control the army.
In the mid-1960's, student agitation led to a wave of rioting and arrests. In response, in 1965, Hassan began to exercise authoritarian rule because of fear of the strength of the opposition. Subsequently, opposition figures fled abroad or were imprisoned. Some were executed. Mehdi Ben Barka, a prominent nationalist and opposition leader, was kidnapped in Paris and never seen again. The King's right-hand man, the Minister of Interior, Mohammed Oufkir, was linked to the disappearance, but the case was never pressed.
In June of 1965, Hassan dissolved Parliament and instituted a state of emergency, wielding absolute power until a new Constitution was adopted in 1970. The Constitution restored limited parliamentary government, but discontent simmered amid continuing poverty and official corruption.
In 1971, Hassan survived an attempt on his life. On July 10, 1971, Hassan invited some 400 prominent Moroccans, diplomats and other guests to his seaside palace of Skhirat near Rabat to celebrate his 42nd birthday. The festivities ended in a burst of gunfire as more than 1,000 muntinous troops attacked the palace, hurling grenades and spraying the grounds with small arms fire. Nearly 100 guests were killed and more than 125 wounded. The King hid in a bathroom. When the firing died down, Hassan re-emerged to find himself face to face with one of the rebel commanders. Keeping eye contact, Hassan recited the opening verse of the Qur'an, and the rebel knelt and kissed his hand. Loyal troops crushed the revolt, killing more than 150 rebels and capturing 900 others, many of them young military cadets. A dozen high-ranking, conservative officers were executed. Mohammed Oufkir was named Minister of Defense.
Hassan survived another attempt in 1972. On August 16, 1972, the King was returning from Paris aboard his private Boeing 727 when it encountered an unscheduled escort of four Royal Moroccan Air Force F-5 fighters. As the Boeing approached Rabat's airport, the fighters fired on the plane, knocking out an engine and scoring other hits. The Boeing landed safely, but the renegade pilots continued to strafe the runway until Hassan radioed them, saying the King had been killed. The rebels broke off the attack. Within hours, key participants in the coup were arrested and shot. One of their leaders proved to be General Oufkir, who apparently had been secretly involved in the earlier attack on the palace. According to official reports, the general committed suicide, but his body was supposedly found with several wounds. His widow and six children were placed under house arrest and were not released until February 1991, in an amnesty marking the King's thirty (30) years in power.
A third coup attempt in 1973 was averted and avenged.
As the 1970's unfolded, the King took several steps to dampen domestic turmoil. In 1973, Hassan put through measures to increase Moroccan ownership and employment in companies doing business in Morocco and also redistributed farmland owned by foreigners to rural peasants.
In November of 1975, Hassan initiated the Green March, where 350,000 civilians marched into the former Spanish colony, later named Western Sahara, claiming that the territory was Moroccan. Morocco seized control over the northern two thirds of the territory and ignited a war with guerrillas of the Polisario Front, who had been fighting for independence from Spain. Libya and Algeria supported the guerrillas in their war against the Moroccan Army.
In 1976, the part of the Western Sahara occupied by Morocco the preceding year, was officially annexed. This act was not accepted by any foreign state.
In 1979, after the Mauritanian withdrawal from the southern part of the Western Sahara, Morocco annexed the rest, without taking control over the border town of La Gouera.
In 1984, the King signed an accord with Colonel Muammar el-Qaddafi that ended Libyan backing for the insurgents. Algeria, plagued by its own domestic problems, could give them only minimal support. Militarily, Morocco eventually triumphed, agreeing to a cease-fire with Polisario in 1991 that left the country in control of most of the region.
In 1991, Morocco was the only Maghrib country to send troops in support of the United Nations actions against Iraq in Kuwait.
King Hassan was adept at managing Arab-Israeli relations, and he liked to say he viewed Morocco's Jewish population, which numbered around 8,000, as a bridge between Israelis and Arabs. During World War II, his father, Mohammed V, had defied the Axis and protected his country's Jews. In 1956, the year of Moroccan independence, there were about 275,000 Jews in Morocco. Most were allowed to emigrate to Israel, Europe and elsewhere.
During the Arab-Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973, King Hassan contributed a nominal number of troops to support Egypt and Syria. Nevertheless, Hassan kept his channels open with Israel. In 1982, Hassan was the host of a meeting of Arab leaders in Fez where he pushed through agreement on a peace plan that called for the creation of a Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital but implicitly recognized Israel's right to exist. The plan, though rejected by Israel, laid the groundwork for the King to meet with Prime Minister Peres in 1986, a meeting that caused the King to be criticized by Arab leaders. Hassan responded by saying they had neither the ability to make war on Israel nor the willingness to make peace.
In September 1993, Morocco gave de facto recognition to Israel by welcoming Prime Minister Rabin, marking the first official visit by an Israeli leader to an Arab nation other than Egypt.
Despite such bold gestures, he was careful to play both sides of a conflict when necessary. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, he sent 1,300 troops to Saudi Arabia. Morocco was the only Maghrib country to send troops in support of the United Nations actions, a gesture that pleased the West. However, at the time, Hassan also expressed sympathy for the plight of Iraqi suffering under United Nations sanctions and ordered members of the Moroccan royal family to supervise the collection of supplies to ease their plight.
On July 23, 1999, Hassan died in Rabat from a heart attack. He was survived by his two sons (Sidi Mohammed and Moulay Rashid); his wife, Lalla Latifa, a commoner who was officially described as the "Mother of the Royal Children;" and three daughters. He was buried on July 25, 1999, in the mausoleum next to his father. The funeral was attended by many prominent world leaders and members of royal families, in addition to enormous crowds of Moroccans.
Hassan conducted politics with relative conservatism, but with emphasis on the market economy. His relations with neighboring countries (Algeria and Mauritania) were at times tense, and inside Morocco strict efforts were sometimes used to uphold the king’s position and the stability of the country.
Hassan’s politics were the most Western friendly in North Africa, and in many cases Hassan played an important role in international affairs. He was recognized for being one of the most important participants in the peace process in the Middle East that went on for more than ten of the last years of his rule.
Much of Hassan’s success at home, especially confronting the Islamists, rested in his family’s claim on being sharifs, descendants of Muhammad, a claim that was widely accepted in Morocco as well as abroad. Also, Hassan was careful in taking care of Moroccan heritage and religion. The world’s highest mosque, completed in 1993, was constructed under his initiative and was named for him.
On the political scene, an effective secret police and heavy handed reactions against political opposition, provided for political stability, or more precisely, to an absence of political activity. Anyone involved in politics in Morocco was forced to swear loyalty to Hassan II. Hassan II was, at times, severely criticized by organizations in other countries for what was seen as violations of human rights, political oppression and cruel punishment of prisoners. At the same time, Hassan was widely respected for keeping together a country which always had been ruled by strong, freedom loving tribes all over, but especially in the mountains.
Despite strong efforts by Hassan, Morocco saw relatively little economic progress. Indeed, there were several elements which made economic growth difficult: a strong increase in population, isolation from neighboring countries (i.e., Algeria) which had conducted politics quite different from Hassan’s, Europe which imposed strong limitations on economic relations with Morocco, and all the countries in the south which are separated by the Sahara desert and no continuous roads or railways.
Morocco, at the time of Hassan’s death, suffered from high unemployment, an educational system that does not meet the needs of Moroccan society, an unresolved situation in Western Sahara, and strong tensions inside the population. On the brighter side, Morocco, during the last decades of Hassan’s rule, developed an excellent infrastructure, and in some sectors, the Moroccan economy saw very positive growth, such as in information technology and tourism.
Hassan became fairly popular among his own population, even though many Moroccans felt that they had gained little from Hassan’s policies.
Muhammad Hassan see Hassan II
Moulay Hassan ben Mohammed Alaoui see Hassan II
Alaoui, Moulay Hassan ben Mohammed see Hassan II
Hassan al-Askari
Hassan al-Askari (846-874). Eleventh imam of the Twelver Shi‘a (r.868-874). Hassan al-Askari lived almost his entire life under house arrest. He was 22 when he received the Imamate. During the six years of his tenure, he was severely restricted in his freedom and was often only able to speak to his followers through intermediaries. A controversy surrounded the birth of his son and successor, Muhammad al-Mahdi by a Byzantine slave, Narjis Khatun. Hasan Al-‘Askarī was 27, when martyred by Al-Mu'tamid (the Abbasid caliph) and was buried in Samarra.
Hasan al-Askari, whose ancestor was the Prophet Muhammad, was born in Medina to Ali al-Hadi and Saleel. His title al-Askari derives from the Arabic word Asker which means Army. Hasan's title was reflective of his living most of his life in a garrison town. He married a Byzantine princess who was the granddaughter of a Byzantine emperor, named Narjis.
Hasan al-Askari lived almost his entire life under house arrest in Samarra and under supervision of Abbasid caliphs. Despite his confinement as a prisoner, he was occasionally allowed to go to Baghdad, although it was under guard.
He was very knowledgeable and despite being confined to house arrest for almost his entire life, Hasan al-Askari was able to teach others about Islam, and even compiled a commentary on the Qur'an that would be used by later scholars.
Hasan al-Askari had one son, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who was six at the time of Hasan al-Askari's death and disappeared. Twelver Shi’as believe him to be the Mahdi; a very important figure in Islamic teaching who is believed will reappear at the end of time to fill the world with justice, peace and to establish Islam as the global religion.
Hasan al-Askari was four years old, when he was exiled to Samarra along with his father. He was placed under the caliph's observation at a point, which was the center of the armed forces.
Following the death of his father, Al-Mu'tamid (Abbasid caliph) imprisoned him. The piety and chastity of Hasan al-Askari attracted the attention of all the prisoners towards him, and made them all enticed and enchanted. The officials and agents of the caliph daily reported to the caliph as to his condition. Eventually, Hasan al-Askari was killed.
Hasan al-Askari died at the age of 27 by poison. Hasan al-Askari’s funeral was attended by many people, including the Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tamid who is accused of being secretly responsible for the poisoning of Hasan al-Askari.
At the funeral services for Hasan al-Askari, his brother Ja'far ibn Ali, who was counted as one of the helpers of the caliph, stood up to offer the funeral prayer upon the body of Hasan al-Askari. However, as he was about to start the prayers, the son of Hasan al-Askari, who was a minor, came forward and said to his uncle to step aside because only an Imam can lead the funeral prayer of another Imam. After the funeral prayer, Muhammad al-Mahdi went into the house and disappeared. This was the beginning of the Minor Occultation (ghaybat-e-sughra).
After the death of Hasan al-Askari, there was a sect of his followers who believed, as a result of shock and bewilderment, that he did not die, but had instead entered occultation and that he was the Mahdi. According to this sect, their beliefs were based upon the impossibility of the death of the Imam without an apparent known issue (this sect did not believe in the imamate or even existence of Muhammad al-Mahdi), since the earth can never be without an Imam according to their doctrine. This sect later separated into several other groups. Among them were those who admitted the death of Imam Hasan al-Askari, but added that he returned to life after a little while, in accordance with a tradition on the meaning of the word Qa’im, i.e. one who returns to life after his death. Also among them were those who claimed that he did die and did not return to life, but that he will return to life in the future. These groups incorporated some traditions (into their thought) from some early Waqifite Shiite movements.
Hasan al-Askari is buried in the mausoleum containing the remains of his father, Ali al-Hadi – The Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, Iraq. The site is considered a holy shrine for the Shi’a's, though a bomb blast on February 22, 2006 destroyed much of the structure, and another bomb blast on June 13, 2007 destroyed the two remaining minarets of the Al-Askariya Mosque.
Askari, Hassan al- see Hassan al-Askari
Hassan al-Askari (846-874). Eleventh imam of the Twelver Shi‘a (r.868-874). Hassan al-Askari lived almost his entire life under house arrest. He was 22 when he received the Imamate. During the six years of his tenure, he was severely restricted in his freedom and was often only able to speak to his followers through intermediaries. A controversy surrounded the birth of his son and successor, Muhammad al-Mahdi by a Byzantine slave, Narjis Khatun. Hasan Al-‘Askarī was 27, when martyred by Al-Mu'tamid (the Abbasid caliph) and was buried in Samarra.
Hasan al-Askari, whose ancestor was the Prophet Muhammad, was born in Medina to Ali al-Hadi and Saleel. His title al-Askari derives from the Arabic word Asker which means Army. Hasan's title was reflective of his living most of his life in a garrison town. He married a Byzantine princess who was the granddaughter of a Byzantine emperor, named Narjis.
Hasan al-Askari lived almost his entire life under house arrest in Samarra and under supervision of Abbasid caliphs. Despite his confinement as a prisoner, he was occasionally allowed to go to Baghdad, although it was under guard.
He was very knowledgeable and despite being confined to house arrest for almost his entire life, Hasan al-Askari was able to teach others about Islam, and even compiled a commentary on the Qur'an that would be used by later scholars.
Hasan al-Askari had one son, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who was six at the time of Hasan al-Askari's death and disappeared. Twelver Shi’as believe him to be the Mahdi; a very important figure in Islamic teaching who is believed will reappear at the end of time to fill the world with justice, peace and to establish Islam as the global religion.
Hasan al-Askari was four years old, when he was exiled to Samarra along with his father. He was placed under the caliph's observation at a point, which was the center of the armed forces.
Following the death of his father, Al-Mu'tamid (Abbasid caliph) imprisoned him. The piety and chastity of Hasan al-Askari attracted the attention of all the prisoners towards him, and made them all enticed and enchanted. The officials and agents of the caliph daily reported to the caliph as to his condition. Eventually, Hasan al-Askari was killed.
Hasan al-Askari died at the age of 27 by poison. Hasan al-Askari’s funeral was attended by many people, including the Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tamid who is accused of being secretly responsible for the poisoning of Hasan al-Askari.
At the funeral services for Hasan al-Askari, his brother Ja'far ibn Ali, who was counted as one of the helpers of the caliph, stood up to offer the funeral prayer upon the body of Hasan al-Askari. However, as he was about to start the prayers, the son of Hasan al-Askari, who was a minor, came forward and said to his uncle to step aside because only an Imam can lead the funeral prayer of another Imam. After the funeral prayer, Muhammad al-Mahdi went into the house and disappeared. This was the beginning of the Minor Occultation (ghaybat-e-sughra).
After the death of Hasan al-Askari, there was a sect of his followers who believed, as a result of shock and bewilderment, that he did not die, but had instead entered occultation and that he was the Mahdi. According to this sect, their beliefs were based upon the impossibility of the death of the Imam without an apparent known issue (this sect did not believe in the imamate or even existence of Muhammad al-Mahdi), since the earth can never be without an Imam according to their doctrine. This sect later separated into several other groups. Among them were those who admitted the death of Imam Hasan al-Askari, but added that he returned to life after a little while, in accordance with a tradition on the meaning of the word Qa’im, i.e. one who returns to life after his death. Also among them were those who claimed that he did die and did not return to life, but that he will return to life in the future. These groups incorporated some traditions (into their thought) from some early Waqifite Shiite movements.
Hasan al-Askari is buried in the mausoleum containing the remains of his father, Ali al-Hadi – The Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, Iraq. The site is considered a holy shrine for the Shi’a's, though a bomb blast on February 22, 2006 destroyed much of the structure, and another bomb blast on June 13, 2007 destroyed the two remaining minarets of the Al-Askariya Mosque.
Askari, Hassan al- see Hassan al-Askari
Hassan ibn al-Nu‘man al-Ghassani
Hassan ibn al-Nu‘man al-Ghassani (Hasan ibn al-Nu'man<?I>) (d. 699). Umayyad general who played a decisive part in the consolidation of the conquest of Ifriqiya by storming Carthage.
The Battle of Carthage was fought in 698 between a Byzantine expeditionary force and the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate. Having lost Carthage to the Muslims, Emperor Leontius sent the navy under the command of John the Patrician and the droungarios Tiberius Apsimarus. They entered the harbor and successfully recaptured it, as well as the city, in a stunning surprise attack. The Arab forces fled to Kairouan.
The emir Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was in the midst of pacifying the lands of Tamazgh, but withdrew from campaigning in the field to confront the renewed Roman challenge to the emerging caliphate. At Kairouan, he began plans to retake Carthage the following spring. It is estimated that he headed a force of 40,000 men. The Romans sent out a call for help to their traditional allies, the native Amazigh, and even to their enemies the Visigoths and the Franks. Despite having retaken the city, the Romans were in disarray due to the bitter in-fighting that characterized medieval Romania and sapped much of its strength. The previous exarch Gennadius had been a traitor to the Christian cause, defecting to the Muslims and becoming their vassal. The king of the Visigoths, Witiza, sent a reputed force of 500 warriors in order to help defend Carthage, perhaps to help check the rising Muslim threat which was lopping off large chunks of the Roman Empire, so close to Visigothic Hispania.
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, enraged at having to retake a city that had not resisted the Roman take over, offered no terms except to surrender or die. The emperor Leontius, infamous for his harsh reaction to failure, had also given his forces instructions of victory or death. The Romans did sally forth and engaged into battle with the Arabs directly, but were defeated. They later preferred to continue to incite revolt through the Amazigh princes. The Roman commander, John, decided to wait out the siege behind the walls of Carthage and let the Arabs exhaust themselves, since he could continue to be resupplied from the sea. however, the defenders were faced with Hasan's overwhelming force. Hasan's forces were deployed in ferocious attacks as his men continuously tried to scale the walls with ladders. The Arabs combined their land assault with an attack from the sea that caused John and Apsimarus to fear being trapped within the city. In the end, the determination of the defenders only resulted in the second and final great destruction of Carthage. The Romans retreated to the islands of Corsica, Sicily and Crete to further resist Muslim expansion and await the emperor's wrath.
John the Patrician was later murdered after a conspiracy at the hands of his co-commander, Tiberius Apsimarus. Tiberius Apsimarus then, instead of taking the step of returning to Africa to fight the Muslims, sailed instead to Constantinople. After a successful rebellion he rose to the throne as Tiberius III, and was later deposed by former emperor Justinian II, now known as the Rhinotmetus.
The conquest of North Africa by the forces of Islam was now nearly complete. Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was triumphant. Hasan met with trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702 Caliph Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. Now with a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated al-Kahina in the Battle of Tabarka, 85 miles (136 km) west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis, ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replaced Hasan. He pacified much of North Africa.
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man see Hassan ibn al-Nu‘man al-Ghassani
Hassan ibn al-Nu‘man al-Ghassani (Hasan ibn al-Nu'man<?I>) (d. 699). Umayyad general who played a decisive part in the consolidation of the conquest of Ifriqiya by storming Carthage.
The Battle of Carthage was fought in 698 between a Byzantine expeditionary force and the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate. Having lost Carthage to the Muslims, Emperor Leontius sent the navy under the command of John the Patrician and the droungarios Tiberius Apsimarus. They entered the harbor and successfully recaptured it, as well as the city, in a stunning surprise attack. The Arab forces fled to Kairouan.
The emir Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was in the midst of pacifying the lands of Tamazgh, but withdrew from campaigning in the field to confront the renewed Roman challenge to the emerging caliphate. At Kairouan, he began plans to retake Carthage the following spring. It is estimated that he headed a force of 40,000 men. The Romans sent out a call for help to their traditional allies, the native Amazigh, and even to their enemies the Visigoths and the Franks. Despite having retaken the city, the Romans were in disarray due to the bitter in-fighting that characterized medieval Romania and sapped much of its strength. The previous exarch Gennadius had been a traitor to the Christian cause, defecting to the Muslims and becoming their vassal. The king of the Visigoths, Witiza, sent a reputed force of 500 warriors in order to help defend Carthage, perhaps to help check the rising Muslim threat which was lopping off large chunks of the Roman Empire, so close to Visigothic Hispania.
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, enraged at having to retake a city that had not resisted the Roman take over, offered no terms except to surrender or die. The emperor Leontius, infamous for his harsh reaction to failure, had also given his forces instructions of victory or death. The Romans did sally forth and engaged into battle with the Arabs directly, but were defeated. They later preferred to continue to incite revolt through the Amazigh princes. The Roman commander, John, decided to wait out the siege behind the walls of Carthage and let the Arabs exhaust themselves, since he could continue to be resupplied from the sea. however, the defenders were faced with Hasan's overwhelming force. Hasan's forces were deployed in ferocious attacks as his men continuously tried to scale the walls with ladders. The Arabs combined their land assault with an attack from the sea that caused John and Apsimarus to fear being trapped within the city. In the end, the determination of the defenders only resulted in the second and final great destruction of Carthage. The Romans retreated to the islands of Corsica, Sicily and Crete to further resist Muslim expansion and await the emperor's wrath.
John the Patrician was later murdered after a conspiracy at the hands of his co-commander, Tiberius Apsimarus. Tiberius Apsimarus then, instead of taking the step of returning to Africa to fight the Muslims, sailed instead to Constantinople. After a successful rebellion he rose to the throne as Tiberius III, and was later deposed by former emperor Justinian II, now known as the Rhinotmetus.
The conquest of North Africa by the forces of Islam was now nearly complete. Hasan ibn al-Nu'man was triumphant. Hasan met with trouble from the Zenata tribe of Berbers under al-Kahina. They inflicted a serious defeat on him and drove him back to Barqa. However, in 702 Caliph Abd al-Malik strongly reinforced him. Now with a large army and the support of the settled population of North Africa, Hasan pushed forward. He decisively defeated al-Kahina in the Battle of Tabarka, 85 miles (136 km) west of Carthage. He then developed the village of Tunis, ten miles from the destroyed Carthage. Around 705, Musa ibn Nusayr replaced Hasan. He pacified much of North Africa.
Hasan ibn al-Nu'man see Hassan ibn al-Nu‘man al-Ghassani
Hassan ibn Thabit
Hassan ibn Thabit (d. 674). Traditionally known as the “poet laureate” of the Prophet, he is the most prominent of several poets who were associated with the rise of Islam.
Hassan ibn Thabit was an Arabian poet and one of the Sahaba, or companions of Muhammad. He was born in Yathrib (Medina), and was a member of the Banu Khazraj tribe.
In his youth, he traveled to Al-Hirah and Damascus, then settled in Medina, where, after the advent of Muhammad, he accepted Islam and wrote poems in defense of him. He was one of the best poets of the time, who would often win poetry competitions and the like. He was a prime example of how the early Muslims were able to use their pre-Islam talents for the cause of Islam.
Muhammad gave Hassan his slave Sirin, the sister of Muhammad's wife Maria al-Qibtiyya. The sisters were Egyptian Coptic Christians sent as gifts to Muhammad by Muqawqis, a ruler of Egypt, in around 628. Sirin bore Hassan a son, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hassan.
Hassan ibn Thabit (d. 674). Traditionally known as the “poet laureate” of the Prophet, he is the most prominent of several poets who were associated with the rise of Islam.
Hassan ibn Thabit was an Arabian poet and one of the Sahaba, or companions of Muhammad. He was born in Yathrib (Medina), and was a member of the Banu Khazraj tribe.
In his youth, he traveled to Al-Hirah and Damascus, then settled in Medina, where, after the advent of Muhammad, he accepted Islam and wrote poems in defense of him. He was one of the best poets of the time, who would often win poetry competitions and the like. He was a prime example of how the early Muslims were able to use their pre-Islam talents for the cause of Islam.
Muhammad gave Hassan his slave Sirin, the sister of Muhammad's wife Maria al-Qibtiyya. The sisters were Egyptian Coptic Christians sent as gifts to Muhammad by Muqawqis, a ruler of Egypt, in around 628. Sirin bore Hassan a son, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hassan.
Hatem
Hatem (George Hatem) (Shafick George Hatem) (Ma Haide) (Ma Hai-te) (1910-1988). Medical adviser in Communist China. Hatem was a Lebanese-American born in New York. Hatem went to Shanghai in 1933 after completing medical studies in Switzerland. Shaken by the turmoil and health conditions around him, he was persuaded by Agnes Smedley to visit Communist led guerrilla units in northwest China. Hatem made the trip with Edgar Snow in 1936 and never returned. In Yan’an, he married a Chinese actress, joined the Chinese Communist Party, and became the backbone of a new health care system in guerrilla-held areas during World War II. After the Communists came to power in 1949, Hatem helped to design health policies for the entire nation. He is noted in particular for leading a successful campaign to wipe out venereal disease in the 1950s. In later years, his chief focus has been on the eradication of leprosy. In 1986, Hatem received the Lasker Award in recognition of his efforts to conquer these diseases in China.
Ma Haide, born Shafick George Hatem, was a doctor and public health official in China from 1933 until his death.
Shafick George Hatem was born into a family of Syrian Jewish extraction, living in Buffalo, New York in 1910. His parents immigrated to the United States from the village of Hamana in the Metn mountains of Lebanon. He attended pre-med classes at the University of North Carolina and medicine at the American University in Beirut and the University of Geneva. While in Geneva, he, called by friends Shag, became acquainted with students from East Asia, and learned much about China. With financial help from the parents of one of his friends, he and several others set off to Shanghai to establish a medical practice to concentrate on venereal diseases, as well as basic health care for the needy. On August 3, 1933, he with colleagues, Lazar Katz and Robert Levinson, boarded a ship in Triest that took him to several ports in Asia, including Singapore and Hong Kong. On September 5, the three young American doctors landed in Shanghai.
Shafick George Hatem set up a practice in Shanghai, and changed his name to Ma Hai-te (Ma Haide). It was in Shanghai that he met the well known journalist, Agnes Smedley, who introduced him to Liu Ting, a member of the Communist Party of China. Disgusted by the corruption of Shanghai and the Chinese Nationalists, he closed his practice there three years later, and, with the help of the earlier established Communist contacts, was smuggled across Kuomintang lines to provide medical service to Mao Zedong's Communist troops in Xi'an (Sian).
In the summer of 1936, Ma travelled to the Communist headquarters at Yan'an, the capital of the Communist-controlled Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region. He was accompanied by the pioneering American journalist Edgar Snow. At Hatem's request, he was not explicitly mentioned in the first edition of Snow's famous book, Red Star Over China. He is there anonymously as a western-trained doctor who had examined Mao and determined he was not dying of some mysterious disease, which was the rumor at the time. He also became the first foreign member of the Chinese Communist Party.
As the war with Japan in started for real in 1937, Ma Haide sent requests to Soong Ching-ling, Agnes Smedley, and other notables to organize recruitment of foreign medical personnel for the communists' troops fighting the Japanese armies in northern China. He was among those meeting Norman Bethune when Bethune arrived in Yan'an in late March 1938, and was instrumental in helping Bethune get started at his task of organizing medical services for the front and the region.
Ma Haide was present at Yan'an, when the Dixie Mission, an American civilian and military group, arrived in July 1944. Ma was a source of surprise and comfort for many of the Americans when they met the American born physician. Many accounts of the mission make reference to Haide. Known commonly to the group as "Doc Ma," Ma periodically assisted Major Melvin Casberg in studies of the state of medical treatment in the Communist territories.
He remained a doctor with the Communists until their victory in 1949, and then became a public health official. He is credited with helping to eliminate leprosy and many venereal diseases in post-war China for which he received the Lasker Medical Award for his efforts in 1986. He was one of the few non-Chinese persons to hold a position of trust and authority in the People's Republic of China. His Chinese name can be loosely translated to mean,"Horse" and "Virtue From the Sea".
He died in China in 1988 and was buried at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery.
During his life, Ma Haide was honored in his city Hammana in Lebanon, where the main square of the city is named after him.
Tere is an extensive interview with him in the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's groundbreaking ninety minute documentary by Patrick Watson, The Seven Hundred Million (1964)
A film about him, showing an American doctor affirming Communist ideology is broadcast frequently in the People's Republic of China. Consequently, his story is familiar to all PRC Chinese.
George Hatem see Hatem
Ma Haide see Hatem
Haide, Ma see Hatem
Hatem, George see Hatem
Shafick George Hatem see Hatem
Hatem, Shafick George see Hatem
Hatem (George Hatem) (Shafick George Hatem) (Ma Haide) (Ma Hai-te) (1910-1988). Medical adviser in Communist China. Hatem was a Lebanese-American born in New York. Hatem went to Shanghai in 1933 after completing medical studies in Switzerland. Shaken by the turmoil and health conditions around him, he was persuaded by Agnes Smedley to visit Communist led guerrilla units in northwest China. Hatem made the trip with Edgar Snow in 1936 and never returned. In Yan’an, he married a Chinese actress, joined the Chinese Communist Party, and became the backbone of a new health care system in guerrilla-held areas during World War II. After the Communists came to power in 1949, Hatem helped to design health policies for the entire nation. He is noted in particular for leading a successful campaign to wipe out venereal disease in the 1950s. In later years, his chief focus has been on the eradication of leprosy. In 1986, Hatem received the Lasker Award in recognition of his efforts to conquer these diseases in China.
Ma Haide, born Shafick George Hatem, was a doctor and public health official in China from 1933 until his death.
Shafick George Hatem was born into a family of Syrian Jewish extraction, living in Buffalo, New York in 1910. His parents immigrated to the United States from the village of Hamana in the Metn mountains of Lebanon. He attended pre-med classes at the University of North Carolina and medicine at the American University in Beirut and the University of Geneva. While in Geneva, he, called by friends Shag, became acquainted with students from East Asia, and learned much about China. With financial help from the parents of one of his friends, he and several others set off to Shanghai to establish a medical practice to concentrate on venereal diseases, as well as basic health care for the needy. On August 3, 1933, he with colleagues, Lazar Katz and Robert Levinson, boarded a ship in Triest that took him to several ports in Asia, including Singapore and Hong Kong. On September 5, the three young American doctors landed in Shanghai.
Shafick George Hatem set up a practice in Shanghai, and changed his name to Ma Hai-te (Ma Haide). It was in Shanghai that he met the well known journalist, Agnes Smedley, who introduced him to Liu Ting, a member of the Communist Party of China. Disgusted by the corruption of Shanghai and the Chinese Nationalists, he closed his practice there three years later, and, with the help of the earlier established Communist contacts, was smuggled across Kuomintang lines to provide medical service to Mao Zedong's Communist troops in Xi'an (Sian).
In the summer of 1936, Ma travelled to the Communist headquarters at Yan'an, the capital of the Communist-controlled Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region. He was accompanied by the pioneering American journalist Edgar Snow. At Hatem's request, he was not explicitly mentioned in the first edition of Snow's famous book, Red Star Over China. He is there anonymously as a western-trained doctor who had examined Mao and determined he was not dying of some mysterious disease, which was the rumor at the time. He also became the first foreign member of the Chinese Communist Party.
As the war with Japan in started for real in 1937, Ma Haide sent requests to Soong Ching-ling, Agnes Smedley, and other notables to organize recruitment of foreign medical personnel for the communists' troops fighting the Japanese armies in northern China. He was among those meeting Norman Bethune when Bethune arrived in Yan'an in late March 1938, and was instrumental in helping Bethune get started at his task of organizing medical services for the front and the region.
Ma Haide was present at Yan'an, when the Dixie Mission, an American civilian and military group, arrived in July 1944. Ma was a source of surprise and comfort for many of the Americans when they met the American born physician. Many accounts of the mission make reference to Haide. Known commonly to the group as "Doc Ma," Ma periodically assisted Major Melvin Casberg in studies of the state of medical treatment in the Communist territories.
He remained a doctor with the Communists until their victory in 1949, and then became a public health official. He is credited with helping to eliminate leprosy and many venereal diseases in post-war China for which he received the Lasker Medical Award for his efforts in 1986. He was one of the few non-Chinese persons to hold a position of trust and authority in the People's Republic of China. His Chinese name can be loosely translated to mean,"Horse" and "Virtue From the Sea".
He died in China in 1988 and was buried at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery.
During his life, Ma Haide was honored in his city Hammana in Lebanon, where the main square of the city is named after him.
Tere is an extensive interview with him in the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's groundbreaking ninety minute documentary by Patrick Watson, The Seven Hundred Million (1964)
A film about him, showing an American doctor affirming Communist ideology is broadcast frequently in the People's Republic of China. Consequently, his story is familiar to all PRC Chinese.
George Hatem see Hatem
Ma Haide see Hatem
Haide, Ma see Hatem
Hatem, George see Hatem
Shafick George Hatem see Hatem
Hatem, Shafick George see Hatem
Hathout, Maher
Maher Hathout (January 1, 1936 – January 3, 2015) was a leading American-Muslim community leader of Egyptian origin, and widely regarded as the Father of the American Muslim identity. Hathout helped to found the Muslim Public Affairs Council and spoke extensively against Islamic radicalism.
Maher Hathout (January 1, 1936 – January 3, 2015) was a leading American-Muslim community leader of Egyptian origin, and widely regarded as the Father of the American Muslim identity. Hathout helped to found the Muslim Public Affairs Council and spoke extensively against Islamic radicalism.
Born in Cairo, Egypt in 1936, Hathout eventually moved to Buffalo, New York, and then to Los Angeles. He immersed himself in volunteering at the Islamic Center of Southern California (ICSC) as Chairman and Spokesperson. One of the most progressive mosques in the country – the ICSC had a woman on its board of directors in 1952 – the Islamic Center became a vehicle for a vision of Islam in America that is rooted in what Hathout called the definition of home: "Home is not where my grandparents are buried, but where my grandchildren will be raised."
Hathout stressed throughout his life that being a faithful Muslim was entirely compatible with being a proud American, and that Islam is a religion of coexistence, reason and moderation.
He was also among the pioneers of interfaith engagement within the American Muslim community, helping found the Religious Coalition Against War in the Middle East with Reverend George Regas and Rabbi Leonard Beerman in 1991. Hathout was a charter member of the Pacific Council on International Policy, the western partner of the Council on Foreign Relations, and served on the Board of Directors of the Interfaith Alliance and Claremont Lincoln University.
Over the years, Hathout was invited repeatedly to Capitol Hill and the State Department to address a variety of topics, such as "Islam and U.S. Policy," "Islamic Democracy," "Emerging Trends in Islamic Movements," and "The Future of the Middle East." He was also the first Muslim invited to give the invocation prayer at the Democratic National Convention in 2000.
Hathout was the recipient of many awards, including the George Regas Courageous Peacemaker Award, the Islamic Shura Council of Southern California’s Lifetime Service Award, the South Coast Interfaith Council Award for his life-long commitment to interfaith work and the Los Angeles County John Allen Buggs Award for excellence in human relations. He died of cancer in Duarte, California on January 3, 2015.
Hatta
Hatta (Mohammad Hatta) (August 12, 1902 - March 14, 1980). Vice-president of Indonesia (1945-1956). A Minangkabau born in Bukittinggi (West Sumatra) and educated in Dutch primary and secondary schools in Padang and Batavia, Hatta gained his early political experience as treasurer of the Jong Sumatranen Bond in Padang and Batavia. In 1922, he proceeded to tertiary studies in Rotterdam, where he remained for ten years. He was involved in converting the Indische Vereeninging, the Indies students’ society in the Netherlands, from a social club into the politically active Perhimpunan Indonesia (Indonesian Union). He became chairman in 1926 and contributed to the planning of a new nationalist party in the Indies, became involved with the League against Imperialism, was arrested in 1927, tried for subversive activities, and acquitted. He returned to Batavia in 1932.
In 1931, Hatta was instrumental in founding the Club Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia (National Education Club), arguing that educating nationalist cadres was more important than forming mass parties, such as the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), that could be easily suppressed by the authorities. Arrested in 1935, Hatta was exiled first to Boven Digul and then to Banda Naira. He was brought back to Java just before the Japanese invasion and served during the occupation regime as vice-chairman of its mass organizations. In August 1945, he, together with Sukarno, signed Indonesia’s Proclamation of Independence, and he became vice-president. In 1948, during a period of acute factional rivalry, Sukarno commissioned him to form a government, and as prime minister Hatta presided over negotiations with the Dutch and the transfer of sovereignty to the republic. Increasingly disturbed by political trends in the early fifties, he resigned as vice-president in December 1956.
A social democrat in political outlook, Hatta was a devout Muslim who believed in the possibility of a synthesis of Islam and socialism. He advocated the development of cooperatives as a solution to Indonesia’s economic problems. As vice-president, Hatta was seen as balancing Sukarno in a two-in-one unity (dwi-tunngal): Java-Sumatra, Javanism-Islam, passion-intellect, nation builder-administrator. After his resignation, Hatta remained a respected elder statesman until his death.
Mohammad Hatta see Hatta
Hatta (Mohammad Hatta) (August 12, 1902 - March 14, 1980). Vice-president of Indonesia (1945-1956). A Minangkabau born in Bukittinggi (West Sumatra) and educated in Dutch primary and secondary schools in Padang and Batavia, Hatta gained his early political experience as treasurer of the Jong Sumatranen Bond in Padang and Batavia. In 1922, he proceeded to tertiary studies in Rotterdam, where he remained for ten years. He was involved in converting the Indische Vereeninging, the Indies students’ society in the Netherlands, from a social club into the politically active Perhimpunan Indonesia (Indonesian Union). He became chairman in 1926 and contributed to the planning of a new nationalist party in the Indies, became involved with the League against Imperialism, was arrested in 1927, tried for subversive activities, and acquitted. He returned to Batavia in 1932.
In 1931, Hatta was instrumental in founding the Club Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia (National Education Club), arguing that educating nationalist cadres was more important than forming mass parties, such as the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), that could be easily suppressed by the authorities. Arrested in 1935, Hatta was exiled first to Boven Digul and then to Banda Naira. He was brought back to Java just before the Japanese invasion and served during the occupation regime as vice-chairman of its mass organizations. In August 1945, he, together with Sukarno, signed Indonesia’s Proclamation of Independence, and he became vice-president. In 1948, during a period of acute factional rivalry, Sukarno commissioned him to form a government, and as prime minister Hatta presided over negotiations with the Dutch and the transfer of sovereignty to the republic. Increasingly disturbed by political trends in the early fifties, he resigned as vice-president in December 1956.
A social democrat in political outlook, Hatta was a devout Muslim who believed in the possibility of a synthesis of Islam and socialism. He advocated the development of cooperatives as a solution to Indonesia’s economic problems. As vice-president, Hatta was seen as balancing Sukarno in a two-in-one unity (dwi-tunngal): Java-Sumatra, Javanism-Islam, passion-intellect, nation builder-administrator. After his resignation, Hatta remained a respected elder statesman until his death.
Mohammad Hatta see Hatta
Hausa
Hausa. The Hausa are a large and diverse West African group, collectively the most numerous Muslim people south of the Sahara. Although Hausa speakers are to be found throughout West Africa, most Hausa live in the northern states of Nigeria and, to a lesser extent, in the southern parts of the Niger republic.
A large part of the Hausa identity involves being Muslim. Nowhere in Hausaland is the impress of Islam absent. Prior to European conquest, the Hausa lived in walled city-states with a sharply hierarchical social organization reminiscent of the European feudal era. Sunni Islam first came to the region in the thirteenth century, brought by western Sudanic and Arab merchants. The Maliki school of law, still followed by the Hausa, dates from this early period. Almost as old as the Ajemic script -- a form of medieval Arabic writing -- which made the Hausa a literate people long before Europeans arrived. Thus, Islamic influence has a long history among the Hausa, particularly in the cities and among the ruling aristocracy.
The purity of that Islam, however, was questioned by a Fulani-speaking scholar and religious leader, Uthman dan Fodio, who in 1802 declared jihad against the traditional Hausa rulers. Ultimately, most of the Hausa aristocracy were replaced by followers of Uthman, and Islam was extended far to the south. The old Hausa states became emirates linked to a central caliphate in the new city of Sokoto, which today remains a center of Muslim learning and orthodoxy.
Many Fulani remain pastoral nomads, culturally distinct from Hausa, while many Hausa trace their origins to other, non-Fulani groups. Hausa-Fulani places undue emphasis on a single one of the streams whose modern confluence has created the Hausa. Actually, Hausa often have the same sort of hyphenated ethnic identity common in North America. Just as there are Italian-Americans and Irish-Canadians, so are there Fulani-Hausa, Gbari-Hausa and Kanuri-Hausa. At times, entire communities have, for various reasons, become Hausa (e.g., Gbari, Koro), adopting Hausa language and dress and certain of the most widespread Hausa customs, as well as the Muslim religion. Some Hausa like to distinguish between the seven traditional city states of the Hausa -- the Hausa Seven or Hausa Bakwai -- and all other Hausa, termed the “useless Hausa” or Hausa Banza. The historical truthfulness of this distinction is unclear.
Hausa itself is a term which refers to an ethnic group and language in West Africa (especially Niger and Nigeria). The Hausa people are now predominantly Muslim, dwelling mainly in the northern region of Nigeria. Islamic rites of slaughter and prayer were introduced in Kano by Mandingo missionaries in the fourteenth century. A further stage in the establishment of Islam was the arrival of the North African divine. Abd al-Karim al-Maghili in the fifteenth century Islamic literature, written in Hausa, is almost entirely in verse and religious in character. The Hausa language is second to Swahili as the language with the most speakers in Black Africa.
The Hausa are a racially diverse, but culturally fairly homogeneous, tribe numbering about 10 to 15 million people. Historically, organized into a group of feudal city-states, the Hausa were conquered from the 14th century on by a succession of West African kingdoms, among them, Mali, Songhai, Bornu, and Fula. They occasionally attained enough power and unity, however, to throw off foreign domination and to engage in local conquest and slave raiding themselves. In the opening years of the 20th century, with the Hausa on the verge of overthrowing the Fula, the British invaded northern Nigeria and instituted their policy of indirect rule. Under the British and Fula, the Hausa were supported in their political supremacy, and the Hausa-Fula ruling coalition, still dominant in northern Nigeria, was confirmed. The beginnings of this coalition were, however, much earlier, because the Fula governed by simply assuming the highest hereditary positions in the well-organized Hausa political system. Many of the ruling Fula have now become culturally and linguistically Hausa.
Although the earliest Hausas were animists, Islam is now the dominant organized religion among all but several thousand Hausa, called Maguzawa. Hausa culture manifest a greater degree of specialization and diversification than that of most of the surrounding peoples. Subsistence agriculture is the primary occupation of most, but other skills such as tanning, dyeing, weaving, and metalworking are also highly developed. Hausas have long been famous for wide-ranging itinerant trading, and wealthy merchants share the highest social positions with the politically powerful and the learned.
The Hausa language is the largest and best-known member of the Chadic sub-family of the Afro-Asiatic family of languagtes. Hausa has borrowed freely from other languages, especially Arabic, and is adapting well to the demands of contemporary cultural change. It has become a common language for millions of non-Hausa West Africans, and sizable Hausa-speaking communites exist in each major city of West or North Africa as well as along the trans-Saharan trade and pilgrimage routes. An extensive literature and several periodicals in Romanized script have been produced since the beginning of British rule. An Arabic based writing system, developed before the British conquest, is still in limited use.
Hausa. The Hausa are a large and diverse West African group, collectively the most numerous Muslim people south of the Sahara. Although Hausa speakers are to be found throughout West Africa, most Hausa live in the northern states of Nigeria and, to a lesser extent, in the southern parts of the Niger republic.
A large part of the Hausa identity involves being Muslim. Nowhere in Hausaland is the impress of Islam absent. Prior to European conquest, the Hausa lived in walled city-states with a sharply hierarchical social organization reminiscent of the European feudal era. Sunni Islam first came to the region in the thirteenth century, brought by western Sudanic and Arab merchants. The Maliki school of law, still followed by the Hausa, dates from this early period. Almost as old as the Ajemic script -- a form of medieval Arabic writing -- which made the Hausa a literate people long before Europeans arrived. Thus, Islamic influence has a long history among the Hausa, particularly in the cities and among the ruling aristocracy.
The purity of that Islam, however, was questioned by a Fulani-speaking scholar and religious leader, Uthman dan Fodio, who in 1802 declared jihad against the traditional Hausa rulers. Ultimately, most of the Hausa aristocracy were replaced by followers of Uthman, and Islam was extended far to the south. The old Hausa states became emirates linked to a central caliphate in the new city of Sokoto, which today remains a center of Muslim learning and orthodoxy.
Many Fulani remain pastoral nomads, culturally distinct from Hausa, while many Hausa trace their origins to other, non-Fulani groups. Hausa-Fulani places undue emphasis on a single one of the streams whose modern confluence has created the Hausa. Actually, Hausa often have the same sort of hyphenated ethnic identity common in North America. Just as there are Italian-Americans and Irish-Canadians, so are there Fulani-Hausa, Gbari-Hausa and Kanuri-Hausa. At times, entire communities have, for various reasons, become Hausa (e.g., Gbari, Koro), adopting Hausa language and dress and certain of the most widespread Hausa customs, as well as the Muslim religion. Some Hausa like to distinguish between the seven traditional city states of the Hausa -- the Hausa Seven or Hausa Bakwai -- and all other Hausa, termed the “useless Hausa” or Hausa Banza. The historical truthfulness of this distinction is unclear.
Hausa itself is a term which refers to an ethnic group and language in West Africa (especially Niger and Nigeria). The Hausa people are now predominantly Muslim, dwelling mainly in the northern region of Nigeria. Islamic rites of slaughter and prayer were introduced in Kano by Mandingo missionaries in the fourteenth century. A further stage in the establishment of Islam was the arrival of the North African divine. Abd al-Karim al-Maghili in the fifteenth century Islamic literature, written in Hausa, is almost entirely in verse and religious in character. The Hausa language is second to Swahili as the language with the most speakers in Black Africa.
The Hausa are a racially diverse, but culturally fairly homogeneous, tribe numbering about 10 to 15 million people. Historically, organized into a group of feudal city-states, the Hausa were conquered from the 14th century on by a succession of West African kingdoms, among them, Mali, Songhai, Bornu, and Fula. They occasionally attained enough power and unity, however, to throw off foreign domination and to engage in local conquest and slave raiding themselves. In the opening years of the 20th century, with the Hausa on the verge of overthrowing the Fula, the British invaded northern Nigeria and instituted their policy of indirect rule. Under the British and Fula, the Hausa were supported in their political supremacy, and the Hausa-Fula ruling coalition, still dominant in northern Nigeria, was confirmed. The beginnings of this coalition were, however, much earlier, because the Fula governed by simply assuming the highest hereditary positions in the well-organized Hausa political system. Many of the ruling Fula have now become culturally and linguistically Hausa.
Although the earliest Hausas were animists, Islam is now the dominant organized religion among all but several thousand Hausa, called Maguzawa. Hausa culture manifest a greater degree of specialization and diversification than that of most of the surrounding peoples. Subsistence agriculture is the primary occupation of most, but other skills such as tanning, dyeing, weaving, and metalworking are also highly developed. Hausas have long been famous for wide-ranging itinerant trading, and wealthy merchants share the highest social positions with the politically powerful and the learned.
The Hausa language is the largest and best-known member of the Chadic sub-family of the Afro-Asiatic family of languagtes. Hausa has borrowed freely from other languages, especially Arabic, and is adapting well to the demands of contemporary cultural change. It has become a common language for millions of non-Hausa West Africans, and sizable Hausa-speaking communites exist in each major city of West or North Africa as well as along the trans-Saharan trade and pilgrimage routes. An extensive literature and several periodicals in Romanized script have been produced since the beginning of British rule. An Arabic based writing system, developed before the British conquest, is still in limited use.
Hausa slaves
Hausa slaves. The Hausa Kingdom was an ancient black kingdom in northern Nigeria which converted to Islam in the thirteenth century (c. 1203). It flourished throughout the Middle Ages and, in about 1500, emerged as a powerful military state in West Africa. It was conquered by the Fula in 1870. At one time, the Hausa language was spoken throughout the western Sudan. In Brazil and elsewhere in tropical America, "Hausa" became a generic term applied to a large number of black slaves brought from northern Nigeria. They were distinguished by a stubby beard. The Hausa slaves led rigorous and even austere lives, refusing to mix with the other slaves. These blacks, members of Islam, were largely responsible for the slave uprisings in the Brazilian province of Bahia in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Hausas had powerful secret societies such as the Obgoni which generally followed the same lines as those in West Africa. Their language was spoken in Bahia during the entire nineteenth century and perhaps even in the eighteenth century. Though relatively few in number, their influence was considerable. After abolition in 1888, many Hausas were repatriated to the city of Ardra.
Hausa slaves. The Hausa Kingdom was an ancient black kingdom in northern Nigeria which converted to Islam in the thirteenth century (c. 1203). It flourished throughout the Middle Ages and, in about 1500, emerged as a powerful military state in West Africa. It was conquered by the Fula in 1870. At one time, the Hausa language was spoken throughout the western Sudan. In Brazil and elsewhere in tropical America, "Hausa" became a generic term applied to a large number of black slaves brought from northern Nigeria. They were distinguished by a stubby beard. The Hausa slaves led rigorous and even austere lives, refusing to mix with the other slaves. These blacks, members of Islam, were largely responsible for the slave uprisings in the Brazilian province of Bahia in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Hausas had powerful secret societies such as the Obgoni which generally followed the same lines as those in West Africa. Their language was spoken in Bahia during the entire nineteenth century and perhaps even in the eighteenth century. Though relatively few in number, their influence was considerable. After abolition in 1888, many Hausas were repatriated to the city of Ardra.
Haut Conseil de Securite
Haut Conseil de Securite (HCE). Temporary body that governed Algeria from January 12, 1992 until the end of 1993. HCE was established after the elections of 1991, where the Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) was close to winning. HCE was made up of five members, who in 1992 were: Khalid Nezzar, Ali Kafi, Ali Haroun, Tijani Heddam (the religious leader of the Great Mosque in Paris) and its chairman Muhammad Boudiaf. At first HCE declared that they should govern Algeria until the presidency of Chadly had finished towards the end of 1993. Boudiaf was shot in Annaba while giving a lecture, on June 29, by one of his security guards. Ali Kafi became the new leader after him. When the mandate of HCE ran out in 1993, Liamine Zeroual became president, and had the authority of HCE transferred to himself.
HCE see Haut Conseil de Securite
Haut Conseil de Securite (HCE). Temporary body that governed Algeria from January 12, 1992 until the end of 1993. HCE was established after the elections of 1991, where the Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) was close to winning. HCE was made up of five members, who in 1992 were: Khalid Nezzar, Ali Kafi, Ali Haroun, Tijani Heddam (the religious leader of the Great Mosque in Paris) and its chairman Muhammad Boudiaf. At first HCE declared that they should govern Algeria until the presidency of Chadly had finished towards the end of 1993. Boudiaf was shot in Annaba while giving a lecture, on June 29, by one of his security guards. Ali Kafi became the new leader after him. When the mandate of HCE ran out in 1993, Liamine Zeroual became president, and had the authority of HCE transferred to himself.
HCE see Haut Conseil de Securite
Hawwara
Hawwara. Name of a Berber people, who spread from Tripolitania to Fazzan, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Spain, Sicily, Egypt and the Sudan.
Hawwara. Name of a Berber people, who spread from Tripolitania to Fazzan, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Spain, Sicily, Egypt and the Sudan.
Hayatu ibn Sa’id
Hayatu ibn Sa’id (c.1840-1898). Mahdist figure in the Central Sudanic region of Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria. Hayatu ibn Sa’id was a great-grandson of the Fula Islamic revolutionary leader ‘Uthman dan Fodio. He was born in the Sokoto Caliphate in northern Nigeria.
After his early ambitions for high political office in Sokoto were frustrated, Hayatu ibn Sa’id left for Adamawa in the southeastern part of the empire. In 1881, when Muhammed ‘Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi in Sudan, Hayatu became his protégé in the central Sudan. Hayatu attracted many adherents to the town of Balda and maintained a large following throughout Adamawa.
The Sokoto empire, however, did not recognize Muhammed ‘Ahmad. By 1892, Zubeiru, the governor of Adamawa, felt he could no longer tolerate the presence of the Mahdists. Zubeiru challenged Hayatu on the battlefield. In the resulting battle, Hayatu was victorious. However, the victory only made the rulers of Sokoto’s other emirates more fearful of him.
Hayatu decided to throw in his lot with Rabeh Zubair, another Mahdist leader. Their combined forces conquered Bornu in 1893. Rabeh became the ruler of Bornu. Hayatu, frustrated with his subordinate role, attempted to break away.
In 1898, the forces of Hayatu and Rabeh met on the battlefield. Hayatu’s forces were defeated and Hayatu was killed.
Hayatu left a legacy of consciousness and concern over the coming of the Mahdi in Sokoto at a time when these had been on the verge of fading away. The Mahdist movement grew and became a rallying point for anti-British sentiment after Hayatu’s death.
Hayatu ibn Sa’id (c.1840-1898). Mahdist figure in the Central Sudanic region of Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria. Hayatu ibn Sa’id was a great-grandson of the Fula Islamic revolutionary leader ‘Uthman dan Fodio. He was born in the Sokoto Caliphate in northern Nigeria.
After his early ambitions for high political office in Sokoto were frustrated, Hayatu ibn Sa’id left for Adamawa in the southeastern part of the empire. In 1881, when Muhammed ‘Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi in Sudan, Hayatu became his protégé in the central Sudan. Hayatu attracted many adherents to the town of Balda and maintained a large following throughout Adamawa.
The Sokoto empire, however, did not recognize Muhammed ‘Ahmad. By 1892, Zubeiru, the governor of Adamawa, felt he could no longer tolerate the presence of the Mahdists. Zubeiru challenged Hayatu on the battlefield. In the resulting battle, Hayatu was victorious. However, the victory only made the rulers of Sokoto’s other emirates more fearful of him.
Hayatu decided to throw in his lot with Rabeh Zubair, another Mahdist leader. Their combined forces conquered Bornu in 1893. Rabeh became the ruler of Bornu. Hayatu, frustrated with his subordinate role, attempted to break away.
In 1898, the forces of Hayatu and Rabeh met on the battlefield. Hayatu’s forces were defeated and Hayatu was killed.
Hayatu left a legacy of consciousness and concern over the coming of the Mahdi in Sokoto at a time when these had been on the verge of fading away. The Mahdist movement grew and became a rallying point for anti-British sentiment after Hayatu’s death.
Haydar-i Amuli
Haydar-i Amuli (1320-after 1385). Early representative of Persian theosophy and a commentator of Ibn al-‘Arabi.
Haydar-i Amuli (1320-after 1385). Early representative of Persian theosophy and a commentator of Ibn al-‘Arabi.
Hayy ibn Yaqzan
Hayy ibn Yaqzan. Name of the principal character of two philosophical allegories, one by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and the other by Ibn Tufayl.
Hayy ibn Yaqzan. Name of the principal character of two philosophical allegories, one by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and the other by Ibn Tufayl.
Hazaras
Hazaras. One of Afghanistan’s most impoverished ethnic groups, yet most resistant to central government domination, is the Hazaras. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, they became virtually independent of government control.
Hazara origins are obscure. They appear to be descendants of two types of people: the “original” Indo-Iranian inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region, and the Mongol and Turkic groups who came to dominate it in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The term hazara itself suggests a Mongol-Persian blend. It means “thousand” in Farsi, but it is believed to be a Persianized equivalent for the Mongol word for “thousand,” minggan. The Mongols, at one time, designated a fighting unit by this term; as this unit consisted of a kinship unit providing a thousand horsemen, it meant, in fact, “tribe.” Presumably as the Hindu Kush Mongols acquired Farsi, the Farsi equivalent replaced the Mongol word. By the fifteenth century, hazara meant “mountain tribe,” and somewhat later on it came to mean specifically the group now called Hazara.
This shift in meaning corresponded with a retreat of the Mongol tribes into the mountainous area now known as the Hazarajat. They were gradually pushed out of the more desirable lowlands neighboring the Hindu Kush by competing tribal groups. From the south and west they were pressed by the Pushtun tribes; from the north by Turkmen tribes who liked to raid them for slaves. Eventually, the Hazaras rebelled in 1891; after two years of war they were totally crushed. Many were forced out of their homelands; most fled to Mashad and Quetta. Later the expatriate Hazaras were offered amnesty to return and were given land.
An important consequence of the war was the opening of the Hazarajat to Pushtun nomads, who grazed their flocks there during the summer. By loaning money and selling products from India, the nomads gained economic advantage over many Hazaras and acquired ownership of some of their lands. Impoverished Hazaras migrated to the cities, mainly Ghazni, Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif, to work as hired laborers in winter, returning in spring to farm their lands.
After 1978, when the Khalq Party took over the Afghanistan government, the Hazaras in diverse areas, without coordination, revolted, the earliest to revolt being those in the northern and eastern provinces. After the Soviet invasion in December 1979, the entire Hazarajat with the exception of a landing strip in Bamian, remained virtually independent of government control. Interest in tribal ties based on patrilineal descent appears to have been rekindled in this context. Subgroups within the Hazarajat, however, remained autonomous, each managing its own judicial and administrative affairs. An attempt in 1979 to unite the Hazaras, in which a prominent Sayyid was elected to be first of several rotating supreme commanders, failed.
The active resistance units among the Hazaras are called “fronts.” Those fronts that have seen the most military action against Afghan and Soviet military forces, because they lie along the routes of access into the Hazarajat, are Behsud (which controls the Unai Pass) and Sheikh Ali, Turkmen and Surkh-o-Parsa (because they controlled access to the Shibar Pass) and the Hazara communities of Turkestan, especially Chararkint and Dare-Suf.
Hazaras. One of Afghanistan’s most impoverished ethnic groups, yet most resistant to central government domination, is the Hazaras. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, they became virtually independent of government control.
Hazara origins are obscure. They appear to be descendants of two types of people: the “original” Indo-Iranian inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region, and the Mongol and Turkic groups who came to dominate it in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The term hazara itself suggests a Mongol-Persian blend. It means “thousand” in Farsi, but it is believed to be a Persianized equivalent for the Mongol word for “thousand,” minggan. The Mongols, at one time, designated a fighting unit by this term; as this unit consisted of a kinship unit providing a thousand horsemen, it meant, in fact, “tribe.” Presumably as the Hindu Kush Mongols acquired Farsi, the Farsi equivalent replaced the Mongol word. By the fifteenth century, hazara meant “mountain tribe,” and somewhat later on it came to mean specifically the group now called Hazara.
This shift in meaning corresponded with a retreat of the Mongol tribes into the mountainous area now known as the Hazarajat. They were gradually pushed out of the more desirable lowlands neighboring the Hindu Kush by competing tribal groups. From the south and west they were pressed by the Pushtun tribes; from the north by Turkmen tribes who liked to raid them for slaves. Eventually, the Hazaras rebelled in 1891; after two years of war they were totally crushed. Many were forced out of their homelands; most fled to Mashad and Quetta. Later the expatriate Hazaras were offered amnesty to return and were given land.
An important consequence of the war was the opening of the Hazarajat to Pushtun nomads, who grazed their flocks there during the summer. By loaning money and selling products from India, the nomads gained economic advantage over many Hazaras and acquired ownership of some of their lands. Impoverished Hazaras migrated to the cities, mainly Ghazni, Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif, to work as hired laborers in winter, returning in spring to farm their lands.
After 1978, when the Khalq Party took over the Afghanistan government, the Hazaras in diverse areas, without coordination, revolted, the earliest to revolt being those in the northern and eastern provinces. After the Soviet invasion in December 1979, the entire Hazarajat with the exception of a landing strip in Bamian, remained virtually independent of government control. Interest in tribal ties based on patrilineal descent appears to have been rekindled in this context. Subgroups within the Hazarajat, however, remained autonomous, each managing its own judicial and administrative affairs. An attempt in 1979 to unite the Hazaras, in which a prominent Sayyid was elected to be first of several rotating supreme commanders, failed.
The active resistance units among the Hazaras are called “fronts.” Those fronts that have seen the most military action against Afghan and Soviet military forces, because they lie along the routes of access into the Hazarajat, are Behsud (which controls the Unai Pass) and Sheikh Ali, Turkmen and Surkh-o-Parsa (because they controlled access to the Shibar Pass) and the Hazara communities of Turkestan, especially Chararkint and Dare-Suf.
Hazaraspids
Hazaraspids. Local dynasty in Persia with its capital at Idhaj. They ruled over parts of Luristan from 1148 to 1424, when the Timurids put an end to the dynasty.
Hazaraspid (1148-1424) was a local Kurdish dynasty that ruled the Zagros mountains region of southwestern Persia, essentially in Lorestān and the adjacent parts of Fārs which flourished in the later Saljuq, Ilkhanid, Muzaffarids, and Timurid periods. The founder of the dynasty Abu Tahir bin Muhammad was initially a commander of the Salghurid Atabaks of Fars and was appointed as the governor of Kuhgiluya, but eventually gained independence in Luristan and extended his realm as far as Isfahan and assumed the prestigious title of Atabak. His son, Malek Hazarasp fought a successful campaign against Salghurids and assisted Jalal-al-din Khwarezmshah in his struggle against the Mongols. Another Hazaraspid ruler Takla, accompanied Hulagu on his march to Baghdad, but deserted because of the murder of the last caliph. He was eventually caught and executed on Hulagu's order. Yusuf Shah I received Ilkhan Abaqa's confirmation of his rule and added Khuzestan, Kuhgiluya, Firuzan (near Isfahan) and Golpayegan to his domain. Afrasiab I attempted to extend his control to the coast of Persian Gulf but faced stiff opposition from the Mongols who defeated his army at Kuhrud near Kashan. He was reinstated by Ilkhan Gaykhatu but was executed by Gazan in October 1296.
The capital of the Hazaraspids was located at Idaj located in present-day northern Khuzestan. Yusuf Shah II annexed the cities of Shushtar, Hoveizeh and Basra in the first half of the fourteenth century. During the reign of Shams-al-din Pashang, the dynasty faced attacks from the Muzaffarids and the capital Idaj temporarily fell into their hands, until the occupiers had to retreat due to their own internecine fighting. In 1424, the Timurid King Shahrokh deposed the last Hazaraspid ruler Ghias-al-din thereby ended the dynasty.
A listing of the Hazaraspid rulers reads as follows:
1. Abu Tahir bin Muhammad (r. 1148-1203)
2. Malek Hazarasp (r. 1204-1248 )
3. Emad-al-din (r. 1248-1251)
4. Nosrat-al-din (r. 1252-1257)
5. Takla (r. 1258- )
6. Shams-al-din Alp Arghun
7. Yusuf Shah I (r. 1274-1288)
8. Afrasiab I (r. 1288-1296)
9. Nosrat-al-din Ahmad (r.1296- 1330)
10. Rokn-al-din Yusuf Shah II (r.1330-1340)
11. Mozaffar-al-din Afrasiab II (r.1340-1355)
12. Shams-al-din Pashang (r.1355-1378)
13. Malek Pir Ahmad (r.1378-1408)
14. Abu Saeed (r. 1408- 1417)
15. Shah Hussein (r.1417-1424)
16. Ghias-al-din (r.1424)
Hazaraspids. Local dynasty in Persia with its capital at Idhaj. They ruled over parts of Luristan from 1148 to 1424, when the Timurids put an end to the dynasty.
Hazaraspid (1148-1424) was a local Kurdish dynasty that ruled the Zagros mountains region of southwestern Persia, essentially in Lorestān and the adjacent parts of Fārs which flourished in the later Saljuq, Ilkhanid, Muzaffarids, and Timurid periods. The founder of the dynasty Abu Tahir bin Muhammad was initially a commander of the Salghurid Atabaks of Fars and was appointed as the governor of Kuhgiluya, but eventually gained independence in Luristan and extended his realm as far as Isfahan and assumed the prestigious title of Atabak. His son, Malek Hazarasp fought a successful campaign against Salghurids and assisted Jalal-al-din Khwarezmshah in his struggle against the Mongols. Another Hazaraspid ruler Takla, accompanied Hulagu on his march to Baghdad, but deserted because of the murder of the last caliph. He was eventually caught and executed on Hulagu's order. Yusuf Shah I received Ilkhan Abaqa's confirmation of his rule and added Khuzestan, Kuhgiluya, Firuzan (near Isfahan) and Golpayegan to his domain. Afrasiab I attempted to extend his control to the coast of Persian Gulf but faced stiff opposition from the Mongols who defeated his army at Kuhrud near Kashan. He was reinstated by Ilkhan Gaykhatu but was executed by Gazan in October 1296.
The capital of the Hazaraspids was located at Idaj located in present-day northern Khuzestan. Yusuf Shah II annexed the cities of Shushtar, Hoveizeh and Basra in the first half of the fourteenth century. During the reign of Shams-al-din Pashang, the dynasty faced attacks from the Muzaffarids and the capital Idaj temporarily fell into their hands, until the occupiers had to retreat due to their own internecine fighting. In 1424, the Timurid King Shahrokh deposed the last Hazaraspid ruler Ghias-al-din thereby ended the dynasty.
A listing of the Hazaraspid rulers reads as follows:
1. Abu Tahir bin Muhammad (r. 1148-1203)
2. Malek Hazarasp (r. 1204-1248 )
3. Emad-al-din (r. 1248-1251)
4. Nosrat-al-din (r. 1252-1257)
5. Takla (r. 1258- )
6. Shams-al-din Alp Arghun
7. Yusuf Shah I (r. 1274-1288)
8. Afrasiab I (r. 1288-1296)
9. Nosrat-al-din Ahmad (r.1296- 1330)
10. Rokn-al-din Yusuf Shah II (r.1330-1340)
11. Mozaffar-al-din Afrasiab II (r.1340-1355)
12. Shams-al-din Pashang (r.1355-1378)
13. Malek Pir Ahmad (r.1378-1408)
14. Abu Saeed (r. 1408- 1417)
15. Shah Hussein (r.1417-1424)
16. Ghias-al-din (r.1424)
Hazarfen Ahmed Celebi
Hazarfen Ahmed Celebi (Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi) was a legendary Ottoman aviator of 17th-century Constantinople (present day Istanbul), purported in the writings of traveller Evliya Çelebi to have achieved sustained unpowered flight.
The title "Hazarfen" was given by Evliya Celebi to Ahmed Celebi. The title means "a thousand sciences.The 17th century writings of Evliyâ Çelebi relate this story of Hazarfen Ahmed Çelebi, circa 1630-1632:
"First he practiced by flying over the pulpit of Okmeydanı eight or nine times with eagle wings, using the force of the wind. Then, as Sultan Murad Khan (Murad IV) was watching from the Sinan Pasha mansion at Sarayburnu, he flew from the very top of the Galata Tower and landed in the Doğancılar Square in Üsküdar, with the help of the south-west wind. Then Murad Khan granted him a sack of golden coins, and said: 'This is a scary man. He is capable of doing anything he wishes. It is not right to keep such people,' and thus sent him to Algeria on exile. He died there".—Evliyâ Çelebi
Hazmiriyyun
Hazmiriyyun. Moroccan religious brotherhood of the fourteenth through fifteenth centuries. Its main object was to Islamicize the Berbers who were inclined to form their own local brand of Islam. The Hazmiriyyun were a religious brotherhood Moroccan brothers founded by Abu Zayd Abd ar-Rahman (d. 1306 or 1308) and Abu Muhammad Abd Allah lah (d. 1280), son of 'Abd al-Karim al-Hazmirí.
