tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-40965861367370155842024-03-15T18:13:20.513-07:00The Muslim Compendiumskipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.comBlogger694125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-90589692015238718892024-02-16T23:31:00.000-08:002024-03-01T02:18:09.900-08:002024: Wafd - Wali<p> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wafd</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafd</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hizb al-Wafd</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Delegation Party</i>). Name of a political party organized in Egypt by Sa‘d Zaghlul (1857-1927).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1918, Zaghlul led a delegation (in Arabic, wafd) which demanded that the British protectorate in Egypt be abolished.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After much unrest, the British created some form of independence for Egypt in 1922, and the Wafd organized itself as a political party in 1923, calling for internal autonomy, constitutional government, civil rights, and Egyptian control of both the Sudan and the Suez Canal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After Egypt gained complete independence in 1936, Wafd governments were in constant conflict with the monarchy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1952, the Revolutionary Command Council under Nasser put an end to both the monarchy and the Wafd.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But it was revived in 1978.<br /><br />Wafd was the Egyptian nationalist political party that was the leading political organization of the country between World War I and the Nasser revolution (1918-1952), and central in the work for establishing Egyptian independence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The full name of the organization would be translated as “Egyptian delegation.”<br /><br />On November 13, 1918, Wafd was organized by Sa’ad Zaghlul in response to the end of World War I.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A delegation led by Zaghlul to the British high commissioner in Cairo demands a voice at the peace conferences following the World War, but this was refused.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From then on, three years of demonstrations and riots followed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Through these years there were talks between the British and Wafd.<br /><br />In March of 1919, the leaders of Wafd, Zaghlul, Ismail Sidqi and Hamid al-Basil were exiled for a short period.<br /><br />In September of 1923, following the partial independence of 1922, Wafd established itself as a political party.<br /><br />In February of 1924, Wafd won ninety percent of the seats in the First Chamber and formed a government.<br /><br />In 1927, Zaghlul died, and the Egyptian nationalist movement was divided, into Wafd, now led by Mustafa Nahas Pasha, and King Fu’ad.<br /><br />In 1931, the king sacked premier minister Nahas Pasha, and suspended the constitution of 1923.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In April of 1936, elections returned Wafd to power, and a Regency Council ruled on behalf of Egypt’s new king, Faruk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In August of 1936, Egypt became an independent kingdom.<br /><br />In 1937, Wafd formed the League of Wafdist Youth, which developed into a para-military organization, called the Blueshirts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In February of 1938, King Faruk was 18, and tensions between him and Wafd reach the same level as under his father.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He had prime minister Nahas Pasha dismissed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In February of 1942, during World War II, when King Faruk exercised Italian sympathies, the British forced him to elect Nahas Pasha for the job as prime minister.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The authority of this Wafd government gave them the power to start talks with other Arab states about closer ties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This eventually led to establishment of the Arab League in 1945.<br /><br />In January of 1950, Wafd won the general election with an overwhelming majority.<br /><br />In October of 1951, Wafd unilaterally abrogated the treaty with the British of 1936, which gave the British control over foreign interests and the safety of national minorities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also demanded a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal, and Wafd members took part in guerrilla attacks on their installations.<br /><br />In January of 1952, King Faruk dismissed the Wafd government, following riots in Cairo.<br /><br />In 1953, Wafd was dissolved together with all other parties by the Revolution Command Council.<br /><br />In February of 1978, Wafd was reconstituted as a consequence of the legalization of political parties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new party was referred to as Neo-Wafd.<br /><br />Wafd proved to be far more effective than other political groups to get popular support against British presence in Egypt, and exercised their power through demonstrations and riots in addition to participation in normal elections.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The core of Wafd’s supporters were the professional elite and the bourgeoisie.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Wafd called for the internal autonomy, constitutional government, civil rights and Egyptian control over the Sudan and the Suez Canal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wafd was an important political factor in all fields of the society, by controlling four daily and four weekly newspapers.<br /><br />Wafd formed the government of Egypt from 1924, and these governments were in constant conflicts with the ruling kings of Egypt, even after Egypt gained its independence in 1936.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fall of Wafd in the 1950's came from strong discontent among normal Egyptians as well as military leaders, for their inconclusive dealing with the continued British presence in Egypt.<br /><br />Easily the greatest factor contributing to popular disillusionment with the Wafd was the party's failure to boycott the Farouk government after it acceded to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The policies followed by the party during the Anglo-Egyptian crisis of the mid-1930s alienated many Egyptian nationalists - heretofore the single most reliable support bloc for the Wafd - and severed the party between its small but powerful accommodationist minority and its large but voiceless resistant majority. The failure of the Wafd to more aggressively oppose the continuation of the British presence left Egyptian politics devoid of a popularly legitimized leader or party.<br /><br />The leaders of the Wafd were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Saad Zaghlul Pasha 1919 to 1927<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mustafa el-Nahhas Pasha 1927 to 1952</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Wafd Party</b><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (</span><abbr style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 0px; color: #202122; cursor: help;" title="literal translation">literally</abbr><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-wrap: nowrap;"> "</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Delegation Party";</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Ḥizb al-Wafd</i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">) was a nationalist liberal political party in Egypt. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">It was said to be Egypt's most popular and influential political party for a period from the end of World War I through the 1930s. During this time, it was instrumental in the development of the 1923 constitution </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">and supported moving Egypt from dynastic rule </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">to a constitutional monarchy, </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">where power would be wielded by a nationally elected parliament.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The party was dissolved in 1952, after the 1952 Egyptian Revolution.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Wafd party was an Egyptian nationalist </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">movement that came into existence in the aftermath of World War I. Although it was not the first nationalist group in Egypt, it had the longest lasting impact. It was preceded and influenced by smaller and less significant movements which evolved over time into the more modern and stronger nationalist Wafd Party. One of these earlier movements was the Urabi Revolt led by Ahmed Urabi </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">in the early 1880s. This uprising fought against the ruling powers of the Egyptian Khedive </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">and European interference with Egyptian affairs. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Saad Zaghloul, the future creator and leader of the Wafd Party, was a follower of Orabi, and participated in the revolt.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The actual party began taking shape during World War I and was founded in November 1918. The original members included seven prominent figures of the Egyptian landed gentry and legal profession, including their leader Saad Zaghloul. They presented themselves with Zaghloul as their representative to Reginald Wingate, the British High Commissioner in Egypt and requested to represent Egypt at the Paris Peace Conference. They told Wingate that the main goal of the Wafd was the immediate termination of the British occupation of Egypt, but not of their intention to use the Paris Peace Conference to plead their case to the world powers. Zaghloul had created a delegation that involved representatives of most of the political and social groups of Egypt. Since it was full of so many different groups, it could not yet truly be considered a political party but more of a coalition. The Wafd had formed a constitution, outlining the ways that they wished to govern Egypt.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wafd was denied its request to go to London and speak with the home government, nor were they allowed to attend the Paris peace conference. The Wafd counteracted this by publishing memos and giving speeches ensuring that the delegations in Paris would know what the real Egyptian delegation desired. Zaghloul became a popular figure amongst the Egyptian public and was able to arouse popular discontent at Egypt's continued status as a British protectorate. British authorities arrested Zaghloul and three other leaders and had them exiled to the island of Malta in 1919. These deportations caused the opposite effect to what the British had hoped, and though attempts were made to keep it quiet, word spread and eventually led to a strike of law students. This strike became a demonstration with chants including "Long live Saad! … Long live Independence!" This started the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, and in the following days many more students began to strike, and the government and courts shut down entirely. Several riots and other disturbances broke out over Egypt, which were gradually suppressed by the British. The British then released Saad Zaghloul and his followers, hoping to create a rift in the Wafd leadership. However, the party became more unified, and the strikes continued.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wafd became a true party and one with widespread support of the people. The delegation made its way to Paris only to hear that United States President Woodrow Wilson supported the British Protectorate of Egypt. Although at this point the British were still in control, the Wafd was effectively leading the people of Egypt. In 1920, the British protectorate ended and the Wafd was placed in control of Egypt. The party rapidly became the dominant political organization in the country and was the governing party (albeit in a subordinate role to the executive power of the king) through most of the liberal period which came to an end with the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The three-decade period between Britain's nominal exit in 1922 and the nationalist revolution of 1952 saw the erection of an uneasy balance of power between the King, the British Residency, and the Wafd leadership, of which the Wafd was the least powerful. In the fragile stability of this triangle, the Wafd became Egypt's preeminent political organization, described by contemporary historians as "the first in the field," "the best organized," and "the strongest numerically." In the 1924 parliamentary election, the Wafd won 179 of 211 parliamentary seats. In 1936 it won 89% of the vote and 157 seats in Parliament.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">However, ties between the Wafd and the two other axes of power – the King and the Residency – were strained by the party's raison d'etre of opposing British intervention in Egypt and the King's collusion therein. King Fuad I's relations with the Wafd were described as "cool," and ties between the monarch and the largest political party further deteriorated after Fuad's son Farouk, who succeeded his father to the sultanate, signed an unduly quiescent treaty with the British in 1936. This alienated the party that had arisen primarily out of popular resentment of British control of Egypt and commanded popular support by associating itself most closely with the nationalist struggle for full Egyptian independence.</span></p><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The power vacuum resulting from the end of the British mandate over Egypt also precipitated a severe welfare provision vacuum which the new government failed to fill. By the 1930s, Egypt became a top destination for Christian missionary organizations, which funded and performed badly needed social services for the Egyptian middle and lower classes. Western Proselytism consortia beseeched their sponsors "to make heavy sacrifices so that Egyptian children could have a better education than their own parents could afford"; likewise, the proliferation of missionary-operated hospitals exposed the inadequacy of government-provided healthcare.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Further social unrest resulted from the government's inability to resolve metastasizing labor disputes threatening the Egyptian economy. The twin occurrences of the worldwide recession prompted by the Great Depression and a regional cotton crisis slowed Egypt's GDP growth through the late 1920s and most of the following two decades. The consequent instability in the labor market motivated early attempts at widespread unionization. Sensing a threat to its unrivaled power, the Wafd implemented numerous local labor conciliation boards, which were essentially toothless owing to the dearth of labor laws on a national level. Though the Wafd secured guarantees of a permanent national labor council, no significant labor laws were enacted; those that did gain passage were not enforced; and the Wafd was unable to effect any substantial change in the fiercely anti-union policy of the government.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">During the 1920s, the party's leadership had placed very low emphasis on the recruitment and mobilization of youth. Complacent in its dominant parliamentary position, the Wafd did not pursue innovative methods of youth organization until at least the mid-1930s, leaving it hopelessly behind future competitors such as the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, which had employed a far more effective local-franchising system since its inception in 1928.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">After student demonstrations against the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and the anti-labor policies of the government began to reveal cracks in the previously ironclad Wafd coalition, party leaders created a youth wing dubbed the "Blue Shirts." However, rather than capitalizing on the grassroots nature of the youth movements, the party instead tried to slot the Blue Shirts onto their own rung in the top-down Wafd hierarchy, presenting members with uniforms, badges, and a standardized salute – all under the motto "Obedience & Struggle." By June 1937, the Wafd feared that the Blue Shirts were becoming too militant, and thereafter further restricted their privileges. Having never fully embraced youth mobilization, by the close of the 1930s the uneasy Wafd leadership had essentially abandoned any efforts at intergenerational coalition-building.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Easily the greatest factor contributing to popular disillusionment with the Wafd was the party's failure to boycott the Farouk government after it acceded to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The policies followed by the party during the Anglo-Egyptian crisis of the mid-1930s alienated many Egyptian nationalists – heretofore the single most reliable support bloc for the Wafd – and severed the party between its small but powerful accommodationist minority and its large but voiceless resistant majority. The failure of the Wafd to more aggressively oppose the continuation of the British presence "left Egyptian politics devoid of a popularly legitimized leader or party."</span></p></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The collapse of the widespread popular support once commanded by the Wafd has been historically attributed to the combined embattlements of three distinct trends in Egyptian politics of the pre-revolutionary era. The party, along with all other Egyptian political parties, was banned </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">in January 1953 by Gamal Abdel Nasser </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">following the Free Officers Revolution of 1952. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The paper of the party, <i>Al Misri</i>, </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">was also closed in 1954.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hizb al-Wafd</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafd</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Delegation Party</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafd</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wafrani</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad al-Wafrani</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad al-Ifrani</i>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed al-Ifrani</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad al-Saghir ibn al-hajj Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah al-Ifrani al-Marakkushi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">El Ifrani</i>) (b. 1669/1670, Marrakesh, Morocco - d. 1727/1747 Marrakesh, Morocco).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moroccan biographer and historian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is best known as the author of the great chronicle of the Sa‘di Sharifs of Morocco, covering the period from 1511 to the end of the seventeenth century.<br /><br />Little is known about the life of El Ifrani. He was born in Marrakesh in 1669/1670, studied there and in Fez, and may have held a post in the entourage of Mulay Ismael Alawi, sultan of Morocco (1645-1727), on whose reign he wrote a now lost chronicle. Later in life, he became imam and khatib of the Ben Youssef Medrassa (also known as al-Yusufiyya) in Marrakesh. Certain sultans like Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah (1757-1790), were very strict in what the content of the education should be and even gave out manuals with regulations and works to be treated, but the teachers did as they pleased and that is how El Ifrani in the beginning of the 17th century wrote a work on the life of Ibn Sahl of Sevilla, an Andalusian poet of the 12th century while pretending to be teaching law and the hadith.<br /><br />A number of the works of El Ifrani have survived, the most important of which is his biographical dictionary of men of the eleventh century of the hijra: Safwat man intashar min Akhbar Sulaha Al Qarn Al Hadi Ashar, briefly called "Safwat man intashar". This work contains the biographies of saints who lived in 17th century Morocco. It is the classic biographical dictionary of that time. Also famous is his history of the Saadi Dynasty, Nuzhat al-hadi bi-akhbar muluk al-qarn al-hadi, written shortly before 1724. The work, among others, relates the conquest of the Songhai Empire by the Saadian sultans.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad al-Wafrani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad al-Ifrani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed al-Ifrani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad al-Saghir ibn al-hajj Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah al-Ifrani al-Marakkushi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">El Ifrani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafrani</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> (</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu ‘Abd Allah Wahb ibn Munabbih</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">) (</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">(</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu 'Abd Allah al-Ṣana'ani al-Dhimari</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">) (</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih ibn Kamil ibn Sirajud-Din Dhee Kibaar Abu-Abdullah al-Yamani al-San'ani</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">) (654-725/728/737).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Storyteller of Persian descent from Yemen.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">He is celebrated for his Book of the Military Campaigns, describing the Prophet’s campaigns.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">He was also an authority on the traditions of Jews and Christians.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wahb ibn Munabbih was a Muslim traditionist of Dhimar (two days' journey from Sanaa) in Yemen.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">He is counted among the Tabi‘in and narrated Isra'iliyat.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">On his father's side he was descended from Persian knights, while his mother was a Himyarite.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">His father, whose name was Munabbih ibn Kamil, had been converted to Islam in the lifetime of the Prophet, although a single authority, the "Al-Tibr al-Masluk", states that Wahb himself had turned from Judaism to Islam. His other biographers, however, including Al-Nawawi and Ibn Challikan, do not note that he was a Jew either in race or in religion. The fact that he was well versed in Jewish traditions, on which he wrote much, probably gave rise to the statement that he was a Jew, although he might have acquired his knowledge from his teacher Ibn 'Abbas.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Among Wahb's many writings may be mentioned his "Qiṣaṣ al-Anbiya'" ("Story of the Prophets") and "Kitab al-Isra'iliyat" ("Book of the Israelites," "Ḥajji Khalfa," iv. 518, v. 40). The former, which is believed to be his earliest literary work, is, as its title indicates, a collection of narratives concerning Biblical personages, the accounts being drawn from Jewish folk-lore though presented in Islamic guise. Thus, like Ibn 'Abbas and Ka'b al-Aḥbar, he was an authority for many legends narrated by Al-Ṭabari, Mas'udi, and others. The "Kitab al-Isra'iliyat," or "Book of Jewish Matters," is lost, but was apparently a collection of Jewish stories, many of them incorporated by a Jewish compiler into the "Arabian Nights." In the latter collection there are indeed many stories that bear the Jewish stamp, and some of them, such as the "Angel of Death," are ascribed to Wahb by the author of "Al-Tibr al-Masluk." There are also other stories which are attributed to Wahb, and many more which, from their Jewish character, may be traced to him. His Jewish learning may be illustrated by his opinion of the Shekinah (Arabic, "Sakinah") as stated by different Arabic authors.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><br /></span><span><div><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: small;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-wrap: wrap;">Wahb was made a judge during the reign of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-wrap: wrap;">Wahb's full name is given as "Abu 'Abd Allah al-Ṣana'ani al-Dhimari", or "Wahb ibn Munabbih ibn Kamil ibn Sirajud-Din Dhee Kibaar Abu-Abdullah al-Yamani al-San'ani.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-wrap: wrap;">Wahb also had a brother named Hammam ibn Munabbih, who is reported to have written 138 Hadiths in his <i>Sahifa.</i></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-wrap: wrap;">Wahb is said to have read more than seventy books on the prophets, and he was an extremely prolific narrator (<i>rawi</i>) of stories regarding Muhammad and Biblical personages. He had a son named Abdallah al-Abnawi. </p><div><br /></div><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-wrap: wrap;"><br /></p></div></span></sup></div><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu 'Abd Allah Wahb ibn Munabbih</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu 'Abd Allah al-Ṣana'ani al-Dhimari</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih ibn Kamil ibn Sirajud-Din Dhee Kibaar Abu-Abdullah al-Yamani al-San'ani</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahb ibn Munabbih, Abu ‘Abd Allah</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wahhabi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhabi</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhabiya</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahabi</i>). Arabic term which refers to a member of a fundamentalist Muslim sect founded by Muhammed ibn Abd al-Wahhab (Muhammad ‘Abd al-Wahhab).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Wahhabi is now the dominant sect in Saudi Arabia. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term Wahhabi has been used in West Africa to refer to militant anti-Western and anti-brotherhood movements, but it has no official tie to the Saudi doctrine.<br /><br />Wahhabiya (Wahhabism) is an Arabic term which refers to a fundamentalist movement that took its name from Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), an Islamic reformer from the 18th century of the Christian calendar, who was born in Arabia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab was influenced by Ibn Hanbal and Ibn Taymiyya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having provoked negative reactions among his entourage, ‘Abd al-Wahhab sought refuge with Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud, the ruler of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘Anaza from 1735 to 1765.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Saudi family, after taking power in Arabia, made Wahhabism the official state doctrine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahhabism is a fundamentalism that rejects all innovations, especially the brotherhoods and the cult of saints.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Although, the name “Wahhabiya” was given to the movement by its opponents, the adherents of the movement have preferred to call themselves “Unitarians” (muwahhidun), because of their fervid emphasis on the divine unity and their corresponding diligence in uncovering and rooting out all attitudes and acts which could be regarded as idolatry.<br /><br />Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab was born near Riyadh of a branch of the Tamim tribe and received a sound Islamic education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He traveled widely in search of learning and became expert in Sufi doctrine as well as in the more orthodox Islamic sciences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gradually his leanings became thoroughly Hanbalite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though he was often at the center of controversy, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s uncompromisingly strict religious views were accepted by the tribal chief Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud of nearby Dar‘iya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Religious authority was assumed by Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, political and military power by Ibn Sa‘ud.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This venture determined the future of the movement, which has continued to the present day as a powerful religio-political combination in Arabia, where the Sa‘udi dynasty and Wahhabi fundamentalism dominate absolutely.<br /><br />Dar‘iya soon became a theocratic state and the center of an increasingly vast territory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ibn Sa‘ud’s able son, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, continued military conquests, with Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab as religious guide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the reformer’s death the fortunes of the Sa‘udi dynasty continued to advance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its territorial dominion eventually included all of the Hejaz and Najd, and much of the rest of the Arabian Peninsula from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Wahhabis even went beyond Arabia in attacks on Damascus in Syria and Najaf in Iraq.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later there was a significant branch of the movement in India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The nineteenth century brought forth reversals to the Sa‘udi dynasty, and Ottoman punitive expeditions, under Egyptian command, finally overthrew the first Wahhabi empire in 1818.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But early in the 20th century, the Sa‘udis regained their old position under the great ‘Abd al-‘Aziz II, who was crowned king of Hejaz and Najd in 1930.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His descendants continue to rule the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<br /><br />Wahhabi reforms were aimed at excising all beliefs and behavior not soundly rooted in the pristine period of Islam, roughly the first three centuries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the Qur’an, the Sunna, and the four orthodox Sunni law schools -- fiqh -- were regarded as the normative sources for faith and order.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All else was viewed as bid‘a -- heresy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two classical figures had an especially forceful influence on the formation of Wahhabi doctrine: Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of the most conservative law school, and Ibn Taymiyya, the activist Hanbalite jurist, who wrote scathing denunciations of the veneration of saints.<br /><br />The central issue around which the Wahhabi reforms revolved was the popular cult of saints.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The building of mausoleums, especially of the mosque-tomb type, and visiting them for veneration and blessings were declared to be shirk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Early Wahhabis ruthlessly destroyed many shrines and stamped out all activities associated with them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They scrutinized all aspects of their fellow believers’ behavior, to judge it as deviant or pure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this they were reminiscent of the Kharijites of early Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were particularly hostile toward Sufism in all forms, although ironically they resembled a Sufi order in the way in which they organized into cooperatives for work and, when necessary, holy warfare.<br /><br />Centering all in absolute devotion to the one, transcendent, sovereign God, the Wahhabis declared that it is shirk to seek intercession of any creature with God (except for with Muhammad on the Last Day), or to utter any other than God’s name in prayer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is unbelief to deny divine predestination in all things, to interpret the Qur’an allegorically, or to claim knowledge of religion based on anything other than the Qur’an, the Sunna, or the consensus of the early orthodox legists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Further, the rosary was forbidden in the meditation on the Divine Names (although the fingers could be used to keep count, as the Prophet is reported to have done.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mosques were to be utterly simple and functional, with neither minarets nor decorations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even celebration of the Prophet’s birthday -- mawlid -- was forbidden.<br /><br />While the Wahhabis were relentless and at times cruel in their punishment of heresy -- and by their standards a very wide range of otherwise innocuous and commonplace attitudes and activities could be construed as such -- at bottom they were animated by an intense moral fervor which sought in all things to purify the total environment for the proper service of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arabian Islam had sunk to a low level, and both private and public behavior in the sacred pilgrimage centers of Mecca and Medina was frequently corrupt and unrestrained. The Wahhabi movement as reform movement began to revitalize Arabian Islam.<br /><br />The Wahhabi movement is significant also because it was a thoroughly indigenous, pre-modern reform within the bosom of Islam and not a reaction to Western ideas and incursions, as was the case with later movements across the Muslim world.<br /><br />In spite of its fanatical puritanism and early excesses, Wahhabism did inspire later reformers in widely dispersed regions to overcome the stagnating effects of blind conformity to outmoded views and to make new efforts in applying the Qur’an and the Sunna to changing times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a sense, Wahhabism can be characterized as an imposing Muslim expression of the “Protestant principle,” which is “guardian against the attempts of the finite and conditional to usurp the place of the unconditional in thinking and acting.”<br /><br />In more contemporary times, it is the Wahhabi movement which the oil riches of Saudi Arabia has allowed it to export to other lands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, Wahhabism has taken root in Sudan, Pakistan and Afghanistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Afghanistan, the disciples of Wahhabism, the group known as the taliban, succeeding in taking control of the country and, for a while, imposing Wahhabism throughout the land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahhabi doctrine was introduced into India by Sayyid Ahmad Brelwi (1786-1831).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He established a permanent center in Patna, marched against the Sikh cities of the Punjab and took Peshawar in 1830.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His adherents started an insurrection in Lower Bengal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1870, the older Muslim communities of India, both Shi‘a and Sunni, dissociated themselves from the Wahhabi doctrine of Holy War.<br /><br />The term wahhabism is not used by Wahhibis themselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term they use is muwahhidun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahhabism is a term given to them by their opponents, and is now used by both European scholars and most Arabs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The name wahhabims comes from their founder Abdul Wahhab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term muwahhidun is Arabic, and means unitarians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The muwahiduns started in 1912 to establish agricultural colonies, where people from different tribes lived together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The inhabitants of these colonies were known as “brothers” (Arabic, ikhwan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each colony could house from 1,000 to 10,000 inhabitants.<br /><br />The colonies were established near water sources, and were defended by arms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mud huts were built in place of traditional tents.<br /><br />The Prohibitions of Wahhabism are:<br /><br />1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No other object for worship but God.<br />2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Holy men or women must not be used to win favors from God.<br />3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No other name than the names of Allah may enter a prayer.<br />4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No smoking of tobacco.<br />5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No shaving of beard.<br />6.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No abusive language.<br />7.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rosaries are forbidden.<br />8.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mosques must be built without minarets and all forms of ornaments.<br /><br />The Commandments of Wahhabism are:<br /><br />1. All men must attend public prayer, salat.<br />2. Alms, zakat, must be paid from all income.<br />3. Butchers slaughtering animals according to halal must have their life styles scrutinized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is not sufficient that they perform the basic rituals correctly.<br /><br />The political fortunes of the Wahhābī were immediately allied to those of the Saʿūdī dynasty. By the end of the 18th century, they had brought all of Najd under their control, attacked Karbalāʾ, Iraq, a holy city of the Shīʿite branch of Islām, and occupied Mecca and Medina in western Arabia. The Ottoman sultan brought an end to the first Wahhābī empire in 1818, but the sect revived under the leadership of the Saʿūdī Fayṣal I. The empire was then somewhat restored until once again destroyed at the end of the 19th century by the Rashīdīyah of northern Arabia. The activities of Ibn Saʿūd in the 20th century eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 and assured the Wahhābī religious and political dominance on the Arabian Peninsula.<br /><br />Members of the Wahhābī call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn, “Unitarians,” a name derived from their emphasis on the absolute oneness of God (tawhid). They deny all acts implying polytheism, such as visiting tombs and venerating saints, and advocate a return to the original teachings of Islām as incorporated in the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth (traditions of Muḥammad), with condemnation of all innovations (bidʿah). Wahhābī theology and jurisprudence, based, respectively, on the teachings of Ibn Taymīyah and on the legal school of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, stress literal belief in the Qurʿān and Ḥadīth and the establishment of a Muslim state based only on Islāmic law.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b>Wahhabism</b> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Wahhabiyya</i></span>) is a reformist Islamic religious movement within Sunni Islam, based on the teachings of the 18th century Hanbali cleric Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (<abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> 1703–1792</span>). The term "Wahhabism" is primarily an exonym (name used by outsiders). The term was not used by Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab himself nor is it used by adherents to the movement, who typically prefer to be called "<i>Salafi</i>" (a term also used by followers of other Islamic reform movements). The movement's early followers referred to themselves as <i>Muwahhidun</i> (literally, "one who professes God's oneness" or "Unitarians"') derived from the term <i>Tawhid</i> ("the oneness of God"). The term "Wahhabi" has also been deployed by various outsiders as a sectarian and Islamophobic slur. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The reform movement was established in central Arabia and later in southwestern Arabia and is followed primarily in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. It opposed rituals related to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wali">veneration of Muslim saints</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziyarat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ziyarat">pilgrimages to their tombs and shrines</a>, which were widespread amongst the people of Najd. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his followers were highly inspired by the influential thirteenth-century <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanbali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> scholar <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-8" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[f]</a></sup> (1263–1328 C.E/ 661 – 728 A.H) who called for a return to the purity of the first three generations (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf</a></i>) to rid Muslims of inauthentic outgrowths (<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bidʻah">bidʻah</a></i>), and regarded his works as core scholarly references in theology. While being influenced by their Hanbali doctrines, the movement repudiated <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqlid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a></i> to legal authorities, including oft-cited scholars such as Ibn Taymiyya and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_al-Jawziyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya">Ibn Qayyim</a> (d. 1350 C.E/ 751 A.H).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-9" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[3]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wahhabism has been variously described as "orthodox", "puritan(ical)", "revolutionary",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[g]</a></sup> and as an Islamic "reform movement" to restore "pure <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> worship" by devotees. Socio-politically, the movement represented the first major Arab-led protest against the Turkish, Persian and foreign empires that dominated the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_world" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> since the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions</a> and the fall of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> in the 13th century; and would later serve as a revolutionary impetus for 19th-century <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Arabism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabism</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-11" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[h]</a></sup> In 1744, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab formed a pact with a local leader, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Saud" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad bin Saud">Muhammad bin Saud</a>, a politico-religious alliance that continued for the next 150 years, culminating politically with the proclamation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saudi Arabia">Kingdom of Saudi Arabia</a> in 1932. His movement would eventually arise as one of the most influential 18th century <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-colonial" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anti-colonial">anti-colonial</a> reform trends that spread across the Islamic World; advocating a return to pristine Islamic values based on the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur’an</a></i> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> for re-generating the social and political prowess of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>; and its revolutionary themes influenced numerous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revival" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revivalists</a>, scholars, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Islamism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamist</a> ideologues and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-colonialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anti-colonialism">anti-colonial</a> activists as far as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-12" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[i]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">For more than two centuries through to the present, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings were championed as the official form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the dominant creed in three Saudi states. As of 2017, changes to Saudi religious policy by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Prince_of_Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia">Crown Prince</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_bin_Salman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mohammed bin Salman">Mohammed bin Salman</a> have led to widespread crackdown on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamism">Islamists</a> in Saudi Arabia and rest of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_world" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>. In 2018 Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman denied that anyone "can define this Wahhabism" or even that it exists. By 2021, the waning power of the religious clerics brought forth by the social, religious, economic, political changes, and a new educational policy asserting a "Saudi national identity" that emphasize non-Islamic components have led to what has been described as the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Wahhabism#Post-Wahhabi_Era" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="History of Wahhabism">post-Wahhabi era</a>" of Saudi Arabia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-13" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[j]</a></sup> The decision to celebrate the "Saudi Founding Day" annually on 22 February since 2022, to commemorate the 1727 establishment of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emirate of Diriyah">Emirate of Dir'iyah</a> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Saud_Al_Muqrin" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin">Muhammad ibn Saud</a>, rather than the past historical convention that traced the beginning to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab#Emergence_of_the_Saudi_state" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">1744 pact</a> of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, have led to the official "uncoupling" of the religious clergy by the Saudi state.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-14" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[k]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Alongside its basic definition as an 18th century reformist / revivalist movement,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-16" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[l]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-17" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[5]</a></sup> the Wahhabi movement has also been characterized as a "movement for sociomoral reconstruction of society",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[6]</a></sup> "a conservative reform movement ... the creed upon which the kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded, and [which] has influenced Islamic movements worldwide",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EIMW-727_19-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-EIMW-727-19" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[7]</a></sup> and "a sect dominant in Saudi Arabia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>" with footholds in "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="India">India</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and elsewhere", with a "steadfastly fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in the tradition of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">ibn Hanbal</a>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GlasseIsl_20-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-GlasseIsl-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Supporters of the Wahhabi movement characterize it as being "pure Islam",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Commins-viv_22-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Commins-viv-22" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[m]</a></sup> indistinct from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafism">Salafism</a>, and in fact "the true <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi_movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafi movement">Salafist</a> movement"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moussalli_23-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Moussalli-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> seeking "a return to the pristine message of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad in Islam">Prophet</a>" and attempted to free Islam from "superimposed doctrines" and superstitions".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-24" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[11]</a></sup> They assert that the term used "most frequently used in countries where Salafis are a small minority" with the intent of "conjuring up images of Saudi Arabia" and foreign interference.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote_25-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GlasseIsl_20-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-GlasseIsl-20" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[8]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Esposito333_26-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Esposito333-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-27" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[14]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-28" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[15]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-29" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto4_30-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-auto4-30" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[17]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Opponents of the movement and what it stands for label it as "a misguided creed that fosters intolerance, promotes simplistic theology, and restricts Islam's capacity for adaption to diverse and shifting circumstances".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Commins-viv_31-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Commins-viv-31" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[18]</a></sup> The term <i>"Wahhabism"</i> has also become as a blanket term used inaccurately to refer to "any Islamic movement that has an apparent tendency toward misogyny, militantism, extremism, or strict and literal interpretation of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-32" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[19]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Abdallah al Obeid, the former dean of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_University_of_Madinah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic University of Madinah">Islamic University of Medina</a> and member of the Saudi Consultative Council, has characterized the movement as "a political trend" within Islam that "has been adopted for power-sharing purposes", but not a distinct religious movement, because "it has no special practices, nor special rites, and no special interpretation of religion that differ from the main body of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-threat-define_33-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-threat-define-33" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[20]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The term <i>"Wahhabi"</i> should not be confused to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibadi Islam"><i>Wahbi</i></a> which is the dominant creed within <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibadism">Ibadism</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-val_34-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-val-34" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[21]</a></sup> Since the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_empire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Colonial empire">colonial period</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabi_(epithet)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wahhabi (epithet)">Wahhabi epithet</a> has been commonly invoked by various external observers to erroneously or pejoratively denote a wide range of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islah">reform</a> movements across the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_world" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-35" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[22]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Algerians">Algerian</a> scholar Muhammad el Hajjoui states that it was Ottomans who first attached the label <i>"Wahhabism"</i> to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanbali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hanbali">Hanbalis</a> of Najd, hiring "Muslim scholars in all countries to compose, write and lie about the Hanbalis of Najd" for political purposes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-36" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[23]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-37" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[24]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-38" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[25]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-39" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[26]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-40" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[27]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-41" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[28]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Labelling by the term <i>"Wahhabism"</i> has historically been expansive beyond the doctrinal followers of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab</a>, who tend to all reject the label.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-42" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[29]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-43" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[30]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-auto3_44-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-auto3-44" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[31]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaykel2013231_45-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaykel2013231-45" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[32]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-46" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[n]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hence the term remains a controversial as well as a contested category. During the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Early modern period">colonial era</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> had commonly employed the term to refer to those <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">Muslim scholars</a> and thinkers seen as obstructive to their imperial interests; punishing them under various pretexts. Many Muslim rebels inspired by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Wali">Awliyaa</a></i> (saints) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tariqa">mystical orders</a>, were targeted by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> as part of a wider "Wahhabi" conspiracy which was portrayed as extending from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>. Despite sharing little resemblance with the doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, outside observers of the Muslim world have frequently traced various religious purification campaigns across the Islamic World to Wahhabi influence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-47" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[33]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-48" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[34]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Brill_Publishers_49-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Brill_Publishers-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-50" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[36]</a></sup> According to Qeyamuddin Ahmed:</span></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">"In the eyes of the British Government, the word <i>Wahabi</i> was synonymous with 'traitor' and 'rebel' ... The epithet became a term of religio-political abuse."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-51" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[37]</a></sup></span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In contemporary discourse, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a> widely employ the term <i>"Wahhabism"</i> to denote any manifestation of Islamic assertion in neighbouring Muslim countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Brill_Publishers_49-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Brill_Publishers-49" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[35]</a></sup> During the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-era" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Soviet-era">Soviet-era</a>, the Muslim dissidents were usually labelled with terms such as "Sufi" and "fanatic" employing <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamophobic" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamophobic">Islamophobic</a> discourses that aroused hysteria of an underground religious activists threatening the stability of the Marxist order. By the late 1990s, the <i>"Wahhabi"</i> label would become the most common term to refer to the alleged "Islamic menace" in state propaganda, while "Sufism" was invoked as a "moderate" force that balanced the "radicalism" of those who were being accused as <i>"Wahhabis"</i>. The old-guard of the post-Soviet states found the label useful to depict all opposition as extremists, thereby bolstering their 'strongman' credentials. In short, any Muslim critical of the religious or political status quo, came at risk of being labelled <i>"Wahhabi"</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-52" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[38]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to <a class="external text" href="https://gufaculty360.georgetown.edu/s/contact/00336000014TU7SAAW/m-reza-pirbhai" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: 0.857em; background: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/skins.vector.styles/images/link-external-small-ltr-progressive.svg?fb64d") right center / 0.857em no-repeat; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-right: 1em; text-decoration-line: none;">M. Reza Pirbhai</a>, Associate Professor of History at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>, notions of a <i>"Wahhabi conspiracy"</i> against the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Western world">West</a> have in recent times resurfaced in various sections of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_media" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Western media">Western media</a>; employing the term as a catch-all phrase to frame an official narrative that erases the concerns of broad and disparate disenchanted groups pursuing redress for local discontentment caused by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocolonialism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Neocolonialism">neo-colonialism</a>. The earliest mention of <i>"Wahhabism"</i> in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> had appeared in a 1931 editorial which described it as a "traditional" movement; without associating it with "militant" or "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Anti-Western sentiment">anti-Western</a>" trends. Between 1931 and 2007, <i>The New York Times</i> published eighty-six articles that mentioned the word <i>"Wahhabism"</i>, out of which six articles had appeared before September 2001, while the rest were published since. During the 1990s, it began to be described as "militant", but not yet as a hostile force. By the 2000s, the 19th century terminology of <i>"Wahhabism"</i> had resurfaced, reprising its role as the " 'fanatical' and 'despotic' antithesis of a civilized world. Reza Pirbhai asserts that this use is deployed to manufacture an official narrative that assists imperial purposes by depicting a coherent and coordinated international network of ideological revolutionaries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-53" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[39]</a></sup> Common <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberalism_(international_relations)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Neoliberalism (international relations)">neo-liberal</a> depictions of <i>Wahhabism</i> define it as a collection of restrictive dogmas, particularly for women, while <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoconservatism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Neoconservatism">neo-conservative</a> depictions portray "Wahhabis" as "savages" or "fanatics".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-54" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[40]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In general, the so-called <i>Wahhabis</i> do not like – or at least did not like – the term. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was averse to the elevation of scholars and other individuals, including using a person's name to label an Islamic school (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a></i>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote_25-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CRS08_55-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-CRS08-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-56" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[42]</a></sup> Due to its perceived negative overtones, the members of the movement historically identified themselves as "<i>Muwahhidun</i>", Muslims, etc. and more recently as <i>"Salafis"</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-57" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[43]</a></sup> According to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lacey" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Robert Lacey">Robert Lacey</a> "the Wahhabis have always disliked the name customarily given to them" and preferred to be called <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_People_of_Monotheism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="The People of Monotheism">Muwahhidun</a></i> (Unitarians).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacey198156_58-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacey198156-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup> Another preferred term was simply "Muslims", since they considered their creed to be the "pure Islam".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-elfadl-57_59-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-elfadl-57-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup> However, critics complain these terms imply that non-Wahhabi Muslims are either not monotheists or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafir" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kafir">not Muslims</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-elfadl-57_59-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-elfadl-57-59" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Algar-1_60-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Algar-1-60" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[46]</a></sup> Additionally, the terms <i>Muwahhidun</i> and Unitarians are associated with other sects, both extant and extinct.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-61" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[47]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Other terms Wahhabis have been said to use and / or prefer include <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_of_hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="People of hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a></i> ("People of the Hadith"), <i>Salafi dawah</i> ("Salafi preaching"), or <i>al-da'wa ila al-tawhid</i> ("preaching of monotheism" for the school rather than the adherents),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gold-21_62-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Gold-21-62" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[48]</a></sup> <i>al-Tariqa al-Muhammadiyya</i> ("the path of the Prophet Muhammad"),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mouline_2014_8_63-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Mouline_2014_8-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup> <i>al-Tariqa al-Salafiyya</i> ("the way of the pious ancestors"),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mouline_2014_8_63-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Mouline_2014_8-63" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[49]</a></sup> "the reform or Salafi movement of the Sheikh" (the sheikh being Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab), etc.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-65" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[51]</a></sup> Their self-designation <i>"People of the Sunnah"</i> was important for Wahhabism's authenticity, because during the Ottoman period only <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnism">Sunnism</a> was the legitimate doctrine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-66" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[52]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Other writers such as Quinton Wiktorowicz, urge use of the term <i>"Salafi"</i>, maintaining that "one would be hard pressed to find individuals who refer to themselves as <i>Wahhabis</i> or organizations that use <i>Wahhabi</i> in their title, or refer to their ideology in this manner (unless they are speaking to a Western audience that is unfamiliar with Islamic terminology; even then, its use is limited and often appears as <i>Salafi / Wahhabi</i>)".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote_25-2" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006235_footnote-25" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[12]</a></sup> A <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i> journalist writes that Saudis "abhor" the term <i>Wahhabism</i>, "feeling it sets them apart and contradicts the notion that Islam is a monolithic faith".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rigid_67-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-rigid-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup> Saudi King <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salman_bin_Abdulaziz_Al_Saud" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud">Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud</a> for example has attacked the term as "a doctrine that doesn't exist here" [in Saudi Arabia] and challenged users of the term to locate any "deviance of the form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia from the teachings of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Quran</a> and Prophetic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">Hadiths</a>".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-68" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[54]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-69" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[55]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingrid_Mattson" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ingrid Mattson">Ingrid Mattson</a> argues that "<i>Wahhbism</i> is not a sect: It is a social movement that began 200 years ago to rid Islam of rigid cultural practices that had [been] acquired over the centuries."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-70" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[56]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">On the other hand, according to authors at Global Security and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> the term is now commonplace and used even by Wahhabi scholars in the Najd,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LofC_71-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-LofC-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup> a region often called the "heartland" of Wahhabism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-72" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[58]</a></sup> Journalist Karen House calls <i>Salafi</i> "a more politically correct term" for <i>Wahhabi</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-73" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[59]</a></sup> In any case, according to Lacey, none of the other terms have caught on, and so like the Christian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, Wahhabis have "remained known by the name first assigned to them by their detractors".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacey198156_58-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacey198156-58" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[44]</a></sup> However, the confusion is further aggravated due to the common practice of various authoritarian governments broadly using the label <i>"Wahhabi extremists"</i> for all opposition, legitimate and illegitimate, to justify massive repressions on any dissident.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito201155_74-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201155-74" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[60]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">(Another movement, whose adherents are also called <i>"Wahhabi"</i> but whom were <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibaadi</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharijites" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a>, has caused some confusion in North and sub-Saharan Africa, where the movement's leader – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Wahhab_ibn_Abd_al-Rahman" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Rahman">Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Rahman</a> – lived and preached in the Eighth Century C.E. This movement is often mistakenly conflated with the <i>Muwahhidun</i> movement of Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-75" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-75" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[61]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi_movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafi movement"><i>Salafiyya movement</i></a> is a term derived from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf"><i>"Salaf al-Salih"</i></a>, meaning "pious predecessors of the first three generations"; it refers to a wide range of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islah">reform movements</a> within <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> across the world, that campaigns for the return of "pure" Islam, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revival" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic revival">revival</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad in Islam">prophetic</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i>, and the practices of the early generations of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">Islamic scholars</a>.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Many scholars and critics distinguish between <i>Wahhabi</i> and <i>Salafi</i>. According to analyst Christopher M. Blanchard, Wahhabism refers to "a conservative Islamic creed centered in and emanating from Saudi Arabia", while <i>Salafiyya</i> is "a more general puritanical Islamic movement that has developed independently at various times and in various places in the Islamic world".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CRS08_55-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-CRS08-55" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[41]</a></sup> However, many view Wahhabism as the Salafism native to Arabia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-76" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[62]</a></sup> Ahmad Moussalli tends to agree Wahhabism is a subset of Salafism, saying "As a rule, all <i>Wahhabis</i> are <i>salafists</i>, but not all <i>salafists</i> are <i>Wahhabis</i>."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Moussalli_23-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Moussalli-23" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[10]</a></sup> Quintan Wiktorowicz asserts modern Salafists consider the 18th-century scholar Muhammed bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and many of his students to have been Salafis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006216_77-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiktorowicz2006216-77" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[63]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to Joas Wagemakers, associate professor of Islamic and Arabic Studies at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Utrecht University">Utrecht University</a>, <i>Salafism</i> consists of broad movements of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> across the world who aspire to live according to the precedents of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf al-Salih</a></i>; whereas <i>"Wahhabism"</i> – a term rejected by its adherents – refers to the specific brand of reformation (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islah">islah</a></i>) campaign that was initiated by the 18th century scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab</a> and evolved through his subsequent disciples in the central Arabian region of Najd. Despite their relations with Wahhabi Muslims of Najd; other Salafis have often differed theologically with the Wahhabis and hence do not identify with them. These included significant contentions with Wahhabis over their unduly harsh enforcement of their beliefs, their lack of tolerance towards other Muslims and their deficient commitment to their stated opposition to <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqlid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a></i> and advocacy of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-78" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-78" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[64]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In doctrines of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqidah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aqidah">'Aqida</a></i> (creed), Wahhabis and Salafis resemble each other; particularly in their focus on <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></i>. However, the <i>Muwahidun</i> movement historically were concerned primarily about <i>Tawhid al-Rububiyya</i> (Oneness of Lordship) and <i>Tawhid al-Uloohiyya</i> (Oneness of Worship) while the <i>Salafiyya</i> movement placed an additional emphasis on <i>Tawhid al-Asma wa Sifat</i> (Oneness of Divine Names and Attributes); with a literal understanding of God's Names and Attributes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-79" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-79" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[65]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabi movement started as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revival" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic revival">revivalist</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islah">reform</a> movement in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> during the early 18th century, whose adherents described themselves as "<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muwahhidun" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muwahhidun">Muwahhidun</a></i>" (Unitarians).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-83" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[o]</a></sup> A young Hanbali cleric named <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab</a> (1703–1792 C.E/ 1115-1206 A.H), the leader of the <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muwahhidun" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muwahhidun">Muwahhidun</a></i> and eponym of the Wahhabi movement, called upon his disciples to denounce certain beliefs and practices associated with <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_of_saints" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cult of saints">cult of saints</a> as idolatrous impurities and innovations in Islam (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bid%27ah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bid'ah">bid'ah</a></i>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaykel2013_81-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaykel2013-81" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[67]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Esposito333_26-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Esposito333-26" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[13]</a></sup> His movement emphasized adherence to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i>, and advocated the use of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia-Wahhabis_80-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Encyclopedia-Wahhabis-80" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[66]</a></sup> Eventually, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab formed a pact with a local leader, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Saud" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad bin Saud">Muhammad bin Saud</a>, offering political obedience and promising that protection and propagation of the Wahhabi movement meant "power and glory" and rule of "lands and men".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-lacey-glory_84-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-lacey-glory-84" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[69]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">18th and 19th century European <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Historian">historians</a>, scholars, travellers and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Diplomat">diplomats</a> compared the Wahhabi movement with various Euro-American socio-political movements in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolutions</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Johann Ludwig Burckhardt">John Ludwig Burckhardt</a>, author of the well-received works “<i>Travels in Arabia</i>” (1829) and “<i>Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys</i>” (1830), described the <i>Muwahhidun</i> as Arabian locals who resisted Turkish hegemony and its “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_tactics" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Napoleonic tactics">Napoleonic</a>” tactics. Historian Loius Alexander Corancez in his book “<i>Histoire des Wahabis</i>” described the movement as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Asia">Asiatic</a> revolution that sought a powerful revival of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Civilization" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Arab Civilization">Arab civilisation</a> by establishing a new order in Arabia and cleansing all the irrational elements and superstitions which had been normalised through <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> excesses from Turkish and foreign influences. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Scottish people">Scottish</a> historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Napier_(historian)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mark Napier (historian)">Mark Napier</a> attributed the successes of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s revolution to assistance from “frequent interpositions of Heaven".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-85" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[70]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">After the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Unification of Saudi Arabia">Unification of Saudi Arabia</a>, Wahhabis were able spread their political power and consolidate their rule over the Islamic holy cities of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Medina">Medina</a>. After the discovery of petroleum near the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> in 1939, Saudi Arabia had access to oil export revenues, revenue that grew to billions of dollars. This money – spent on books, media, schools, universities, mosques, scholarships, fellowships, lucrative jobs for journalists, academics and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">Islamic scholars</a> – gave Wahhabi ideals a "preeminent position of strength" in Islam around the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kepel-petro_86-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Kepel-petro-86" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[71]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabi movement was part of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revival" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revivalist</a> trends of the 18th and 19th centuries; such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist</a> movement in 19th century <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senusiyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Senusiyya">Senussi</a> movement in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulani_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fulani War">Fulani</a> movement of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uthman_Dan_Fodio" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Uthman Dan Fodio">Uthman Dan Fodio</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraizi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Faraizi">Faraizi</a> movement of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haji_Shariatullah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Haji Shariatullah">Haji Shariatullah</a> (1784–1840) in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, the South Asian <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith#Indian_Jihad_Movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Mujahidin</a></i> movement of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Barelvi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Syed Ahmad Barelvi">Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi</a> (1786–1831) and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padri_War" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Padri War">Padri</a> movement (1803–1837) in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, all of which are considered precursors to the Arab <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafiyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafiyya">Salafiyya</a></i> movement of late nineteenth century. These movements sought an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islah">Islamic Reform</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajdid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tajdid">renewal</a> and socio-moral re-generation of the society through a direct return to the fundamental Islamic sources (<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>) and responded to the military, economic, social, moral, cultural stagnation stagnations of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_World" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic World">Islamic World</a>. The cause of decline was identified as the departure of Muslims from true Islamic values brought about by the infiltration and assimilation of local, indigenous, un-Islamic beliefs and practices. The prescribed cure was the purification of Muslim societies through a return to "true Islam". The key programmes of these revival movements included:</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"></p><figure class="mw-default-size" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; display: table; float: right; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; text-align: center;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"></figure><p></p><ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/skins.vector.styles/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Islam is the only solution;</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">A direct return to the<span> </span><i>Quran</i><span> </span>and the<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i>;</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Implementation of<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></i><span> </span>(Islamic law) is the objective;</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Those who opposed the reform efforts were enemies of God.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Members of the movement, like the early Muslims during the era of the<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf</a></i>, were trained in piety and military skills. These movements waged their reformist efforts through preaching and<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-87" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-87" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[72]</a></sup></span></li></ul><div><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></div><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabi movement was part of the overall current of various Islamic revivalist trends in the 18th century. It would be influenced by and in turn, influence many other Islamic reform-revivalist movements across the globe. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a> movement of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> was a Sunni revivalist movement inspired by the thoughts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shawkani" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Shawkani">al-Shawkani</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Barelvi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Syed Ahmad Barelvi">Syed Ahmad Barelvi</a>. They condemned <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqlid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a></i> and advocated for <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i> based on scriptures.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>"Ahl-i_Hadith"_88-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2021]]%3Csup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22%3E&#91;%3Ci%3E[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|%3Cspan_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2021)%22%3Epage&nbsp;needed%3C/span%3E]]%3C/i%3E&#93;%3C/sup%3E%22Ahl-i_Hadith%22-88" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[73]</a></sup> Founded in the mid-19th century in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bhopal">Bhopal</a>, it places great emphasis on hadith studies and condemns imitation to the canonical law schools. They identify with the early school of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a>. During the late 19th century, Wahhabi scholars would establish contacts with Ahl-i-Hadith and many Wahhabi students would study under the Ahl-i-Hadith <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">ulama</a></i>, and later become prominent scholars in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi</a> Wahhabi establishment.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacroix201360–62_89-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacroix201360%E2%80%9362-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2006145_90-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2006145-90" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[75]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabi and Ahl-i-Hadith movements both oppose <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> practices such as visiting shrines and seeking aid at the tombs of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_saints" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic saints">Islamic saints</a>. Both the movements revived the teachings of the medieval Sunni theologian and jurist, Ibn Taymiyya, whom they both consider a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaykh_al-Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shaykh al-Islam">Shaykh al-Islam</a>. Suffering from the instabilities of 19th-century Arabia, many Wahhabi <i>ulama</i> would make their way to India and study under Ahl-i-Hadith patronage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacroix201360–62_89-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacroix201360%E2%80%9362-89" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[74]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2006144–45_91-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2006144%E2%80%9345-91" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[76]</a></sup> After the establishment of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and the subsequent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_boom" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oil boom">oil boom</a>, the Saudi Sheikhs would repay their debts by financing the Ahl-i-Hadith movement. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia">Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Baz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Baz">Ibn Baz</a> strongly supported the movement, and prominent Ahl-i-Hadith scholars were appointed to teach in Saudi Universities.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2006147_92-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2006147-92" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[77]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-93" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[78]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">During the early 19th century, Egyptian Muslim scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jabarti" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti">Abd al Rahman al Jabarti</a> had defended the Wahhabi movement. From the 19th century, prominent Arab <i>Salafiyya</i> reformers would maintain correspondence with Wahhabis and defend them against Sufi attacks. These included <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_al-Alusi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mahmud al-Alusi">Shihab al Din al Alusi</a>, Abd al Hamid al Zahrawi, Abd al Qadir al Jabarti, Abd al Hakim al Afghani, Nu'man Khayr al-Din Al-Alusi, Mahmud Shukri Al Alusi and his disciple <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Bahjat_Athari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Bahjat Athari">Muhammad Bahjat Al-Athari</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_Qasimi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jamal al-Din Qasimi">Jamal al Din al Qasimi</a>, <a class="extiw" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81hir_al-Jaz%C4%81%27ir%C4%AB" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="fr:Tāhir al-Jazā'irī">Tahir al Jaza'iri</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhibb-ud-Deen_Al-Khatib" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhibb-ud-Deen Al-Khatib">Muhibb al Din al Khatib</a>, Muhammad Hamid al Fiqi and most notably, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_Rida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rashid Rida">Muhammad Rasheed Rida</a> who was considered as the "leader of Salafis". All these scholars would correspond with Arabian and Indian <i>Ahl-i-Hadith</i> scholars and champion the reformist thought. They shared a common interest in opposing various Sufi practices, denouncing blind following and reviving correct theology and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith studies">Hadith sciences</a>. They also opened <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zahiriyah_Library" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Zahiriyah Library">Zahiriyya library</a>, Salafiyya library, <i>Al Manar</i> Library, etc., propagating Salafi thought as well as promoting scholars like Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Hazm. Rashid Rida would succeed in his efforts to rehabilitate Wahhabis in the Islamic World and would attain the friendship of many Najdi scholars. With the support of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saudi Arabia">Third Saudi State</a> by the 1920s, a concept of <i>"Salafiyya"</i> emerged on a global scale claiming heritage to the thought of 18th-century Islamic reform movements and the pious predecessors (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf</a></i>). Many of Rida's disciples would be assigned to various posts in Saudi Arabia and some of them would remain in Saudi Arabia. Others would spread the <i>Salafi da'wa</i> to their respective countries. Prominent amongst these disciples were the Syrian Muhammad Bahjat al-Bitar (1894–1976), Egyptian Muhammad Hamid al-Fiqi (1892–1959) and the Moroccan <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Taqi-ud-Din_al-Hilali" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali">Taqi al-Din al-Hilali</a>(1894–1987).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-94" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[79]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2006[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_95-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2006[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2021]]%3Csup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22%3E&#91;%3Ci%3E[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|%3Cspan_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2021)%22%3Epage&nbsp;needed%3C/span%3E]]%3C/i%3E&#93;%3C/sup%3E-95" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[80]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-96" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[81]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-97" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[82]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Syrian">Syrian</a>-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Albanians">Albanian</a> Islamic scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Albani" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Albani">Al-Albani</a> (<abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> 1914–1999</span>), an avid reader of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Man%C4%81r_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Manār (magazine)">Al-Manar</a></i> and also student of Muhammad Bahjat al-Bitar (disciple of Rida and Al-Qasimi), was an adherent to the <i>Salafiyya</i> methodology. Encouraged by their call for hadith re-evaluation and revival, he would invest himself in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith studies">Hadith studies</a>, becoming a renowned <i>Muhaddith</i>. He followed in the footsteps of the ancient <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a></i> school and took the call of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i-Hadith</a>. In the 1960s, he would teach in Saudi Arabia making a profound influence therein. By the 1970s, Albani's thoughts would gain popularity and the notion of "<i>Salafi Manhaj</i>" was consolidated.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacroix201363–70_98-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacroix201363%E2%80%9370-98" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[83]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Original <i>Salafiyya</i> and its intellectual heritage were not hostile to competing Islamic legal traditions. However, critics argue that as Salafis aligned with Saudi promoted neo-Wahhabism, religious concessions for Saudi political patronage distorted the early thrust of the renaissance movement. The early <i>Salafiyya</i> leaders like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shawkani" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Shawkani">Muhammad ibn 'Ali al-Shawkani</a> (d. 1250–1835), Ibn al-Amir Al-San'ani (d.1225–1810), <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_Rida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Rashid Rida">Muhammad Rashid Rida</a> (d. 1354–1935), etc. advocated for <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i> (independent legal research) of Scriptures to solve the new contemporary demands and problems faced by Muslims living in a modern age through a pragmatic, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faq%C4%ABh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Faqīh">juristic</a> path faithful to the rich Islamic tradition. However, as other Salafi movements got increasingly sidelined by the Saudi-backed neo-Wahhabi <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi_movement#Purists" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafi movement">Purists</a>; the legal writings that were made easily accessible to the general public became often rigidly literalist and intolerant of the wider Sunni legal tradition, limited to a selective understanding of the Hanbalite works of Ibn Taymiyya and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Qayyim_al-Jawziyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya">Ibn Qayyim</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-99" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-99" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[84]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-100" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[85]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Syrians">Syrian</a>-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Albanians">Albanian</a> Salafi <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhaddith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhaddith">Muhaddith</a></i> <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Nasiruddin_al-Albani" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani">Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani</a> (d.1999) publicly challenged the foundational methodologies of the neo-Wahhabite establishment. According to Albani, although Wahhabis doctrinally professed exclusive adherence to the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i>, the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>, and the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijma" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijma">Ijma</a></i> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf al-salih</a>; in practice they almost solely relied on Hanbali jurisprudence for their <i>fatwas</i>—acting therefore as undeclared partisans of a particular <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madhhab">madhab</a></i>. As the most prominent scholar who championed anti-madhab doctrines in the 20th century, Albani held that adherence to a madhab was a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bid%27ah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bid'ah">bid'ah</a></i> (religious innovation). Albani went as far as to castigate Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a "Salafi in creed, but not in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></i>". He strongly attacked Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab on several points; claiming that the latter was not a <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujtahid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mujtahid">mujtahid</a> in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a> and accused him of imitating the Hanbali school. Albani's outspoken criticism embarrassed the Saudi clergy, who finally expelled him from the Kingdom in 1963 when he issued a <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a></i> permitting women to uncover their face, which ran counter to Hanbali jurisprudence and Saudi standards.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Meijer_2014_43_101-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Meijer_2014_43-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[86]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-102" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[87]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-103" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-103" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[88]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-104" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-104" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[89]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lacroix_2008_6–7_105-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Lacroix_2008_6%E2%80%937-105" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[90]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In addition, Albani would also criticise Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab for his weakness in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith studies"><i>hadith</i> sciences</a>. He distinguished between <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafism">Salafism</a> and Wahhabism, criticizing the latter while supporting the former. He had a complex relationship to each movement. Although he praised Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab in general terms for his reformist efforts and contributions to the Muslim <i>Ummah</i>, Albani nonetheless censured his later followers for their harshness in <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takfir" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Takfir">Takfir</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Meijer2009_106-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Meijer2009-106" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[91]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span title="Page / location: 220">: 220 </span></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In spite of this, Albani's efforts at <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith studies">hadith</a></i> revivalism and his claims of being more faithful to the spirit of Wahhabism than Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab himself; made the former's ideas highly popular amongst Salafi religious students across the World, including Saudi Arabia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Meijer_2014_43_101-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Meijer_2014_43-101" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[86]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lacroix_2008_6–7_105-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Lacroix_2008_6%E2%80%937-105" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[90]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Schools of Islamic theology">theology</a>, Wahhabism is closely aligned with the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Athari">Athari</a> (traditionalist) school which represents the prevalent theological position of the Hanbali <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madhhab">legal school</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-107" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-108" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[93]</a></sup> Athari theology is characterized by reliance on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahir_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Zahir (Islam)">zahir</a> (apparent or literal) meaning of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i>, and opposition to rational argumentation in matters of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqidah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aqidah">'Aqidah</a></i> (creed) favored by <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash%27ari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ash'ari">Ash'arite</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maturidi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Maturidi">Maturidite</a> theologies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-109" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[94]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-110" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[95]</a></sup> However, Wahhabis diverged in some points of theology from other Athari movements.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TCSI2010:_482_111-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-TCSI2010:_482-111" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[96]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab</a> did not view the issue of God's Attributes and Names as a part of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tawhid">Tawhīd</a></i> (monotheism), rather he viewed it in the broader context of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqidah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Aqidah">aqāʾid</a></i> (theology). While his treatises strongly emphasised <i>Tawhid al-ulūhiyya</i> (monotheism in Worship), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not give prominence to the theology of God's Names and Attributes that was central to Ibn Taymiyya and the Salafi movement.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-112" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-112" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[97]</a></sup> Following this approach, the early Wahhabi scholars had not elucidated the details of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Athari">Athari</a> theology such as Divine Attributes and other creedal doctrines. Influenced by the scholars of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafiyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafiyya">Salafiyya</a> movement, the later Wahhabis would revive Athari theological polemics beginning from the mid-twentieth century; which lead to charges of anthropomorphism against them by opponents such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Zahid_al-Kawthari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari">Al-Kawthari</a>. By contrast, the creedal treatises of early Wahhabis were mostly restricted to upholding Tawhid and condemning various practices of saint veneration which they considered as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shirk (Islam)">shirk</a> (polytheism).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-113" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[98]</a></sup> They also staunchly opposed <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqlid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a></i> and advocated for <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-114" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-114" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[99]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hammad Ibn 'Atiq (d. 1883/ 1301 A.H) was one of the first Wahhabi scholars who seriously concerned himself with the question of God's Names and Attributes; a topic largely neglected by the previous Wahhabi scholars whose primary focus was limited to condemning <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatry_in_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Idolatry in Islam">idolatry</a> and necrolatry. Ibn 'Atiq established correspondence with <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_theology_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Traditionalist theology (Islam)">Athari</a> scholars like Sīddïq Hasān Khán, an influential scholar of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a></i> movement in the Islamic principality of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_State" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bhopal State">Bhopal</a>. In his letters, Ibn 'Atiq praised <i>Nayl al-Maram</i>, Khan's Salafi commentary on <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i>, which was published via prints in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. He solicited Khan to accept his son as his disciple and requested Khan to produce and send more commentaries on the various treatises of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim. Khan accepted his request and embarked on a detailed study of the treatises of both the scholars. Hammad's son Sa'd ibn Atiq would study under Khan and various <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_theology_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Traditionalist theology (Islam)">traditionalist</a> theologians in India. Thus, various Wahhabi scholars began making efforts to appropriate Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legacy into mainstream Sunni Islam by appropriating them to the broader traditionalist scholarship active across the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, etc.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-115" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-115" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[100]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanafi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hanafi">Hanafite</a> scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Izz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Abi al-Izz">Ibn Abi al-Izz</a>'s <i><a class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharh_(disambiguation)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharh (disambiguation)">sharh</a></i> (explanation) on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Tahawi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Tahawi">Al-Tahawi</a>'s creedal treatise <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Aqida_al-Tahawiyya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al-Aqida al-Tahawiyya">Al-Aqida al-Tahawiyya</a></i> proved popular with the later adherents of the <i>Muwahidun</i> movement; who regarded it as a true representation of the work, free from <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maturidi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Maturidi">Maturidi</a> influences and as a standard theological reference for the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athari" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Athari">Athari</a> creed. A number of Salafi and Wahhabi scholars have produced super-commentaries and annotations on the <i>sharh</i>, including <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Baz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz">Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Nasiruddin_al-Albani" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani">Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleh_Al-Fawzan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saleh Al-Fawzan">Saleh Al-Fawzan</a>, etc. and is taught as a standard text at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_University_of_Madinah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic University of Madinah">Islamic University of Madinah</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Thahawiyah_116-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Thahawiyah-116" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[101]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">describes the "pivotal idea" in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teaching as being that "Muslims who disagreed with his definition of monotheism were not ... misguided Muslims, but outside the pale of Islam altogether." This put Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teaching at odds with that of those Muslims who argued that the "<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahada" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shahada">shahada</a></i>" (i.e., the testimony of faith; "There is no god but God, Muhammad is his messenger") alone made one a Muslim, and that shortcomings in that person's behavior and performance of other obligatory rituals rendered them "a sinner", but "not an unbeliever."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-commins-x_117-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-commins-x-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[102]</a></sup></span></p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">"Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab did not accept that view. He argued that the criterion for one's standing as either a Muslim or an unbeliever was correct worship as an expression of belief in one God ... any act or statement that indicates devotion to a being other than God is to associate another creature with God's power, and that is tantamount to idolatry (<i>shirk</i>). Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his own brother."</span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's major work, a small book called <i>Kitab al-Tawhid</i>, he states that <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibadah">'Ibādah</a></i> (Worship) in Islam consists of conventional acts of devotion such as the five daily prayers (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salah">salat</a></i>); fasting for the holy month of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawm" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sawm">Sawm</a>); <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Dua">Dua</a> (supplication); Istia'dha (seeking protection or refuge); Isti'âna (seeking help), and Istigātha to Allah (seeking benefits and calling upon Allah alone). Directing these deeds beyond Allah – such as through <i>du'a</i> or <i>Istigāthā</i> to the dead – are acts of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shirk (Islam)">shirk</a></i> and in violation of the tenets of <i>Tawhid</i> (monotheism).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-118" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-118" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[103]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLong-Bas200469_119-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLong-Bas200469-119" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[104]</a></sup> Based on the doctrine of <i>Tawhid</i> espoused in <i>Kitab al-Tawhid</i>, the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "<i>Al-Muwahhidun</i>" (Unitarians).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-120" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[105]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-121" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-121" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[106]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The essence of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's</a> justification for fighting his opponents in Arabia can be summed up as his belief that the original pagans fought by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad in Islam">Prophet Muhammad</a> "affirmed that God is the creator, the sustainer and the master of all affairs; they gave alms, they performed pilgrimage and they avoided forbidden things from fear of God". What made them pagans whose blood could be shed and wealth plundered was that they performed sacrifices, vows and supplications to other beings. According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, someone who perform such things even if their lives are otherwise exemplary; is not a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> but an unbeliever. Once such people have received the call to "true Islam", understood it and then rejected it, their blood and treasure are forfeit.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins200925_122-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins200925-122" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[107]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-123" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[108]</a></sup> Clarifying his stance on <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takfir" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Takfir">Takfir</a></i>, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab states:</span></p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">"As for <i>takfir</i>, I only make <i>takfir</i> of whoever knows the religion of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad in Islam">Messenger</a> and thereafter insults it, forbids people from it, and manifests enmity towards whoever practices it. This is who I make <i>takfir</i> of. And most of the ummah, and all praise is for God, is not like this... We do not make takfeer except on those matters which all of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">ūlemá</a></i> have reached a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijma" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijma">consensus</a> on."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-124" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[109]</a></sup></span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The disagreement between Wahhabis and their opponents over the definition of worship (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibadah">Ibadah</a></i>) and monotheism (<i>Tawhid</i>) has remained much the same since 1740, according to David Commins: "One of the peculiar features of the debate between Wahhabis and their adversaries is its apparently static nature... the main points in the debate [have] stay[ed] the same [since 1740]."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-commins-x_117-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-commins-x-117" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[102]</a></sup> According to another source, Wahhabi jurists were unique for their literal interpretation of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> which tended to re-inforce local practices of the region of Najd.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LoC_125-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-LoC-125" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[110]</a></sup> Whether the teachings of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab included the need for social renewal and "plans for socio-religious reform of society" in the Arabian Peninsula, rather than simply a return to "ritual correctness and moral purity", is disputed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-126" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-126" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[111]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-127" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-127" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[112]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabi scholars upheld the right of qualified scholars to perform <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i> on legal questions and condemned <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqleed" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taqleed">Taqleed</a></i> of <i>Mujtahids</i>. This stance pitted them against the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ulama">ulema</a></i> who shunned <i>Ijtihad</i> and obligated <i>Taqleed</i>. The Arab <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi_movement" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salafi movement">Salafiyya</a></i> reformers of 19th and 20th centuries would defend the Wahhabis on the <i>Ijtihad</i> issue as well as join forces with Wahhabis to condemn various Sufi practices and orders (<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tariqa">tariqats</a></i>) which they considered to be reprehensible <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bidʻah">Bid'ah</a></i> (innovations). Prominent amongst those <i>Salafiyya</i> <i>ulema</i> who backed Wahhabism included Khayr al-Din al-Alusi, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahir_al-Jazairi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Tahir al-Jazairi">Tahir al-Jaza'iri</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Rashid_Rida" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muhammad Rashid Rida">Muhammad Rashid Rida</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_Qasimi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Jamal al-Din Qasimi">Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi</a>, Mahmud Shukri Al-Alusi, etc.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2006132–33_128-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2006132%E2%80%9333-128" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[113]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Condemning the doctrine of blind-following (<i>Taqlid</i>) prevalent amongst the masses and obliging them to directly engage with the Scriptures; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_bin_Abdullah_Al_Sheikh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Suleiman bin Abdullah Al Sheikh">Sulāyman ibn Ābd-Allah Aal-Shaykh</a> ( 1785–1818 C.E / 1199–1233 A.H) wrote:</span></p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">"... what the believer must do, if the Book of Allah and the <i>Sunnah</i> of His Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) have reached him and he understands them with regard to any matter, is to act in accordance with them, no matter who he may be disagreeing with. This is what our Lord and our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) have enjoined upon us, and all the scholars are unanimously agreed on that, apart from the ignorant blind followers and the hard-hearted. Such people are not scholars."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-129" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[114]</a></sup></span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabis furthermore rejected the idea of closure of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i> as an innovated principle. Although they professed adherence to Hanbali school, they refrained from taking its precepts as final. Since the issue of <i>Ijtihad</i> and <i>Taqlid</i> was amongst their principal concerns, Wahhabis developed a set of juristic procedures to solve legal questions. These included referencing <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i> as the primary sources of legislation. In case the solution was not accessible from the Scriptures, the principle of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijma" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ijma">'Ijma</a></i> (consensus) was employed. <i>Ijma</i> was restricted to <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl_al-Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ahl al-Sunnah">Ahl al-Sunnah</a> and consisted of consensus of <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%A2a%E1%B8%A5%C4%81bah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ṣaḥābah">Companions of the Prophet</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaf" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salaf">Salaf as-Salih</a></i> and the consensus of scholars. If any Hanbali interpretations were proven wrong through these principles, they must be abandoned. Defending their pro-Ijtihad stance, Wahhabis quoted Qur'anic verses which implied that only Qur'an and Hadith constituted the bases of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharia">sharia</a> (Islamic law).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-L._Esposito_1995_308_130-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-L._Esposito_1995_308-130" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[115]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Naghma_2015_79_131-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Naghma_2015_79-131" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[116]</a></sup> Prominent Wahhabi <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qadi">Qadi</a></i> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Nejd" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Emirate of Nejd">Second Saudi State</a>, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_ash-Sheikh" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Al ash-Sheikh">Aal-Al Shaykh</a> (1196–1285 A.H / 1782–1868 C.E) strongly condemned the practice of <i>Taqlid</i> as a form of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Shirk (Islam)">shirk</a></i> (polytheism) in his treatises, writing:</span></p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">".. One who asks for a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fatwa">religious verdict</a> concerning an issue, he should examine the sayings and opinions of the <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imams" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Imams">Imams</a></i> and scholars and take only what complies with Allah's Rulings and the teachings of His Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). Allah, the Almighty says, {<i>O you who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger.. and those of you (Muslims) who are in authority. (And) if you differ in anything amongst yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Messenger...</i>}. (Surah An-Nisa': 59) Thus, it is forbidden to prefer the opinion of any of Allah's creatures over the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) and this is because to do so is an act of <i>Shirk</i> (polytheism); since it constitutes obedience to other than Allah (Glorified be He)."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-132" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-132" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[117]</a></sup></span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wahhabis also advocated a principle in Islamic legal theory often referred to as "the rule against <i>Ijtihad</i> reversal". This principle allows overturning a scholar's <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a></i> (legal judgement) when he bases it on personal <i>Ijtihad</i> (personal legal reasoning), rather than a clear textual source from <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>. In effect, this allowed the Wahhabi <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qadi">qadis</a></i> to remain autonomous. Opponents of Wahhabi movement harshly rebuked them for advocating <i>Ijtihad</i> and not recognising the finality of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhhab" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Madhhab">mad'habs</a></i> (law schools).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins200622–23,_115–16_133-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins200622%E2%80%9323,_115%E2%80%9316-133" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[118]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"></p><figure class="mw-halign-right" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-right-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(200, 204, 209); border-top-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 0px; clear: right; color: #202122; display: table; float: right; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 0; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; min-width: 100px; orphans: 2; text-align: center; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"></figure><p></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; orphans: 2; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">As a<span> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revivalist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Islamic revivalist">religious revivalist</a><span> </span>movement that works to bring<span> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Muslims">Muslims</a><span> </span>back from what it considers as foreign accretions that have corrupted Islam,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-134" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-134" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[119]</a></sup><span> </span>and believes that Islam is a complete way of life which has prescriptions for all aspects of life, Wahhabism is quite strict in what it considers Islamic behavior. The<span> </span><i>Muwahhidun</i><span> </span>movement has been described by<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i><span> </span>as the "strictest form of Sunni Islam".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-135" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-135" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[120]</a></sup><span> </span>On the other hand, religious critics assert that Wahhabism is not strict, castigating it as a distorted version of Islam that deviates from traditional<span> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shari%27a" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Shari'a">Shari'a</a><span> </span>law, and argue that their practices are neither typical nor mired in the roots of Islam.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-136" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-136" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[121]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-137" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[122]</a></sup><span> </span>Unlike other schools of Sunnism, Wahhabis admonishes to ground Islamic principles solely on the<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Quran">Qur'an</a></i><span> </span>and<span> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-138" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-138" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration: none;">[123]</a></sup><span> </span>rejecting much material derived within Islamic culture.</span></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; orphans: 2; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">This does not mean, however, that all adherents agree on what is required or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haram" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Haram">forbidden</a>, or that rules have not varied by area or changed over time. In Saudi Arabia, the strict religious atmosphere of Wahhabi doctrines were visible as late as the 1990s; such as the conformity in dress, public deportment, public prayers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LofC-influence_139-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-LofC-influence-139" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[124]</a></sup> Its presence was visible by the wide freedom of action of the "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Promotion_of_Virtue_and_the_Prevention_of_Vice_(Saudi_Arabia)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)">religious police</a>", clerics in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mosque">mosques</a>, teachers in schools, and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Qadi">Qadis</a></i> (i.e. judges who are religious legal scholars) in Saudi courts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-140" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-140" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[125]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wahhabism is noted for its policy of "compelling its own followers and other Muslims strictly to observe the religious duties of Islam, such as the five prayers", and for "enforcement of public morals to a degree not found elsewhere".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Glasse-compell_141-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Glasse-compell-141" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[126]</a></sup> According to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Americans">American</a> journalist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Wright" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Lawrence Wright">Lawrence Wright</a>, due to Wahhabi emphasis on the "purification of Islam"; the teaching becomes very repressive to the followers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-142" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-142" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[127]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">While other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> might urge <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salat" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Salat">salat</a> prayer, modest dress, and abstention from alcohol, for Wahhabis, prayer "that is punctual, ritually correct, and communally performed not only is urged but publicly required of men." Not only is modest dress prescribed, but the type of clothing that should be worn, especially by women (a black <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaya" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Abaya">abaya</a>, covering all but the eyes and hands) is specified. Not only is wine forbidden, but so are "all intoxicating drinks and other stimulants, including tobacco".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LofC_71-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-LofC-71" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[57]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Following the preaching and practice of ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab that coercion should be used to enforce following of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sharia">sharia</a></i> (Islamic law), an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Promotion_of_Virtue_and_the_Prevention_of_Vice_(Saudi_Arabia)" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)">official committee</a> was empowered to "Command the Good and Forbid the Evil" (the so-called "religious police")<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Glasse-compell_141-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Glasse-compell-141" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[126]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-143" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[128]</a></sup> in Saudi Arabia – the one country founded with the help of Wahhabi warriors and whose scholars and pious citizens dominated many aspects of the Kingdom's life. Committee "field officers" enforce strict closing of shops at prayer time, segregation of the sexes, prohibition of the sale and consumption of alcohol, driving of motor vehicles by women, and other social restrictions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-144" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-144" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[129]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">A large number of practices was reported to be forbidden by Saudi Wahhabi officials, preachers or religious police. Practices that have been forbidden as <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bida%27a" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bida'a">Bid'a</a> (innovation) or shirk (polytheism) and sometimes "punished by flogging" during Wahhabi history include performing or listening to music; dancing; <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_telling" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fortune telling">fortune telling</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amulet" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Amulet">amulets</a>; non-religious television programs; smoking; playing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Chess">chess</a>, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_game" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Card game">cards</a>; drawing human or animal figures; acting in a play or writing fiction; dissecting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadaver" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Cadaver">cadavers</a>, even in criminal investigations and for the purposes of medical research; recorded music played over telephones on hold; or the sending of flowers to friends or relatives who are in the hospital.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Van-33_145-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Van-33-145" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[130]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-146" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-146" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[131]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-147" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-147" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[132]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-148" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[133]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-theft_149-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-theft-149" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[134]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-150" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[135]</a></sup> Common Muslim practices Wahhabis believe are contrary to Islam include listening to music in praise of Muhammad, praying to God while visiting tombs (including the tomb of Muhammad), celebrating <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawlid" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mawlid">mawlid</a> (birthday of the Prophet),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-151" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-151" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[136]</a></sup> the use of ornamentation on or in mosques, all of which is considered orthodoxy in the rest of the Islamic world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-net_places_152-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-net_places-152" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[137]</a></sup> Until 2018, driving of motor vehicles by women was allowed in every country except the Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-153" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-153" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[138]</a></sup> Certain forms of Dream interpretation, practiced by the famously strict <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, is sometimes discouraged by Wahhabis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-154" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-154" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[139]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wahhabism also emphasizes "<i>Thaqafah Islamiyyah</i>" or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_culture" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a> and the importance of avoiding non-Islamic cultural practices and non-Muslim friendship no matter how innocent these may appear,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Husain,_2007,_p.250_155-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Husain,_2007,_p.250-155" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[140]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-156" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-156" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[141]</a></sup> on the grounds that the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> forbids imitating non-Muslims.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-special-day_157-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-special-day-157" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[142]</a></sup> Foreign practices sometimes punished and sometimes simply condemned by Wahhabi preachers as un-Islamic, include celebrating foreign days (such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine%27s_Day" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Valentine's Day">Valentine's Day</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-158" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-158" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[143]</a></sup> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothers_Day" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mothers Day">Mothers Day</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Husain,_2007,_p.250_155-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Husain,_2007,_p.250-155" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[140]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-special-day_157-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-special-day-157" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[142]</a></sup>) giving of flowers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-flowers_159-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-flowers-159" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[144]</a></sup> standing up in honor of someone, celebrating birthdays (including the Prophet's), keeping or petting dogs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-theft_149-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-theft-149" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[134]</a></sup> Some Wahhabi activists have warned against taking non-Muslims as friends, smiling at or wishing them well on their holidays.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rigid_67-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-rigid-67" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[53]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wahhabis are not in unanimous agreement on what is forbidden as sin. Some Wahhabi preachers or activists go further than the official Saudi Arabian Council of Senior Scholars in forbidding (what they believe to be) sin. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juhayman_al-Otaybi" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Juhayman al-Otaybi">Juhayman al Utaybi</a> declared <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Association football">football</a> forbidden for a variety of reasons including it is a non-Muslim, foreign practice, because of the revealing uniforms and because of the foreign non-Muslim language used in matches.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-160" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-160" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[145]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-161" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-161" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[146]</a></sup> In response, the Saudi <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mufti" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a> rebuked such <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwa" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Fatwa">fatwas</a></i> and called on the religious police to prosecute its author.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-162" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-162" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[147]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to senior Saudi scholars, Islam forbids the traveling or working outside the home by a woman without their husband's permission – permission which may be revoked at any time – on the grounds that the different physiological structures and biological functions of the two sexes mean that each is assigned a distinctive role to play in the family.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-163" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-163" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[148]</a></sup> Sexual intercourse out of wedlock may be punished with flogging,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacey1981chapter_48:_"Death_of_a_Princess"_164-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacey1981chapter_48:_%22Death_of_a_Princess%22-164" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[149]</a></sup> although sex out of wedlock was permissible with a female slave until the practice of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Islamic slavery</a> was banned in 1962 (Prince <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandar_bin_Sultan" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Bandar bin Sultan">Bandar bin Sultan</a> was the product of "a brief encounter" between his father Prince <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_bin_Abdul_Aziz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Sultan bin Abdul Aziz">Sultan bin Abdul Aziz</a> – the Saudi defense minister for many years – and "his slave, a black servingwoman").<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-165" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-165" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[150]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rodenbeck_166-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-rodenbeck-166" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[151]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Despite this strictness, throughout these years senior Saudi scholars in the kingdom made exceptions in ruling on what is <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haram" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Haram">haram</a></i> (forbidden). Foreign non-Muslim troops are forbidden in Arabia, except when the king needed them to confront <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> in 1990; gender mixing of men and women is forbidden, and fraternization with non-Muslims is discouraged, but not at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Abdullah_University_of_Science_and_Technology" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="King Abdullah University of Science and Technology">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a> (KAUST). Until 2018, movie theaters and driving by women were forbidden, except at the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARAMCO" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="ARAMCO">ARAMCO</a> compound in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_studies" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Oriental studies">eastern Saudi</a>, populated by workers for the company that provides almost all the government's revenue. The exceptions made at KAUST were also in effect at ARAMCO.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-House-exceptions_167-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-House-exceptions-167" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[152]</a></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">More general rules of permissiveness changed over time. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Saud" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Ibn Saud">Abdulaziz Ibn Saud</a> imposed Wahhabi doctrines and practices "in a progressively gentler form" as his early 20th-century conquests expanded his state into urban areas, especially the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Glasse-gentler_168-0" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Glasse-gentler-168" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[153]</a></sup> After vigorous debate Wahhabi religious authorities in Saudi Arabia allowed the use of paper money (in 1951), the abolition of slavery (in 1962), education of females (1964), and use of television (1965).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rodenbeck_166-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-rodenbeck-166" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[151]</a></sup> Music, the sound of which once might have led to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a>, is now commonly heard on Saudi radios.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Glasse-gentler_168-1" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-Glasse-gentler-168" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[153]</a></sup> Minarets for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Mosque">mosques</a> and use of funeral markers, which were once forbidden, are now allowed. Prayer attendance, which was once enforced by flogging, is no longer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-169" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahhabism#cite_note-169" style="background: none; color: #3366cc; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-decoration-line: none;">[154]</a></sup></span></p><div><br /></div></div><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhabiya</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhabi</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahabi</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhabi</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wahhab, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhab, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdul Wahhab</i>) (b. 1703, ʿUyaynah, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] - d. 1792, Ad-Dirʿīyah).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Born near Riyadh (in Uyayna) of a branch of the Tamim tribe and received a sound Islamic education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He studied in Medina with teachers of the Hanbali school, as defined by Ibn Taymiyya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He traveled widely in search of learning and became expert in Sufi doctrine as well as in the more orthodox Islamic sciences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He lived 4 years in Basra, 5 years in Baghdad, 1 year in Kurdish areas, 2 years in Hamadhan, and 1 year in Esfahan around the mid-1730s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here he studied philosophy and Sufism before continuing to Qom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After Qom, ‘Abd al-Wahhab returned to Uyayna, and started to preach his message.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Gradually his leanings became thoroughly Hanbalite. ‘Abd al-Wahhab wrote the Book of Unity (Kitab al-Tawhid).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This book met with more opposition than interest, and after some time there, he was forced to flee to the medium sized town of Dar‘iya, whose chieftain Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud, gave him protection. Though he was often at the center of controversy, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s uncompromisingly strict religious views were accepted by the tribal chief Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud of nearby Dar‘iya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to sources that were very close to the court of Ibn Sa‘ud, the two made an arrangement, where ‘Abd al-Wahhab would be religious leader, leaving the secular power in the hands of Ibn Sa‘ud.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, religious authority was assumed by Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, political and military power by Ibn Sa‘ud.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This venture determined the future of the movement, which has continued to the present day as a powerful religio-political combination in Arabia, where the Sa‘udi dynasty and Wahhabi fundamentalism dominate absolutely.<br /><br />In 1765, Ibn Sa‘ud died, but his successor, Abdul Aziz, also chose ‘Abd al-Wahhab as a religious guide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1766, the doctrines of ‘Abd al-Wahhab won recognition among the scholars of Mecca.<br /><br />As the area under the power of Abdul Aziz increased, the number of doctrines from ‘Abd al-Wahhab also increased.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />‘Abd al-Wahhab died a natural death at the age of 89.<br /><br />Having completed his formal education in the holy city of Medina, in Arabia, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb lived abroad for many years. He taught for four years in Basra, Iraq, and in Baghdad he married an affluent woman whose property he inherited when she died. In 1736, in Iran, he began to teach against what he considered to be the extreme ideas of various exponents of Sufi doctrines. On returning to his native city, he wrote the Kitāb at-tawḥīd (“Book of Unity”), which is the main text for Wahhābī doctrines. His followers call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn, or “Unitarians”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term Wahhābī is generally used by non-Muslims and opponents.<br /><br />ʿAbd al-Wahhāb’s teachings have been characterized as puritanical and traditional, representing the early era of the Islamic religion. He made a clear stand against all innovations (bidʿah) in Islamic faith because he believed them to be reprehensible, insisting that the original grandeur of Islam could be regained if the Islamic community would return to the principles enunciated by the Prophet Muhammad. Wahhābī doctrines, therefore, do not allow for an intermediary between the faithful and Allah and condemn any such practice as polytheism. The decoration of mosques, the cult of saints, and even the smoking of tobacco were condemned.<br /><br />When the preaching of these doctrines led to controversy, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb was expelled from ʿUyaynah in 1744. He then settled in Ad-Dirʿīyah, capital of Ibn Saʿūd, a ruler of the Najd (now in Saudi Arabia).<br /><br />The spread of Wahhābīsm originated from the alliance that was formed between ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and Ibn Saʿūd, who, by initiating a campaign of conquest that was continued by his heirs, made Wahhābīsm the dominant force in Arabia since 1800.<br /><br /><br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhab, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdul Wahhab</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhab, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhab, Abdul</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahhab, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wahid, Abdurrahman</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahid, Abdurrahman</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdurrahman Wahid</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdurrahman Addakhil</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gus Dur</i>) (b. September 7, 1940, Denanyar, East Java, Dutch East Indies [now Indonesia] - d. December 30, 2009, Jakarta, Indonesia).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Member of the National Awakening Party (PKB) who was elected president of Indonesia on October 20, 1999, by an electoral assembly that voters had chosen in June.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The election marked the end of political dominance by the Golkar Party, which supported the dictatorship of former President Suharto for 32 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In May 1998, Suharto had resigned and installed B. J. Habibie as president.<br /><br />Wahid offered the vice presidency to rival presidential candidate Megawati Sukarnoputri of the Indonesian Democracy Party-Struggle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahid’s health appeared frail in 1999 after allegedly suffering two strokes and many observers speculated that he might not complete his five-year term.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahid’s government faced formidable challenges, including a severe recession and conflicts between pro-independence groups and pro-Indonesia militias in the province of East Timor.<br /><br />Indonesians call Wahid “Gus Dur,” combining a Muslim title of respect with an abbreviation of his first name.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wahid was born in the Indonesian province of East Java.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He studied at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt, and earned a degree in 1970 from the University of Baghdad in Iraq.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the leader of Indonesia’s largest Islamic organization, Nahdlatul Ulama Muslims, Wahid advocated an inclusive, tolerant form of Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Wahid’s grandfathers were among the founders of the world’s largest Islamic organization, the 25-million-member Nahdatul Ulama (NU). Wahid studied the Qurʾān intensively at an East Javan pesantren (religious boarding school) founded by his paternal grandfather, Hasyim Asyʾari, and at institutes in Jakarta when his father was Indonesia’s first cabinet minister for religion. In 1965 Wahid earned a scholarship to study at the prestigious Al-Azhar University in Cairo, but he bristled against the traditionalism of its faculty, and, instead of studying more scripture, he devoured New Wave movies, read French and English books, and studied Marxism. Leaving without taking a degree, he moved to Baghdad, where he soon began attracting attention with his religious writings.<br /><br />After returning to Indonesia in the late 1960s, Wahid became a scholar. He was elevated to the post of general chairman of the NU in 1984. The organization then severed its ties to a Muslim-based political party and concentrated on social work and education. The managers of 6,500 pesantren nationwide—the backbone of the NU’s support—opposed any anti-government moves. Wahid was nonetheless widely perceived to present a threat to political authority for his promotion of a vision for the NU that would, in his words, “move toward the transformation of society, socially and culturally.”<br /><br />As NU chief, Wahid was one of the most respected figures in Indonesian Islam and the most politically active. He headed the political discussion group Forum Demokrasi, which welcomed dissidents and human rights advocates. Wahid spoke frankly on national issues to ministers, diplomats, journalists, and others who consulted him. Deviating from the positions held by the leaders of many Muslim countries, he suggested normalizing ties with Israel and contended that the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina was not religious. Many admired his defense of Indonesia’s Christian minority. Even the powerful military was keen to maintain good ties to a perceived bulwark against radical Islam. Honored in 1993 with the Magsaysay Award, Wahid was elected the following year to lead the World Council for Religion and Peace.<br /><br />In 1990 Wahid declined to join the new Association of Muslim Intellectuals, accusing its chairman, B.J. Habibie, protégé of President Suharto and the country’s research and technology minister, of using Islam to gain power. Critics and even relatives conceded, however, that Wahid could not separate his own political stance from NU’s needs. In 1994 Suharto loyalists within the NU tried in vain to end Wahid’s chairmanship. In the wake of the Asian economic crisis (1997–98) that forced the resignations of Suharto and his successor Habibie, Wahid was elected president in 1999. He was the first candidate to win the presidency through a vote by the People’s Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat; MPR), as opposed to the earlier, consensus-seeking process. Economic and political instability, coupled with a corruption crisis in which Wahid himself was implicated, led to his impeachment and removal from office in 2001. After leaving office, Wahid encouraged interfaith dialogue for the promotion of world peace.<br /><br /><br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdurrahman Wahid</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahid, Abdurrahman</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gus Dur</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahid, Abdurrahman</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abdurrahman Addakhil</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahid, Abdurrahman</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">wali</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">wali</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">waliy</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Term which means “protector,” “benefactor,” “companion,” or “governor.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A wali is a friend of God -- a saint or a Sufi whose tomb is visited for its blessing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A wali is also a legal guardian of a minor, woman, or incapacitated person.<br /><br />For the Arabs, the word wali is synonymous with “saint.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The companion word wilayat means “sainthood.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How the terms wali and wilayat first came to be applied to Sufis is not known, but from an early date it was explained that the Qur’anic verse: “{God} loves them and they love {God}” {see Sura 5:59} meant that God is their friend, and they are God’s friends.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Qur’an also contains repeated reference to “the friends of God” -- the awliya’ Allahi.<br /><br />Saints are thought to constitute an invisible hierarchy, with a discrete cosmological ranking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In all there are perhaps forty thousand “friends of God,” including three hundred chosen (akhyar), forty deputies (abdal), seven pious (abrar), four pillars (awtad), three substitutes (nuqaba’), and one pole or nourisher (qutb, ghawth).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The numbers in some categories vary, but the importance of this cosmological scheme for Sufi devotion cannot be overstated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The qutb saint, in particular, is posited as the axis around which the entire universe revolves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is “the perfect man” (al-insan al-kamil), for the sake of whose perfection all the elements of nature, and even all other humans, have been brought into existence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad was the perfect man in his time, but since the world would cease to function without a qutb saint, others have come after Muhammad, though they lacked his prophetic mandate.<br /><br />Sainthood and prophethood, therefore, overlapped as authoritative categories for mystically minded Muslims.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The differentiation was as essential as it was problematic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the one hand, the qutb saint was differentiated from the hidden imam of the Shi‘ites (though they shared a common theological mold as salvific mediators); at the same time, he was distinguished from the Prophet Muhammad -- usually on a temporal basis, implying that the qutb was doing the work of the Prophet in his generation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For some Sufi theorists, moreover, the distance of sainthood from prophethood was as slight as a single vowel: walayat meaning “lordship” was reserved for prophets, while wilayat or “friendship” was reserved for saints.<br /><br />Wilayat also had a practical connotation. It defined the geographical area within which a particular saint was recognized as the preeminent spiritual leader for his generation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In populous urban centers or remote regions of Asia where more than one Sufi order had been introduced, conflicting wilayat claims were inevitable, but they were less frequent and less intense than might be expected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Wahhabiya movement has been uncompromisingly opposed to the veneration of saints and has destroyed many shrines where the saints were venerated.<br /><br />Walī (Arabic, plural Awliyā') is an Arabic word meaning "friend", "client", "kinsman", "patron".<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It generally denotes "friend of God" in the phrase walīyu 'llāh. In English, wali most often means a Muslim saint or holy person. It should not be confused with the word Wāli which is an administrative title that was used in the Muslim Caliphate, and still today in some Muslim countries, such as the Wali of Swat.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">waliy</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">wali</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Walid I</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid I</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Walid I ibn ‘Abd al-Malik</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Walid I</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malīk ibn Marwān</i>) (668 - 715, Damascus [now in Syria]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Umayyad caliph (r.705-715).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was the great builder of the Umayyad dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 706, he began the reconstruction of the basilica of St. John the Baptist at Damascus into a magnificent mosque.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also built the Great Mosques at Mecca and Medina.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other striking features of his reign were the arabization of the administration and the progress of conquests.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During his reign, the Arab empire attained its greatest extent from Transoxiana to Spain.<br /><br />Al-Walīd, the eldest son of the caliph ʿAbd al-Malīk ibn Marwān, was fervently orthodox in his religious views. He had a great interest in architecture. As caliph, he confiscated the Christian Basilica of St. John the Baptist in Damascus and had the Great Mosque (Umayyad Mosque) erected on the site. He also had mosques built at Medina and Jerusalem. During al-Walīd’s reign, areas in Central Asia, in coastal northern Africa, and in Spain were conquered and brought under the influence of Islam. Although al-Walīd did not actively direct this expansion, he did give support to capable subordinate officers and officials, allowing them great autonomy in the conduct of their affairs.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Walid I ibn ‘Abd al-Malik</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid I</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid I</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Walid I</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid I</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malīk ibn Marwān</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid I</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Walid II</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid II</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Walid II ibn Yazid II</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid ibn Yazid</i>) (d. April 16, 744). Umayyad caliph (r.743-744).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was remarkably cultivated, but also a libertine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 743, he sold Khalid al-Qasri, the former governor of Iraq, to the latter’s mortal enemy Yusuf ibn ‘Umar al-Thaqafi, which raised the Yemenis in Syria against him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Before being caliph, he had built the hunting lodge Qusayr ‘Amra, and as a caliph he began with the construction of al-Mushatta.<br /><br />Al-Walid succeeded to the throne on the death of his uncle, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, on February 6, 743. As al-Walid grew older, Hisham became more displeased with him and even urged him to step aside in favor of Hisham's son. Hisham spoke to al-Walid about his drinking and living a dissolute life. The caliph commanded al-Walid to send away his best drinking companion. He also cut off funds to the heir and strongly encouraged him to be more respectful in matters religious.<br /><br />As heir, al-Walid was known for his open handedness. When he became caliph, he took special care of the crippled and blind. He increased the stipend. He named his two sons, al-Hakam and Uthman, to succeed him in that order. There's an eloquent letter on this theme dated May 21, 743 in at Tabari. At Tabari also quotes a number of al-Walid's poems.<br /><br />Al-Walid at first confirmed Nasr ibn Sayyar as governor of Khurasan. However, bribed by Yusuf ibn Umar, the caliph dismissed Nasr. Al-Walid also appointed his uncle Yusuf ibn Muhammad governor of Medina. Yahya ibn Zayd was found in Khurasan. Nasr urged him to present himself to the caliph, bearing in mind the essential nature of Islamic unity. However, Yahya chose another path and after initial victory was slain.<br /><br />Al-Walid put Sulayman ibn Hisham in prison. Such a deed, as well as his reputed drinking, singing and immorality aroused considerable opposition. Al-Walid was fond of versifying and he arranged horse races. The upright Yazid ibn al-Walid spoke against the new ruler's moral laxity. A group began plotting his assassination. When approached, Khalid ibn Abdallah declined to join in and even cautioned al-Walid. However, his vague warning aroused the ire of al-Walid who imprisoned Khalid and then gave him to Yusuf ibn Umar for an offer of fifty million dirhams. Yusuf tortured and killed Khalid. This intensely angered many of al-Walid's own relatives.<br /><br />Hearing of the plot, Marwan ibn Muhammad wrote from Armenia urging a more prudent course of action, one more promising for the stability of the state and the preservation of the Umayyad house. This was disregarded and many armed men moved into Damascus. The caliph was besieged in a castle outside the city. He fought well, but on April 16, 744, at Al-Aghdaf [now in modern Jordan], he was defeated and killed by the forces of Sulayman ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. He was succeeded by his cousin Yazid III.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid II ibn Yazid II, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid II</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid ibn Yazid</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid II</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Walide Sultan</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walide Sultan</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Valide Sultana</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Title borne, in the Ottoman Empire, by the mother of the reigning sultan and only for the duration of her son’s reign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Valide Sultana</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walide Sultan</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Walid ibn al-Mughira ibn ‘Abd Allah, al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Walid ibn al-Mughira ibn ‘Abd Allah, al-</i> (d. 622).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Opponent of the Prophet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was the head of the numerous and prosperous Banu Makhzum at Mecca.<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><p><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white;"><b><i>Wali Songo</i></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The history of arrival and</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span style="color: #202122;">spread of Islam in Indonesia </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">is unclear. One theory states it arrived directly from Arabia</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">before the 9th century, while another credits Sufi merchants and preachers for bringing Islam to Indonesian islands in the 12th or 13th century either from Gujarat in India</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">or directly from the Middle East. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Hinduism and Buddhism. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><br /></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. Though historical documents are incomplete, the limited evidence suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century, as the military power of Melaka Sultanate in Malay Peninsular today Malaysia and other Islamic Sultanates dominated the region aided by episodes of Muslim coup such as in 1446, wars and superior control of maritime trading and ultimate markets.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> During 1511, Tome Pires found animists and Muslims in the north coast of Java. Some rulers were Islamized Muslims, others followed the old Hindu and Buddhism.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">By the reign of Sultan Agung of Mataram, most of the older Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Indonesia, had at least nominally converted to Islam. The last one to do so was Makassar in 1605. After the fall of the Majapahit empire, Bali </span><span style="font-family: times;">became the refuge for the Hindu upper class, Brahmins and their followers that fled from Java, thus transferring the Hindu culture of Java to Bali.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: times;">Hinduism and Buddhism remained extant in some areas of East Java</span><span style="font-family: times;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">where it syncretized with animism. Their traditions also continued in East and Central Java </span><span style="font-family: times;">where they earlier held a sway. Animism was also practiced in remote areas of other islands of Indonesia.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The spread of Islam in eastern islands of Indonesia is recorded in 1605 when three Islamic pious men collectively known as Dato' Tallu came to Makasar, namely Dato'ri Bandang (Abdul Makmur or Khatib Tunggal), Dato'ri Pattimang (Sulaiman Ali or Khatib Sulung) and Dato'ri Tiro (Abdul Jawad or Khatib Bungsu). According to Christian Pelras (1985), Dato' Tallu converted the Kings of Gowa and Tallo to Islam and changed their name to Sultan Muhammad.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam. Dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in North Sumatra; by the 14th in northeast Malaya, Brunei, the southern Philippines northeast and among some courtiers of East Java; and the 15th in Malacca and other areas of the Malay Peninsula. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Despite being one of the most significant developments in Indonesian history, historical evidence is fragmentary and generally uninformative such that understandings of the coming of Islam to Indonesia are limited. There is considerable debate amongst scholars about what conclusions can be drawn about the conversion of Indonesian peoples. The primary evidence, at least of the earlier stages of the process, are gravestones and a few travellers' accounts, but these can only show that indigenous Muslims were in a certain place at a certain time. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies. It should not be assumed, for example, that because a ruler was known to be a Muslim, that the process of Islamization of that area was complete. Instead, what is known is that the Islamization process was, and remains to this day, continuous in Indonesia. Nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamized Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta (meaning "precious victory") which was eventually shortened to Jakarta. Islamization increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, spurred on by the spiritual influences of the revered Sufi saints Wali Songo (or Nine Saints).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><i>Malik<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Ibrahim</span></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (b. before 1350, Kashan, Persia - d. April 7, 1419, Gapurosukolilo, Gresik), also known as </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: italic;">Sunan Gresik</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><i> </i>or<i> </i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: italic;">Kakek Bantal</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, was the first of the Wali Songo, </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">the nine men generally thought to have introduced Islam to Java (Indonesia).</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">Ibrahim's origin is unclear, although it is generally agreed that he originated from outside of Java.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> He is thought to have been born in the first half of the 14th century.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> Ibrahim is known by several names in the B<i>abad Tanah Jawi</i> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">and other texts. In the texts, Ibrahim is identified as Makhdum Ibrahim as-Samarqandy (localised to Syekh Ibrahim Asmarakandi). This indicates a possible origin from Samarkand </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">in modern-day Uzbekistan.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Malik Ibrahim was born in Kashan, Persia (modern day Iran). </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Malik Ibrahim belonged to a Sayyid and highly educated family in Kashan. His great grandfather migrated from Samarkand to Kashan.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Ibrahim came to Java with his father, Syekh Jumadil Qubro or Kubro, and his brother Maulana Ishaq, from Persia. T</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">hey were descendants of Muhammad </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">through Hussein ibn Ali. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">According to this version, Qubro stayed in Java while his sons went abroad for dakwah. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Ibrahim went to Champa </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">(in modern-day Vietnam), while his brother went to Pasai in northern Sumatra. During</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> his 13 years in Champa, Ibrahim provided healthcare and taught farmers more efficient ways to grow crops. He also married one of the king's daughters, whose name has been Indonesianised as Dewi Candrawulan, and had two sons. When he felt that he had converted enough people in Champa to Islam, Ibrahim returned to Java without his family.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ibrahim landed at Sembalo, Learn, Manyar (9 kilometres (5.6 mi) north of modern-day Gresik) in the late 14th century, where he became acquainted with the local people. He began trading out of the harbor, dealing equally with people from different castes - different social classes based on the dominant Hindu religion. By doing so, Ibrahim found popular support from the lower castes, which led to numerous conversions. He also continued his work from Champa, teaching the locals ways to improve harvests and treating the ill.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Through his trading, Ibrahim also became acquainted with the ruling class and nobles. After journeying to Trowulan to meet the king of Majapahit, he was granted a landing on the outskirts of Gresik which was used for preaching. Ibrahim also founded an Islamic boarding school there. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">A legend associated with Ibrahim is that one day, while travelling, he came across a young woman about to be sacrificed to the gods in order to end a long-standing drought. After stopping a group of men from stabbing the woman, Ibrahim prayed for rain. When his prayers were answered, the group he had faced converted to Islam.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ibrahim died on 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 822 AH (April 7, 1419 CC). He was buried in Gapura village, Gresik, East Java. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><sup class="reference nowrap" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: small;" title="Page / location: 241"></span></sup></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Before the 19th century, Ibrahim was not considered one of the Wali Songo, the saints who spread Islam to Java. After his grave was rediscovered in the early 19th century, he was included in the core group. He was first listed as a Wali Songo in <i>Babad Dipanegara</i>. Today his grave, which is without a headstone, is a common destination for pilgrims, who read the <i>Qu'ran </i>and the life of Muhammad; they also partake in a dish unique to the area, harisah rice porridge. In 2005 over 1.5 million pilgrims went to the grave, for which there is an entry fee. Most come on the anniversary of his death, based on the Islamic calendar. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Near Ibrahim's grave is a stone marker bearing an inscription in Arabic, translated below:</span></p><blockquote style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 32px;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">This is the grave of a man who is sure to be forgiven by Allah and be granted happiness by The All-Gracious, the teacher of princes and adviser to sultans and viziers, friend of the poor and destitute. The great religious teacher: Malik Ibrahim, renowned for his goodness. May Allah grant His pleasure and grace, and bring him to heaven. He died on Senin, 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 822 Hijri.</span></p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Both of Ibrahim's sons went on to spread Islam to Java after they became adults. The eldest, Ali Rahmatullah, is better known as Sunan Ampel and is a member of the Wali Songo himself. The youngest was named Ali Murthada.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Ibrahim's work in eastern Java was continued by Raden Paku (later known as Susuhunan Giri) in Giri (now part of the Jepara Regency of Central Java) and Raden Rahmat, who founded an Islamic school in Ngampel, near Surabaya. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Every year, the Gresik city government holds a festival to celebrate Ibrahim's birth. Known as Gebyar Maulid, the festival also serves to promote local culture.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <i>Wali Songo </i>(also transcribed as Wali Sanga) are revered saints of Islam in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java, because of their historic role in the spread of Islam in Indonesia. The word <i>wali</i> is Arabic for "trusted one" ("guardian" in other contexts in Indonesia) or "friend of God" ("saint" in this context), while the word <i>sanga</i> is Javanese for group of monks or the number nine. Thus, the term is often translated as "Sangha of saints".</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Although referred to as a group, there is good evidence that fewer than nine were alive at any given time. Also, there are sources that use the term "Wali Sanga" to refer to saintly mystic(s) other than the most well-known nine individuals.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Each man is often attributed the title <i>sunan</i> in Javanese, which may derive from <i>suhun</i>, in this context meaning "honored".</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Most of the wali were also called <i>raden</i> during their lifetimes, because they were members of royal houses. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The graves of the Wali Sanga are venerated as locations of ziarah (ziyarat) or local pilgrimage in Java. The </span><span style="font-family: times;">graves are also known as </span><i style="font-family: times;">pundhen</i><span style="font-family: times;"> in Javanese.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The earliest Wali Sanga was Malik Ibrahim. He is thought to have been in the first half of the 14th century.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Malik Ibrahim was of Sayyid lineage and came from a highly educated family in Kashan. His great-grandfather migrated from Samarqand, and that is why his family is also known as Samarqandi. They were originally a converted Central Asian Muslim pir from Samarkand. With centuries of Turkish, Mongol and Ottoman rule over Middle East, many of them started claiming Sayyid ancestry to legitimize their rule over the population. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Syekh Jumadil Kubra, to whom all the saints of Java appear to be related, is a name that appears to almost certainly be a corruption of Najmuddin al-Kubra. The name Syekh Jumadil Kubra has attached itself to various legendary and mythical personalities,. These personalities have a common connection in that they are the ancestors or preceptors of the founders of Islam in Java - an oblique acknowledgement, perhaps, of the prestige of the Qubrowi in the period of Islamization.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The sufis themselves traced their ancestors to erstwhile Hindu and Buddhist Javanese kings. Tracing the lineage earlier than Malik Ibrahim is problematic, but most scholars agree that Kubra's lineages are of Chinese descent and not Arab. Although Kubra's silsila -- his spiritual genealogy -- is listed in various Javanese royal chronicles (such as <i>Sejarah Banten</i>) to denote ancestral lineage from erstwhile Hindu Kings, the term in Sufism refers to a lineage of teachers. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Although popular belief sometimes refers to the wali sanga as "founders" of Islam on Java, the religion was present by the time the Chinese Muslim admiral Zheng He arrived during his first voyage (1405-1407 CC).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Many of the earliest Wali Sanga had Chinese ancestry both paternally and maternally. For example, Sunan Ampel (Chinese name Bong Swi Ho), Sunan Bonang (Ampel's son, Bong Ang), and Sunan Kalijaga (Gan Si Cang).</span></p><br /><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Dewi Candrawulan, a Muslim Princess from Champa, was the mother of Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who was later known by the name of Sunan Ampel. Sunan Ampel was the son of Maulana Malik Ibrahim, and the ancestor or teacher of some of the other Wali Sanga.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">The composition of the nine saints varies, depending on different sources. The following list is widely accepted, but its authenticity relies much on repeated citations of a handful of early sources, reinforced as "facts" in school textbooks and other modern accounts. This list differs somewhat from the names suggested in the<i> Babad Tanah Jawi</i> manuscripts.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">One theory about the variation of composition is that there was a loose council of nine religious leaders, and that as older members retired or died, new members were brought into this council.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>However, it should be borne in mind that the term "wali sanga" was created retroactively by historians, and so there was no official "group of nine" that had membership. Further, the differences in chronology of the wali suggest that there might never have been a time when nine of them were alive contemporaneously.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">At first, it was not easy for Islam to enter and thrive in the archipelago. Even in the historical record, in a span of about 800 years, Islam had not been able to establish a substantial presence. Notes from the time of the Tang Dynasty of China indicated that merchants from the Middle East had come to the kingdom of Shih-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) in Sumatra, and Holing (Kalinga) in Java in the year 674 CC, i.e., in the transitional period of Caliph Ali to Muawiyah. In the 10th century, a group of Persians called the Lor came to Java. They lived in an area in Ngudung (Kudus), also known as Loram (from the word "Lor" which means North). They also formed other communities in other areas, such as in Gresik. The existence of the gravestone of Fatimah binti Maimun bin Hibatallah in Gresi, dated to the 10th century CC, is considered evidence of the incoming migration of the Persian tribes.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">In his notes, Marco Polo relates that when returning from China to Italy in 1292 CC, he did not travel via the Silk Road, but instead traveled by sea towards the Persian Gulf. He stopped in Perlak, a port city in Aceh, southern Malacca. According to Polo, in Perlak there were three groups, namely (1) ethnic Chinese, who were all Muslims; (2) Westerners (Persians), also entirely Muslim; and (3) indigenous people in the hinterland, who worshipped trees, rocks, and spirits. In his testimony, Polo said, regarding the "Kingdom of Ferlec (Perlak)" - "This kingdom, you must know, is so much frequented by the Saracen merchants that they have converted the natives to the Law of Mohammet — I mean the townspeople only, for the Java hill-people live for all the world like beasts, and eat human flesh, as well as all other kinds of flesh, clean or unclean. And they worship this, that, and the other thing; for in fact the first thing that they see on rising in the morning, that they do worship for the rest of the day.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">One hundred years after Polo, the Chinese Muslim Admiral Zheng He came to Java in 1405 CC. When he stopped in Tuban, he noted that there were 1,000 Chinese religious Muslim families there. In Gresik, he also found there were 1,000 Chinese Muslim families, with the same amount reported in Surabaya. On Zheng He's seventh (last) visit to Java in 1433 CC, he invited his scribe named Ma Huan. According to Ma Huan, the Chinese and the Arab population of the cities on the northern beaches of Java were all Muslim, while the indigenous population were mostly non-Muslim as they were worshipping the trees, rocks, and spirits.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Early in the 15th century CC, Ali Murtadho and Ali Rahmat, sons of Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sheikh Ibrahim Samarqandi), relocated from the Kingdom of Champa (Southern Vietnam) to Java, and settled in the Tuban area, precisely in the Gesikharjo Village at Palang District. Malik Ibrahim was buried there in 1419. After the funeral, both of his sons then headed to the capital of Majapahit, because their aunt (Princess Dwarawati) was married to the King of Majapahit. By the King's order, both of them then were appointed as officials of the Majapahit Empire. Ali Murtadho as Raja Pandhita (Minister of Religion) for the Musims, while Ali Rahmat was appointed as Imam (High Priest for Muslims) in Surabaya. Ali Rahmat was known as Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who then became Sunan Ampel. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">In sum, multiple sources and conventional wisdom agree that the Wali Sanga contributed to the propagation of Islam (but not its original introduction) in the area now known as Indonesia. However, it is difficult to prove the extent of their influence in quantitative terms such as an increase in the number of adherents or masjids in the areas of their work in contrast to localities where they were not active. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Some of the family relationships described below are well-documented; others are less certain. Even today, it is common in Java for a family friend to be called "uncle" or "brother" despite the lack of a blood relationship. </span></p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/common/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Gresik (Malik Ibrahim): Arrived on Java 1404 CC, died in 1419 CC, buried in Gresik, East Java. Activities included commerce, healing, and improvement of agricultural techniques. Father of Sunan Ampel and uncle of Sunan Giri.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Ampel: Born in Champa (Southern Vietnam) in 1401 CC, died in 1481 CC in Demak, Central Java. Can be considered a focal point of the wali sanga. He was the son of Sunan Gresik and the father of Sunan Bonang and Sunan Dradjat. Sunan Ampel was also the cousin and father-in-law of Sunan Giri. In addition, Sunan Ampel was the grandfather of Sunan Kudus. Sunan Bonang in turn taught Sunan Kalijaga, who was the father of Sunan Muria. Sunan Ampel was also the teacher of Raden Patah. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Giri: Born in Blambangan (now Banyuwangi, the easternmost part of Java) in 1442 CC. His father Maulana Ishak was the brother of Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Sunan Giri's grave is in Gresik near Surabaya. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Bonang: Born in 1465 CC in Rembang (near Tuban) on the north coast of Central Java. Died in 1525 CC and buried in Tuban. Brother of Sunan Drajat. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Drajat: Born in 1470 CC. Brother of Sunan Bonang. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Kudus: Died 1550 CC, buried in Kudus. Possible originator of wayang golek puppetry.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Kalijaga: His birth name is Raden Mas Said, and he is the son of Adipati Tuban. Buried in Kadilangu, Demak. Used wayang kulit shadow puppets and gamelan music to convey spiritual teachings.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Muria: Buried in Gunung Muria, Kudus. Son of Sunan Kalijaga and Dewi Soejinah (sister of Sunan Giri).</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sunan Gunung Jati: Buried in Cirebon. Founder and first ruler of the Cirebon Sultanate. His son, Maulana Hasanudin, became the founder and the first ruler of the Banten Sultanate.</span></li></ul><div><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></div></div><div><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wali Ullah, Shah</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wali Ullah, Shah</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Wali Ullah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Waliullah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Wali Allah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Waliullah Muhaddith Dehlvi</i>) (b. February 21, 1703, Delhi [India] - d. August 20, 1762, Delhi [India]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Distinguished Muslim thinker of eighteenth century North India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shah Wali Ullah was deeply influenced by a youthful stay in the Hijaz, where he encountered a newly vital commitment to the study of the recorded traditions (hadith) of the Prophet as a basis of intellectual renewal and a foundation for social well-being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His subsequent writings de-emphasized the teachings of the historic law schools in favor of study of the Qur’an (which he translated into Persian) and the hadith.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even more ambitiously, he tried to show the essential unity of the fruits of the epistemologically distinctive Islamic strands of reason (aql), tradition (naql), and the gnosis (ma’rifa) of the Sufis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His work took on urgency in the wake of the decline of the Mughal Empire and he sought out Muslim rulers who would work in consultation with scholars like himself in order to create conditions where Muslim law could flourish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Institutionally, he was the head of the Madrasa-i Rahimiyya, a school founded by his renowned father in Delhi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was also a revered Sufi elder among the Naqshbandis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later reformers in the subcontinent looked to him as an exemplar in personality and attainments, a guide to the study of the revealed sciences, a spokesman for an authoritative role for scholars in a properly ruled polity, and an opponent of intellectual and sectarian disunity.<br /><br />Shāh Walī Allāh received a traditional Islamic education from his father and is said to have memorized the Qurʾān at the age of seven. In 1732 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and he then remained in the Hejaz (now in Saudi Arabia) to study religion with eminent theologians. He reached adulthood at a time of disillusionment following the death in 1707 of Aurangzeb, the last Mughal emperor of India. Because large areas of the empire had been lost to Hindu and Sikh rulers of the Deccan and the Punjab, Indian Muslims had to accept the rule of non-Muslims. This challenge occupied Walī Allāh’s adult life.<br /><br />Walī Allāh believed that the Muslim polity could be restored to its former splendor by a policy of religious reform that would harmonize the religious ideals of Islam with the changing social and economic conditions of India. According to him, religious ideas were universal and eternal, but their application could meet different circumstances. The main tool of his policy was the doctrine of tatbīq, whereby the principles of Islam were reconstructed and reapplied in accordance with the Qurʾān and the Ḥadīth (the spoken traditions attributed to Muhammad). He thereby allowed the practice of ijtihād (independent thinking by theologians in matters relating to Islamic law), which hitherto had been curtailed. As a corollary, he reinterpreted the concept of taqdīr (determinism) and condemned its popularization, qismat (narrow fatalism, or absolute predetermination). Walī Allāh held that man could achieve his full potential by his own exertion in a universe that was determined by God. Theologically, he opposed the veneration of saints or anything that compromised strict monotheism. He was jurisprudentially eclectic, holding that a Muslim could follow any of the four schools of Islamic law on any point of dogma or ritual.<br /><br />The best known of Walī Allāh’s voluminous writings was Asrār ad-dīn (“The Secrets of Belief”). His annotated Persian translation of the Qurʾān is still popular in India and Pakistan.<br /><br />Walī Allāh received a traditional Islamic education from his father and is said to have memorized the Qurʾān at the age of seven. In 1732 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and he then remained in the Hejaz (now in Saudi Arabia) to study religion with eminent theologians. He reached adulthood at a time of disillusionment following the death in 1707 of Aurangzeb, the last Mughal emperor of India. Because large areas of the empire had been lost to Hindu and Sikh rulers of the Deccan and the Punjab, Indian Muslims had to accept the rule of non-Muslims. This challenge occupied Walī Allāh’s adult life.<br /><br />Walī Allāh believed that the Muslim polity could be restored to its former splendor by a policy of religious reform that would harmonize the religious ideals of Islam with the changing social and economic conditions of India. According to him, religious ideas were universal and eternal, but their application could meet different circumstances. The main tool of his policy was the doctrine of tatbīq, whereby the principles of Islam were reconstructed and reapplied in accordance with the Qurʾān and the Ḥadīth (the spoken traditions attributed to Muhammad). He thereby allowed the practice of ijtihād (independent thinking by theologians in matters relating to Islamic law), which hitherto had been curtailed. As a corollary, he reinterpreted the concept of taqdīr (determinism) and condemned its popularization, qismat (narrow fatalism, or absolute predetermination). Walī Allāh held that man could achieve his full potential by his own exertion in a universe that was determined by God. Theologically, he opposed the veneration of saints or anything that compromised strict monotheism. He was jurisprudentially eclectic, holding that a Muslim could follow any of the four schools of Islamic law on any point of dogma or ritual.<br /><br />The best known of Walī Allāh’s voluminous writings was Asrār ad-dīn (“The Secrets of Belief”). His annotated Persian translation of the Qurʾān is still popular in India and Pakistan.<br /><br />Wali Allah was an Islamic scholar and reformer. He worked for the revival of Muslim rule and intellectual learning in South Asia, during a time of waning Muslim power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He despised the divisions and deviations within Islam and its practice in India and hoped to "purify" the religion and unify all Indian Muslims under the "banner of truth".<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is also thought to have anticipated a number of progressive, social, economic, and political ideas of the modern era such as social reform, equal rights, labor protection, welfare entitlement of all to food, clothing, and housing.<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Wali Ullah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wali Ullah, Shah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Waliullah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wali Ullah, Shah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Wali Allah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wali Ullah, Shah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shah Waliullah Muhaddith Dehlvi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wali Ullah, Shah</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><b><i>Wali, Yousef</i></b></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><i>Yousef Wali</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> (</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">April 2, 1930 – September 5, 2020) was an Egyptian politician who served as Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation from 1982 to 2004. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; text-align: center;">During Wali's tenure as Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation and as a Deputy Prime Minister, he worked to obtain funding for research and development in agriculture which helped Egypt increase the productivity of the land for crops such as maize, wheat, rice, and cotton to unprecedented rates.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: times;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-style: italic; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br style="font-style: normal;" /></p></span></div></span></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-20351071685552844562024-02-15T01:41:00.000-08:002024-02-15T01:41:24.574-08:002024: Wana - Waqidi<p> </p><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wana</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wana</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most Wana are not Muslim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, as inhabitants of a remote interior region of Indonesia’s Central Sulawesi Province, the Wana offer a distinct perspective on Islamic culture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The view from the Wana hinterlands maybe unique in details, but it illustrates a pattern widespread in island Southeast Asia, namely, the development of an ethnic self-consciousness on the part of an interior upland population in response to a coastal Muslim presence.<br /><br />Before Dutch authorities entered the region in the first decade of the twentieth century, some Wana were drawn into the spheres of small Islamic sultanates that once dotted the coasts of Sulawesi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the last century, Wana in the southern reaches of the territory paid tribute in the form of beeswax to the Raja of Bungku, a principality located to the southwest of Wanaland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Likewise Wana in the north presented tiny bamboo tubes filled with uncooked rice to the Raja of Tojo, a sultanate to the northwest of the Wana area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some Wana were appointed local representatives of these rajas and carried special titles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While Wana homage no doubt enhanced the stature of local sultans and may have conferred certain privileges on Wana middlemen, by no means did these demonstrations of vassalage imply that coastal rulers exercised thoroughgoing suzerainty over the Wana.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, as now, Wana had the option of fading back into the interior forests when threatened or oppressed in their relations with coastal authorities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For their part, the rajas occupied themselves with issues of status and prestige at political centers, not with territorial concerns in the hinterlands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But through contact with these principalities, Wana adopted and reworked for their own purposes some key political and cosmological concepts basic to the Islamic sultanates, including the idea of baraka (magical powers associated with royalty), a tripartite social class system made up of nobles, commoner and slaves (unrealized in Wana social life, but nonetheless present in their thought) and an association of cosmic well-being and political order (a model that Indonesia’s Muslim kingdoms had in turn reworked from earlier Hindu-Buddhist constructions).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And Wana, who attribute all power to sources external to their own society, claim that their legal code was obtained from the Raja of Bungku.<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wanquli, Mehmed ibn Mustafa al-Wani</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wanquli, Mehmed ibn Mustafa al-Wani</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mehmed ibn Mustafa al-Wani Wanquli</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sixteenth century Ottoman jurist from Van.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His translation of the Arabic lexicon of Abu Nasr Jawhari was printed in 1728 by Ibrahim Muteferriqa, as one of the first books printed in Turkey.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mehmed ibn Mustafa al-Wani Wanquli</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wanquli, Mehmed ibn Mustafa al-Wani</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b>Wanzo, Melvin</b></i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"><i>Melvin "Mel" Wanzo</i></span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;">, also known as</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;">Melvin Wahid Muhammad</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;">(b. November 22, 1930, Cleveland, Ohio - d. September 9, 2005, Detroit, Michigan) was an American jazz</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;">trombonist. He is best known for his longtime association with the Count Basie Orchestra.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;">Wanzo received formal education in music at Youngstown University in Youngstown, Ohio, graduating in 1952. He then joined the United States Army and played in a band whose leader was Cannonball Adderley. In the 1950s, he worked in bands behind blues and R&B singers such as Ruth Brown and Big Joe Turner, then studied music once more, at the Cleveland Institute of Music. In the 1960s, he worked with Woody Herman and Ray McKinley (then leading the Glenn Miller Orchestra), and in 1969 became a member of the Count Basie Orchestra, where he played trombone until 1980. In the early 1980s he played with Frank Capp and Nat Pierce, then re-joined Basie's orchestra after Basie died and leadership passed to Thad Jones and Frank Foster. </span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><div style="color: #252525; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span><b><br /></b></span></span></div></i></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Waqidi, Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waqidi, Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi</i>) (b. 747 [130 AH], Medina Abbasid Caliphate - d. 823 [207AH]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab historian from Medina. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A moderate Shi‘a, he owes his fame to the Book of the Campaigns (of the Prophet), the only one of his many writings that has survived as an independent work.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His merit lies mainly in his transmission of a very large amount of material and in fixing its chronology.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn Waqid al-Aslami</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;" title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abu ʿAbd Allah Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar ibn Waqid al-Aslami</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">) </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">was a historian commonly referred to as </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">al-Waqidi</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">. His surname is derived from his grandfather's name Waqid, and thus he became famous as al-Imam al-Waqidi.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Al-Waqidi was an early Muslim historian and biographer </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">specializing in his military campaigns. He served as a judge (</span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">qadi</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">) for the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Several of al-Waqidi's works are known through his scribe and student (in the field of the <i>al-maghazi</i> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">genre), Ibn Sa'd. </span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Waqidi was born in Medina around 747 CC (130 AH). He was the mawla (client) of ‘Abd Allah ibn Burayda of the Banu Aslam of Medina. According to Abu Faraj al-Isfahani, al-Waqidi’s mother was the daughter of ‘Isa ibn Ja‘far ibn Sa’ib Khathir, a Persian, and the great-granddaughter of Sa'ib, who introduced music to Medina. Amongst his prominent teachers were Ibn Abi Thahab Ma'mar bin Rashid, Malik ibn Anas and Sufyan ibn Anas and Sufyan al-Thawri. He lived in Medina at the time of Abu Hanifa and Ja'far al-Sadiq and studied in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi as a student of Malik ibn Anas. Al-Waqidi also had access to the grandchildren of Muhammad's companions. Al-Waqidi originally earned a living as a wheat trader, but when a calamity struck at the age of 50, he migrated to Iraq during the reign of Harun ar-Rashid. He was appointed a judge of eastern Baghdad, and Harun ar-Rashid's heir al-Ma'mun later appointed him the <i>qadi </i>of a military camp at Resafa. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Waqidi concentrated on history and was acknowledged as a master of the genre by many of his peers. His books on the early Islamic expeditions and conquests predate much of the Sunni and Shia literature of the later Abbasid period. His works regarding the battles of Muhammad and his companions were considered reliable by most early Islamic scholars. While still regarded as an important source for early Islamic history, later authors debated the reliability of his works. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Waqidi is primarily known for his <i>Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi</i> ("Book of History and Campaigns"), which is the only part of his corpus that has been fully preserved. It describes the battles fought by Muhammad, as well as Muhammad's life in the city of Medina. The work draws upon the earlier <i>sira</i> of Ibn Ishaq, though it includes details not found in Ibn Ishaq's text.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">A number of works chronicling the Islamic conquests have been attributed to al-Waqidi, though most of these attributions are now believed to be mistaken. <i>Futuh al-Sham</i> ("Book of the Conquests of Syria"), a novelization of the Islamic army's conquests of Byzantine Syria, has traditionally been ascribed to al-Waqidi. Modern scholars generally classify <i>Futuh al-Sham</i> as a falsely-attributed later work, dating it to around the time of the Crusades, though some scholars believe a small portion of the text may be traced back to al-Waqidi. In addition to depicting the battles of the Islamic armies, the work also details the valor of various Muslim women, including Hind bint Utbah, Khawlah bint al-Azwar, and Asma bint Abi Bakr. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">According to Ibn al-Nadim, al-Waqidi authored a book detailing the death of Husayn ibn Ali, though this work has not survived. Other lost texts attributed to al-Waqidi include a book chronicling the last days of Muhammad's life. </p></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad ibn 'Umar al-Waqidi<br />Waqidi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waqidi, Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-37075419940266939222024-01-28T04:42:00.000-08:002024-02-15T01:42:44.381-08:002024: Waraqa - Wayto<p> </p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Waraqa ibn Nawfal ibn Asad</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqa ibn Nawfal ibn Asad</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqah ibn Nawfal</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqah ibn Nawfal ibn Assad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy Al-Qurashi</i>) (d. c. 610).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cousin of Khadija, Muhammad’s wife.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is said to have belonged to the Meccan group of monotheists (in Arabic, hanif).<br /><br />Waraqah ibn Nawfal was the parental cousin of Khadija, Muhammad's first wife.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the Islamic sources, Waraqah was a Christian Ebionites priest living in Mecca, and had knowledge of the scriptures. When told of Muhammad's first revelation (when he received the first five verses of surat Al-Alaq), he immediately recognized him as a prophet. Contrariwise, some non-Islamic critics believe that Waraqah was one of the sources of these revelations, insofar as Waraqah may have taught Muhammad about the Biblical ideas and stories which later were to be found in the Qur'an.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Waraqah ibn Nawfal ibn Asad ibn Abd-al-Uzza ibn Qusayy Al-Qurashi was an Arabian ascetic who was the paternal first cousin of Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the first wife of Muhammad. He was considered to be a <i>hanif</i>, one who practiced the pure form of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia. Waraqah presumably died in 610 CC, shortly after Muhammad is said to have received his first revelation.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Waraqah and Khadija were also cousins of Muhammad: their paternal grandfather Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza was Muhammad's matrilineal great-great-grandfather. By another reckoning, Waraqah was Muhammad's third cousin: Asad ibn Abd-al-Uzza was a grandson of Muhammad's patrilineal great-great-great-grandfather Qusai ibn Kilab. Waraqah was the son of a man called Nawfal and his consort—Hind, daughter of Abi Kat̲h̲ir. Waraqah was proposed to marry Khadija, but the marriage never took place.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Waraqah is revered in Islamic tradition for being one of the first <i>hanifs</i></span><span style="font-family: times;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">to believe in the prophecy of Muhammad.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">When told of Muhammad's first revelation (which is understood to be Sura 96:1-5), Waraqah acknowledged his call to prophecy as authentic. Tradition recounts Waraqah saying: "There has come to him the greatest Law that came to Moses; surely he is the prophet of this people".</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Two different narrations from Aisha give these details.</span></p><blockquote class="templatequote" style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Aisha also said: "The Prophet returned to Khadija while his heart was beating rapidly. She took him to Waraqah bin Naufal who was a Christian convert and used to read the Gospel in Arabic. Waraqah asked (the Prophet), 'What do you see?' When he told him, Waraqah said, 'That is the same angel whom Allah sent to the Prophet Moses. Should I live till you receive the Divine Message, I will support you strongly.'"</span></p></blockquote><blockquote class="templatequote" style="background-color: white; border-left: none; color: #202122; margin: 1em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 40px;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Khadija then accompanied him to her cousin Waraqah bin Naufil bin Asad bin 'Abdul 'Uzza, who, during the Pre-Islamic Period became a Christian and used to write the <i>writing with Arabic letters</i>. He would <i>write from the Gospel in Arabic</i> as much as God wished him to write. He was an old man and had lost his eyesight. Khadija said to Waraqah, "Listen to the story of your nephew, O my cousin!" Waraqah asked, "O my nephew! What have you seen?" God's Apostle described whatever he had seen. Waraqah said, "This was the same one who keeps the secrets whom Allah had sent to Moses (Angel Gabriel). I wish I were young and could live up to the time when your people would turn you out." God's Apostle asked, "Will they drive me out?" Waraqah replied in the affirmative and said, "Anyone (man) who came with something similar to what you have brought was treated with hostility; and if I should remain alive till the day when you will be turned out then I would support you strongly." But after a few days Waraqah died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while.</span></p></blockquote><p><i style="color: #202122; font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqah ibn Nawfal</i><span style="color: #202122; font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="color: #202122; font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqa ibn Nawfal ibn Asad</i></p><p><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqah ibn Nawfal ibn Assad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy Al-Qurashi</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waraqa ibn Nawfal ibn Asad</i></p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">War-Dyabi ibn Rabis</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War-Dyabi ibn Rabis</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War Jabi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War Jaabi</i>) (d. 1040/1041 CC [433 AH]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ruler of Takrur -- the first known West African kingdom to embrace Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the chronicler al-Bakri, it was War-Dyabi who first insisted that his subjects convert to Islam, demonstrating that Islam had reached western Sudan before the Almoravid conquest of Ghana in 1076/1077.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After War-Dyabi’s death, his son allied with the Almoravids, and probably fought with them against Ghana.<br /><br />War Jabi was the king of Tekrur in the 1030s. He converted to Islam. This conversion allowed Tekrur to justify its wars of expansion to the south.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">War-Dyabe</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> or </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">War Jabi</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, also known as: </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">War Jaabi</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> or </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">War-Dyabe</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">, was the first Muslim king of Tekrur </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">in the 1030s, and the first to proclaim Islam as a state religion in the </span></span><span style="font-family: times;">Sudan. </span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">War Jabi was a member of the Manna dynasty that had ruled Tekrur since the early 800s. His father Rabis may be the Rai bin Rai mentioned in Arabic sources as an ally of the Almoravids and king of the Sudan.<sup class="reference nowrap" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span title="Page / location: 65"> </span></sup> Islam had been brought to Tekrur by Soninke merchants and spread widely.<sup class="reference nowrap" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span title="Page / location: 64"> </span></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">War Jabi converted to Islam and forced his subjects to convert to Islam, introducing <i>sharia</i> law in the Kingdom in 1035. This greatly benefited the state economically and created greater political ties with the Muslim states of North Africa </span><span style="font-family: times;">that would be important in the later conflicts with the animist state of Ghana.</span><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><sup class="reference nowrap" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: small;"><span title="Page / location: 64"></span></span></sup></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">War Jabi died in 433 AH (1040 or 1041 CC) and was succeeded by his son Labi.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">War Jabi's enforcement of <i>sharia</i> law pushed the Serer people of Tekrur (landowners and "the local agricultural people"), who refused Islam in favor of their traditional religion, out of the country. That resulted in their migration to Baol and Sine.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The name "War" means "death" in the Serer language. The old Serer anti-Islamic and anti-Arab term "the spurns of War" and "the spurns of Leb" are in reference to him and his son. They are pejorative terms.</span></p><div><sup class="reference nowrap" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"><span title="Page / location: 64"><br /></span></sup></div><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War Jabi</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War-Dyabi ibn Rabis</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War Jaabi</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> see </span></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">War-Dyabi ibn Rabis</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Washmgir</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washmgir</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wushmaghir ibn Ziyar Abu Talib</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vushmgir</i>) (d. 965/967)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ruler of the Ziyarid dynasty in Tabaristan and Gurgan (r. 935-965/967).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under his brother Mardawij (r. 927-935), he conquered Isfahan and drove from there ‘Ali ibn Buya, the founder of the Buyid dynasty, who had taken it when he was in Mardawij’s service.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 940, he was defeated by the Samanids who were in alliance with the Buyids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later Washmgir fled to the Samanid Nuh I ibn Nasr, who assisted him against the Buyids, Tabaristan thus becoming a buffer state between the Samanids and the Buyids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Vushmgir was a son of Ziyar. Vushmgir means "quail catcher" in the local Caspian Iranian dialects.<br /><br />In 935, Vushmgir's brother Mardavij was murdered by his Turkish troops. Many of the Turks then defected. Some entered the service of the Buyid Hasan, while others traveled to the caliph in Baghdad. Hasan took advantage of this situation by stripping Isfahan from Ziyarid rule. The Dailamite and Gilite troops, however, pledged their support to Vushmgir, who was in Ray. That same year, he defeated a Samanid army, as well as the Dailamite Makan, which had together invaded Tabaristan. Vushmgir then wrested Gurgan from Samanid control.<br /><br />Vushmgir soon decided to acknowledge Samanid supremacy, and in 936 he also turned over Gurgan to Makan. Turning against Hasan, he retook Isfahan in 938. In 939 or 940, the Samanid governor Abu 'Ali ibn Muhtaj attacked Gurgan. Vushmgir sent Makan aid, but the city fell after a long siege. Ibn Muhtaj then engaged Vushmgir in battle in Ray and defeated him, killing Makan in the process. Vushmgir fled to Tabaristan, but was faced there with a revolt by his governor of Sari, al-Hasan ibn al-Fairuzan, who was a cousin of Makan and blamed the Ziyarid for his death. Vushmgir defeated him, but al-Hasan convinced Ibn Muhtaj to invade Tabaristan. Vushmgir was forced to recognize Samanid authority again. Hasan furthered the Ziyarid's troubles by retaking Isfahan in 940.<br /><br />When Ibn Muthaj left for Samanid Khurasan, Vushmgir retook control of Ray. He then lost it for good in 943, to the Buyid Hasan. Returning to Tabaristan, he was defeated there by al-Hasan, who had previously occupied Gurgan. Vushmgir fled to the Bavandids of the mountains in eastern Tabaristan, then to the court of the Samanid Nuh I. Al-Hasan meanwhile allied with Hasan, but when Ibn Muthaj took Ray from the Buyids in 945, he recognized Samanid authority. Still, in 945 Vushmgir captured Gurgan with Samanid support, but did not manage to retain his rule there. It was only in 947 when he was able to take Gurgan and Tabaristan from al-Hasan with the help of a large Samanid army.<br /><br />In 948 Hasan (who after the Buyids' entrance into Baghdad in 945 had used the title Rukn al-Daula) invaded Tabaristan and Gurgan and took them from Vushmgir. While al-Hasan supported the Buyids, Vushmgir relied on his Samanid allies. Tabaristan and Gurgan changed hands several times until 955, when in a treaty with the Samanids, Rukn al-Daula promised to leave Vushmgir alone in Tabaristan. Peace between the two sides did not last long, however. In 958 Vushmgir briefly occupied Ray, which was Rukn al-Daula's capital. The Buyid struck back, temporarily taking Gurgan in 960, then taking both Tabaristan and Gurgan for a short time in 962. He may have also taken Tabaristan and Gurgan in 966, but did not hold on to them for long.<br /><br />Vushmgir was killed by a boar during a hunt in 967, shortly after a Samanid army had arrived for a joint campaign against the Buyids. He was succeeded by his eldest son Bisutun, although the Samanid army attempted to put another son, Qabus, into power. A third son predeceased him in 964 in the fighting over Hausan.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wushmaghir ibn Ziyar Abu Talib</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washmgir</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vushmgir</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washmgir</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Quail Catcher</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washmgir</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Washsha’, Abu’l-Tayyib Muhammad al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washsha’, Abu’l-Tayyib Muhammad al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Tayyib Muhammad al-Washsha’</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arabic philologist and bel esprit of the tenth century of the Christian calendar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote a handbook of rules of good society for the aristocrats of Baghdad.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu'l-Tayyib Muhammad al-Washsha'</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Washsha’, Abu’l-Tayyib Muhammad al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wasi’ ‘Alisi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasi’ ‘Alisi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Wasi' ‘Ali</i>) (d. 1543).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottoman author, scholar and poet, stylist and calligrapher.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His fame is based on his Turkish translation of the Persian version of the <i>Kalila wa-Dimna</i>.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Alisi, Wasi'</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasi’ ‘Alisi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasi' 'Ali</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasi’ ‘Alisi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Ali, Wasi'</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasi’ ‘Alisi</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wasif, Ahmed</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasif, Ahmed</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed Wasif</i>) (d.1806). Official historian of the Ottoman Empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His four state chronicles, called appendices because they follow on to ‘Izzi’s work, cover the greater part of the period from 1783 to 1805.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also wrote an account of Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed Wasif</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasif, Ahmed</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, Abu Hudhayfa al-Ghazzal</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, Abu Hudhayfa al-Ghazzal</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Hudhayfa al-Ghazzal Wasil ibn 'Ata'</i>) (699/700-748).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chief of the Mu‘tazila.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He migrated to Basra where he belonged to the circle of Hasan al-Basri, and entered into friendly relations with Bashshar ibn Burd.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His wife was a sister of ‘Amr ibn ‘Ubayd Abu ‘Uthman, next to himself the most celebrated of the earliest Mu‘tazila.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His deviation from the views of Hasan al-Basri is said to have become the starting point of the Mu‘tazila. Four theses are ascribed to him; denial of God’s eternal qualities; the doctrine of free will, which he shared with the Qadarites; the doctrine that the Muslim who commits a mortal sin enters into a state intermediate between that of a Muslim and that of an unbeliever; the doctrine that one of the parties who took part in the murder of ‘Uthman, in the battle of the Camel and in that of Siffin, was wrong.<br /><br />Wasil ibn Ata was a Muslim theologian, and by many accounts is considered to be the founder of the Mutazilite school of Islamic thought.<br /><br />Born around the year 700 in the Arabian Peninsula, he initially studied under Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, the son of the famous fourth Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib. Later he would travel to Basra in Iraq to study under Hasan al-Basri (one of the Tabi‘in). In Basra he began to develop the ideologies that would lead to the Mutazilite school. These stemmed from conflicts that many scholars had in resolving theology and politics. His main contribution to the Mutazilite school was in planting the seeds for the formation of its doctrine.<br /><br />Wasil ibn Ata died in 748 in the Arabian Peninsula.<br /><br />He was married to the sister of Amr ibn Ubayd.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Hudhayfa al-Ghazzal Wasil ibn 'Ata'</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, Abu Hudhayfa al-Ghazzal</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-style: normal;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wathiq bi-‘llah, Abu Ja‘far Harun al-</span></i></b></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-style: normal;"><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wathiq bi-‘llah, Abu Ja‘far Harun al-</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> (</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Ja‘far Harun al-Wathiq bi-‘llah</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">). ‘Abbasid caliph (r.842-847).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">His reign was marked by troubles caused by an alleged descendant of the Umayyads, named Abu Harb, usually called al-Mubarqa’.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">He also had to send the general Bugha al-Kabir to Medina in order to subdue the rebellious Bedouins around the town.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The Kharijites and the Kurds were also causing trouble, al-Wathiq was an ardent Mu‘tazili.</span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Abu Jaʿfar Harun ibn Muhammad (b. April 17, 812 Mecca, Abbasid Caliphate – d. August 10, 847, Samarra, Abbasid Caliphate), better known by his regnal name al-Wathiq bi-llah (<abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> "</span>He who trusts in God"), was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 842 until 847 CE (227–232 AH in the Islamic calendar).</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq is described in the sources as well-educated, intellectually curious, but also a poet and a drinker, who enjoyed the company of poets and musicians as well as scholars. His brief reign was one of continuity with the policies of his father, al-Mu'tasim, as power continued to rest in the hands of the same officials whom al-Mu'tasim had appointed. The chief events of the reign were the suppression of revolts: Bedouin rebellions occurred in Syria in 842, the Hejaz in 845, and the Yamamah in 846. Armenia had to be pacified over several years, and above all, an abortive uprising took place in Baghdad itself in 846, under Ahmad ibn Nasr al-Khuza'i. The latter was linked to al-Wathiq's continued support for the doctrine of Mu'tazilism, and his reactivation of the <i>mihna</i> to root out opponents. In foreign affairs, the perennial conflict with the Byzantine Empire continued, and the Abbasids even scored a significant victory at Mauropotamos, but after a prisoner exchange in 845, warfare ceased for several years.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq's character is relatively obscure compared to other early Abbasid caliphs. He appears to have been a sedentary ruler occupied with the luxuries of the court, a capable poet, and a patron of poets and musicians, as well as showing interest in scholarly pursuits. Al-Wathiq's unexpected death left the succession unsettled. Al-Wathiq's son al-Muhtadi was passed over due to his youth, and his half-brother al-Mutawakkil was chosen as the next caliph by a coterie of leading officials.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq was born on April 17, 812 CC (various sources give slightly earlier or later dates in 811 CC –813 CC), on the road to Mecca. His father was the Abbasid prince, and later caliph, al-Mu'tasim (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 833 CC – 842 CC</span>), and his mother a Byzantine Greek slave (<i>umm walad</i>), Qaratis. He was named Harun after his grandfather, Caliph Harun al-Rashid (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 786 CC – 809 CC</span>) and had the teknonym Abu Ja'far.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">The early life of al-Wathiq is obscure, all the more since his father was initially a junior prince without prospects of succession, who owed his rise to prominence, and eventually to the caliphate, to his control of an elite private army of Turkic slave troops (<i>ghilman</i>). Harun ibn Ziyad is mentioned as his first teacher, and he learned calligraphy, recitation and literature from his uncle, Caliph al-Ma'mun (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 813 CC – 833 CC</span>).<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Later sources nickname him the "Little Ma'mun" on account of his erudition and moral character.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">When al-Mu'tasim became caliph, he took care for al-Wathiq, as his son and heir apparent, to acquire experience in governance. Thus al-Wathiq was left in charge of the capital Baghdad in 835, when al-Mu'tasim moved north to found a new capital at Samarra. He is then mentioned in the account of al-Tabari as being sent to ceremonially welcome the general al-Afshin during his victorious return from the suppression of the revolt of Babak Khorramdin in 838 (in present-day Iran) and being left behind as his father's deputy during the Amorion campaign of the same year.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq is then mentioned in 841 as bringing a bowl of fruit to al-Afshin, now disgraced and imprisoned. Fearing that the fruit was poisoned, al-Afshin refused to accept it, and asked for someone else to convey a message to the Caliph. In Samarra, al-Wathiq's residence was immediately adjacent to his father's palace, and he was a fixed presence at court. As historian John Turner remarks, these reports show al-Wathiq in the "role of a trusted agent of his father, which positioned him well to take over the reins of power". On the other hand, al-Wathiq was never given a military command and did not even participate in the Amorion campaign, in a departure from previous Abbasid practice.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Tabari records that al-Wathiq was of medium height, handsome and well-built. He was fair with a ruddy complexion, commonly associated with noble descent. His left eye was paralyzed with a white fleck, which reportedly lent his gaze a stern aspect. When al-Mu'tasim died on January 5, 842, al-Wathiq succeeded him without opposition.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Inheriting a full treasury, the new caliph made generous donations to the common people, especially in Baghdad and the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Al-Wathiq sent his mother, Qaratis, accompanied by his brother Ja'far (the future caliph al-Mutawakkil), to head the pilgrimage in 842. Qaratis died on the way at al-Hirah on August 16, 842, and was buried in Kufa. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq's reign was short and is generally considered to have been essentially a continuation of al-Mu'tasim's own, as the government continued to be led by men that had been raised to power by al-Mu'tasim: the Turkic military commanders Itakh, Wasif, and Ashinas, the vizier, Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat, and the chief <i>qadi</i> (judge), Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad. These men had been personally loyal to al-Mu'tasim but were not similarly bound to al-Wathiq. In practice, this narrow circle controlled the levers of power and thus the Caliph's independence.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In a gesture likely aimed at cementing an alliance between the caliph and his most powerful commander,<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>al-Wathiq bestowed a crown on Ashinas in June/July 843, and on the occasion invested him with sweeping authority over the western provinces, from Samarra to the Maghreb — an act which the 15th-century Egyptian scholar al-Suyuti considered as the first occasion when royal power (<i>sultan</i>) was delegated by a caliph to a subject.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Ashinas died in 844, and Itakh succeeded him in his rank as commander-in-chief and in his over-governorship of the western provinces. The new caliph also engaged in much construction in Samarra, which went a long way towards making the caliphal residence a proper city, with markets and a port adequate to its needs. This made Samarra not only more comfortable for its inhabitants but also made investment in property there economically attractive —both major considerations for the Abbasid elites and the military, who had been forced to relocate to the new capital by al-Mu'tasim.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">However, in 843/44, the Caliph — allegedly at the instigation of the vizier Ibn al-Zayyat, or, according to a story reported by al-Tabari, inspired by the downfall of the Barmakids under Harun al-Rashid —arrested, tortured, and imposed heavy fines on several of the secretaries in the central government, in an effort to raise money to pay the Turkic troops. The measure was at the same time possibly aimed at driving a wedge between civilian and military elites, or at reducing the power of the leading Turkic commanders, such as Itakh and Ashinas, since most of the secretaries arrested and forced to pay were in their service.</p></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span style="font-family: times;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Already during the last months of al-Mu'tasim's life, a large-scale revolt had erupted in Palestine under a certain al-Mubarqa. Al-Mu'tasim sent the general Raja ibn Ayyub al-Hidari to confront the rebels. When al-Wathiq came to power, he dispatched al-Hidari against Ibn Bayhas, who led a Qaysi tribal revolt around Damascus. The exact relationship of this uprising with the revolt of al-Mubarqa is unclear. Taking advantage of the dissensions among the tribesmen, al-Hidari quickly defeated Ibn Bayhas, and then turned south and confronted al-Mubarqa's forces near Ramla. The battle was a decisive victory for the government army, with al-Mubarqa taken prisoner and brought to Samarra, where he was thrown into prison and never heard of again.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Upon coming to the throne, al-Wathiq appointed Khalid ibn Yazid al-Shaybani as governor of the restive province of Armenia. At the head of a large army, Khalid defeated the opposition of the local Muslim and Christian princes at the Battle of Kawakert. Khalid died soon after, but his son, Muhammad al-Shaybani, succeeded him in office and continued his father's task.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In spring 845, another tribal rebellion broke out. A local tribe, the Banu Sulaym, had become embroiled in a conflict with the tribes of Banu Kinanah and Bahilah around Medina, resulting in bloody clashes in February/March 845. The local governor, Salih ibn Ali, sent an army against them comprising regular troops as well as citizens of Medina, but the Sulaym were victorious and proceeded to loot the environs of the two holy cities. As a result, in May, al-Wathiq charged one of his Turkic generals, Bugha al-Kabir, to handle the affair. Accompanied by professional troops from the <i>Shakiriyyahi,</i> Turkic, and <i>Magharibah</i> guard regiments, Bugha defeated the Sulaym and forced them to surrender. In early autumn, he also forced the Banu Hilal to submit. Bugha's troops took many prisoners, some 1,300 in total who were held in Medina. They tried to escape, but were thwarted by the Medinese, and most were killed in the process. In the meantime, Bugha used the opportunity to intimidate the other Bedouin tribes of the region, and marched to confront the Banu Fazara and the Banu Murra. The tribes fled before his advance, with many submitting, and others fleeing to al-Balqa. Bugha then subdued the Banu Kilab, taking some 1,300 of them as prisoners back to Medina in May 846.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">A minor Kharijite uprising in 845/6 occurred in Diyar Rabi'a under a certain Muhammad ibn Abdallah al-Tha'labi (or Muhammad ibn Amr) but was easily suppressed by the governor of Mosul. In the same year, the general Wasif suppressed restive Kurdish tribes in Isfahan, Jibal and Fars. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In September 846, al-Wathiq sent Bugha al-Kabir to stop the depredations of the Banu Numayr in Yamamah. On February 4, 847, Bugha fought a major engagement against about 3,000 Numayris at the watering place of Batn al-Sirr. At first, he was hard pressed, and his forces almost disintegrated. Then some troops he had out raiding the Numayris' horses returned, fell upon the forces attacking Bugha and completely routed them. According to one report, up to 1,500 Numayris were killed. Bugha spent a few months pacifying the region, issuing writs of safe passage to those who submitted and pursuing the rest, before he returned to Basra in June/July 847. Over 2,200 Bedouin from various tribes were brought captive with him.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Like his father, al-Wathiq was an ardent Mu'tazilite — the sources agree that he was strongly influenced by the chief <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qadi</i></span>, Ibn Abi Duwad<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>— but also, like his father, maintained good relations with the Alids. In the third year of his caliphate, al-Wathiq revived the inquisition (<i>mihna</i>), sending officials to question jurists on their views on the controversial topic of the createdness of the Quran. Al-Wathiq supported the Mu'tazili view that the Quran was created and not eternal, and hence fell within the authority of a God-guided imam (i.e., the caliph) to interpret according to the changing circumstances. Even during a prisoner exchange held with the Byzantine Empire in 845, the ransomed Muslim prisoners were questioned on their opinions regarding the topic, with those giving unsatisfactory answers reportedly left to remain in captivity. Thus, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence, who opposed the Mu'tazili doctrine, was forced to cease his teachings and only resumed them after al-Wathiq's death.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In 846, a well-respected notable, Ahmad ibn Nasr ibn Malik al-Khuza'i, a descendant of one of the original missionaries of the Abbasid Revolution, launched a plot in Baghdad to overthrow al-Wathiq, his Turkic commanders, and the Mu'tazilite doctrines. His followers distributed money to the people, and the date for the uprising was scheduled for the night of April 4/5, 846. However, according to al-Tabari, those who were supposed to sound a drum as the signal to rise got drunk and did so a day early, and there was no response. Khatib al-Baghdadi on the other hand reports simply that an informer gave the plot away to the authorities. The deputy governor of the city, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim — the governor, his brother Ishaq, was absent — inquired on the event, and the conspiracy was revealed. Al-Khuza'i and his followers were arrested and brought before al-Wathiq at Samarra.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">The Caliph interrogated al-Khuza'i publicly, though more on the thorny theological issue of the createdness of the Quran rather than on the actual rebellion. Ahmad's answers enraged al-Wathiq so much, that the Caliph took al-Samsamah, a famous sword of the pre-Islamic period, and personally joined in the execution of Ahmad, along with the Turks Bugha al-Sharabi and Sima al-Dimashqi. Ahmad's corpse was publicly displayed next to the gibbet of Babak in Baghdad, while twenty of his followers were thrown into prison.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">The same year there was a break-in at the public treasury (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">bayt al-mal</i></span>) in Samarra. Thieves made off with 42,000 silver dirhams and a small amount of gold dinars. The <i>sahib al-shurta</i> (chief of security), Yazid al-Huwani, a deputy of Itakh, pursued and caught them. Turner points out that this episode may provide some premonition of the crisis to erupt in later decades: security even at the main palace was lax, and, based on the thieves' loot, the treasury appears to have been almost empty at the time.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In 838, al-Mu'tasim had scored a major victory against the Abbasid Caliphate's perennial foe, the Byzantine Empire, with the celebrated sack of Amorion. This success was not followed up, and warfare reverted to the usual raids and counter raids along the border. According to Byzantine sources, at the time of his death in 842, al-Mu'tasim was preparing yet another large-scale invasion, but the great fleet he had prepared to assault Constantinople perished in a storm off Cape Chelidonia a few months later. This event is not reported in Muslim sources.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Following al-Mu'tasim's death, the Byzantine regent Theoktistos attempted to reconquer the Emirate of Crete, an Abbasid vassal, but the campaign ended in disaster. In 844, an army from the border emirates of Qaliqala and Tarsus, led by Abu Sa'id, and possibly the emir of Malatya Umar al-Aqta, raided deep into Byzantine Asia Minor and reached as far as the shore of the Bosporus. The Muslims then defeated Theoktistos at the Battle of Mauropotamos, aided by the defection of senior Byzantine officers. At around the same time, the Paulicians, a sect persecuted as heretical in Byzantium, defected to the Arabs under their leader Karbeas. They founded a small principality on the Abbasid–Byzantine frontier, centered on the fortress of Tephrike, and henceforth joined the Arabs in their attacks on Byzantine territory.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In 845, a Byzantine embassy arrived at the caliphal court to negotiate about a prisoner exchange. It was held in September of the same year under the auspices of Yazaman al-Khadim, and somewhere between 3,500–4,600 Muslims were ransomed.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>In March of the same year, however, 42 officers taken captive at Amorion were executed at Samarra, after refusing to convert to Islam. After the truce arranged for the exchange expired, the Abbasid governor of Tarsus, Ahmad ibn Sa'id ibn Salm, led a winter raid with 7,000 men. It failed disastrously, with 500 men dying of cold or drowning, and 200 taken prisoner.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> After this, the Arab-Byzantine frontier remained quiet for six years. Only in the west did the Abbasids' Aghlabid clients continue their gradual conquest of Byzantine Sicily, capturing Messina (842/43), Modica (845), and Leonntini (846). In 845/46, the Aghlabids captured Miseno near Naples in mainland Italy, and in the next year their ships appeared in the Tiber River and their crews raided the environs of Rome.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq died as the result of edema, likely from liver damage or diabetes, while being seated in an oven in an attempt to cure it, on August 10, 847. His age is variously given as 32, 34, or 36 in Islamic years at the time of his death. He was buried in the Haruni Palace in Samarra.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq death was unexpected and left the succession open<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>— although the near-contemporary historian al-Ya'qubi claims that an heir had been named, and the oath of allegiance given to him. Consequently, the leading officials, the vizier, Ibn al-Zayyat, the chief <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qadi</i></span>, Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad, the Turkic generals Itakh and Wasif, and a few others, assembled to determine his successor. Ibn al-Zayyat initially proposed al-Wathiq's son Muhammad (the future caliph al-Muhtadi), but due to his youth he was passed over, and instead the council chose al-Wathiq's 26-year-old half-brother Ja'far, who became the caliph al-Mutawakkil.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">This selection is commonly considered by historians to have been in effect a conspiracy to place a weak and pliable ruler on the throne, while the same cabal of officials would run affairs as under al-Wathiq. They would be quickly proven wrong, for al-Mutawakkil quickly moved to eliminate Ibn al-Zayyat and Itakh and consolidate his own authority.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq is reported as having been generous to the poor of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and to have reduced taxes on maritime commerce, but he does not appear to have enjoyed any great popularity. What is told of his character shows him being a mild-mannered person, given to indolence and the pleasures of court life, to the point of becoming inebriated and falling asleep.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> He was an accomplished poet — more poems of his survive than of any other Abbasid caliph — as well as a skilled composer. He also could play the oud well. Al-Wathiq was also a patron of poets, singers and musicians, inviting them to the palace. He showed particular favor to the musician Ishaq al-Mawsili, the singer Mukhariq, and the poet al-Dahhak al-Bahili, known as <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Khali</i></span> (<abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>'the Debauched One').</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">In contrast to this picture, the 10th-century historian al-Mas'udi portrays al-Wathiq as "interested in scientific learning and facilitating disputations among physicians". The Graeco-Arabic translation movement continued to flourish under his reign, and the sources also relate some episodes that show al-Wathiq's own "intellectual curiosity", especially as related to issues that could burnish his religious credentials: he reportedly dreamed that the Barrier of Dhu'l-Qarnayn had been breached—probably resulting from news of the movements of the Kirghiz Turks at the time that caused large population shifts among the Turkic nomads of Central Asia — and sent the chancery official Sallam al-Tarjuman to journey to the region and investigate. Likewise, according to Ibn Khordadbeh, the Caliph sent the astronomer al-Khwarizmi to the Byzantines to investigate the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. </p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;">Al-Wathiq is one of the more obscure Abbasid caliphs. Al-Wathiq had several concubines. The most famous of them was Qurb, also known as Umm Muhammad. In 833, she gave birth to al-Wathiq's elder son, Muhammad, the future caliph al-Muhtadi. Another known and famous concubine was Faridah, who was also a musician and al-Wathiq's favorite. When al-Wathiq died, the singer Amr ibn Banah presented her to Caliph al-Mutawakkil. He married her, and she became one of his favorites.</p></span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Ja‘far Harun al-Wathiq bi-‘llah</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wathiq bi-‘llah, Abu Ja‘far Harun al-</i></span></div></i></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wattasids</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattasids</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattassids</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waṭāsīyūn</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Wattas</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Watas</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moroccan dynasty (r.1428-1547 [1554?]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the thirteenth century, the Banu Wattas established themselves in the Rif of eastern Morocco.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They became practically independent rulers when their relatives, the Marinids (Merinids), had replaced the Almohads.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their history is at first linked with that of the Marinids and afterwards closely connected with the Christian attempts to conquer territory in Morocco and with the accession of the Sa‘di Sharifs. The descendants of a branch of the nomadic Zanata on the northern edge of the Sahara, who settled in eastern Morocco and the Rif from the 13th century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having come to prominence under their relatives, the Merinids, as viziers and governors they took over the regency for the Merinid child sultans (r. 1358-1374 and 1393-1458).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The founder of the dynasty Abu Zakariyya’ Yahya (r. 1428-1448) took control of Morocco as vizier after it had lapsed into anarchy following the assassination of the Marinid Abu Sa‘id ‘Uthman III (r. 1399-1420).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He fought successfully the Portuguese who had landed on the Moroccan coasts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His son ‘Ali, however, could not prevent the fall of al-Qasr al-Saghir, and the third Wattasid vizier, Yahya, was assassinated in 1458 with most of his family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All but two brothers were slaughtered during the massacre.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last Marinid ruler Abu Muhammad ‘Abd al-Haqq II (r.1428-1465) then tried to govern directly, but he was killed in 1465.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The surviving Wattasid Muhammad al-Sheikh al-Mahdi (Muhammad I al-Shaykh) (r.1472-1505), in Arzila since 1465, from his base there seized power in Fez in 1472 and installed his family’s rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1472, the Wattasid Muhammad I al-Shaykh<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was able to take Fez, now under Idrisid government, and was proclaimed sultan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His successors, Muhammad al-Burtugali (r. 1505-1524) and Abu’l-Abbas Ahmad (r. 1524-1550), had to struggle against the invading Portuguese and Spanish, to whom they lost broad coastal territories, and also against the advancing Sadites in the south.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last Wattasid ruler fell in 1554 during the fight against the Sadites.<br /><br />The Wattassids were an Amazigh dynasty of Morocco. They followed the Marinids and were followed by the Saadis.<br /><br />Like the Marinids, they were of Berber Zenata descent. The two families were related, and the Marinids recruited many viziers from the Wattasids. These viziers assumed the powers of the Sultans, seizing power when the last Marinid, Abu Muhammad Abd al-Haqq, who had massacred many of the Wattasids in 1459, was murdered during a popular revolt in Fez in 1465.<br /><br />Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Mahdi was the first Wattasid Sultan, but controlled only the northern part of Morocco as the Wattasid sultanate, the south being dominated by the Saadi dynasty.<br /><br />The Wattasids were finally replaced by the Saadis in 1554.<br /><br />The Wattasid viziers were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1420-1448 : Abu Zakariya Yahya<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1448-1458 : Ali ibn Yusuf<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1458-1459 : Yahya ibn Abi Zakariya Yahya<br /><br />The Wattasid sultans were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1472-1504 : Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1504-1526 : Abu Abd Allah al-Burtuqali Muhammad ibn Muhammad<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1526-1526 : Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1526-1545 : Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1545-1547 : Nasir ad-Din al-Qasri Muhammad ibn Ahmad<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1547-1549 : Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* 1554-1554 : Abu al-Hasan Abu Hasun Ali ibn Muhammad</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wattasid dynasty (<i>al-waṭṭāsīyūn</i>) was a ruling dynasty of Morocco. Like the Marinid dynasty, its rulers were of Zenata Berber descent. The two families were related, and the Marinids recruited many viziers from the Wattasids. These viziers assumed the powers of the Sultans, seizing control of the Marinid dynasty's realm when the last Marinid, Abu Muhammad Abd al-Haqq, who had massacred many of the Wattasids in 1459, was murdered during a popular revolt in Fez in 1465.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya was the first Sultan of the Wattasid Dynasty. He controlled only the northern part of Morocco, the south being divided into several principalities. The Wattasids were finally supplanted in 1554, after the Battle of Tadla, by the Saadi dynasty princes of Tagmadert who had ruled all of southern Morocco since 1511.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Morocco endured a prolonged multifaceted crisis in the 15th and early 16th centuries brought about by economic, political, social and cultural issues. Population growth remained stagnant and traditional commerce with the far south was cut off as the Portuguese occupied all seaports. At the same time, the towns were impoverished, and intellectual life was on the decline.</span></p><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Morocco was in decline when the Berber Wattasids assumed power. The Wattasid family had been the autonomous governors of the eastern Rif since the late 13th century, ruling from their base in Tazouta (near present-day Nador). They had close ties to the Marinid sultans and provided many of the bureaucratic elite. While the Marinid dynasty tried to repel the Portuguese and Spanish invasions and help the kingdom of Granada to outlive the Reconquista, the Wattasids accumulated absolute power through political maneuvering. When the Marinids became aware of the extent of the conspiracy, they slaughtered the Wattasids, leaving only Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya alive. He went on to found the Kingdom of Fez and establish the dynasty to be succeeded by his son, Mohammed al-Burtuqali, in 1504.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wattasid rulers failed in their promise to protect Morocco from foreign incursions and the Portuguese increased their presence on Morocco's coast. Mohammad al-Chaykh's son attempted to capture Asilah and Tangier in 1508, 1511 and 1515, but without success.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In the south, a new dynasty arose, the Saadian dynasty, which seized Marrakesh in 1524 and made it their capital. By 1537, the Saadis were in the ascendent when they defeated the Portuguese Empire at Agadir. Their military successes contrast with the Wattasid policy of conciliation towards the Catholic kings to the north.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">As a result, the people of Morocco tended to regard the Saadians as heroes, making it easier for them to retake the Portuguese strongholds on the coast, including Tangiers, Ceuta and Maziyen. The Saadians also attacked the Wattasids who were forced to yield to the new power. In 1554, as Wattasid towns surrendered, the Wattasid sultan, Ali Abu Hassun, briefly retook Fez. The Saadis quickly settled the matter by killing him and, as the last Wattasids fled Morocco by ship, they too were murdered by pirates.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Wattasid did little to improve general conditions in Morocco following the <i>Reconquista</i>. It was necessary to wait for the Saadians for order to be reestablished and the expansionist ambitions of the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula to be curbed.<br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Chronology of Events</span></p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/skins.vector.styles/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to the Treaty of Alcacovas (1479), and to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Spain recognized the kingdom as being in the Portuguese sphere of influence.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1485: Treaty with Spain: The sultanate agrees to not help the Kingdom of Granada, Spain agreed to not capture Moroccan ships in the Alboran Sea. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1488: Portuguese conquer Safi. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1491: Muhammad XIII, Sultan of Granada (El Zagal) went to Fez but was captured and blinded.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1492: Arrival of Spanish Muslims and Jews.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1497: Spain captures Melilla. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1502: Portugal captures Mazagan. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1505: Portugal captures Agadir. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1506: Portugal captures Mogador. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1511: Saadians capture Rabat.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1524: Saadians capture Marrakesh. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1541: Saadians capture Agadir. </span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1541: Saadians capture Safi.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1542: Hasan Hâsim captures Tetuan.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1548: The last wattasid king is captured by the Saadians.</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">1550: Saadians conquer Fez.</span></li></ul></div><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Wattas</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattasids</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waṭāsīyūn</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattasids</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattassids</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattasids</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Watas</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wattasids</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Watwat, Rashid al-Din</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Watwat, Rashid al-Din</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Watwat</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Vatvat</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Muhammad Umar-i Vatvat</i>) (b. c. 1088/1089 CC, Balkh or Bukhara - d. 1182/1183 CC, Khwarazm) was a<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Persian poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He left a Persian translation of the 100 sayings of ‘Ali, and a treatise on rhetoric.<br /><br />Rashid al-Din Muhammad Umar-i Vatvāt was a 12th century royal panegyrist and epistolographer of Persia.<br /><br />Serving at the court of Khwarazmshah Kings, he is not to be mistaken for a later physician by the name Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat.<br /><br />He also composed qasidehs, but his rhetorical work Hada'iq 'us-sihr ("The Gardens of Magic") is in prose.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b>Rashid al-Din Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Jalil al-Umari</b> (better known by his nickname of <b>Vatvat</b> ("the swallow"), was a secretary, poet, philologist in the Khwarazmian Empire. In addition to being a prolific author in Arabic and Persian, he also occupied high-ranking offices, serving as the chief secretary and propagandist under the Khwarazmshahs Atsiz (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1127/8–1156</span>) and Il Arslan (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1156–1172</span>).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Although Vatvat spent most of his life in the Khwarazmian capital of Gurganj, he was himself a native of Balkh or Bukhara. He mainly composed panegyric <i>qasidehs</i>, but his rhetorical work <i>Hada'iq al-sihr fi daqa'iq al-shi'r</i> ("Gardens of Magic in the Subtleties of Poetry") is in prose.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Vatvat was born in 1088/1089 CC in either the city of Balkh or Bukhara, to a Sunni Persian family, which claimed descent from the second Caliph Omar (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 634–644</span>). Vatvat was educated at a Nizamiya <i>madrasa</i> in Balkh, where he became well-read in the Arabic philological tradition. There he became a <i>katib</i> (scribe) by craft, and moved to the Central Asian region of Khwarazm, where he remained the rest of his life under the service of the ruling Khwarazmshahs. There Vatvat distinguished himself as a court poet, and as a result was given the post of <i>sahib divan al-insha</i> (chief secretary) by Khwarazmshah Atsiz (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1127/1128–1156</span>), which he retained under the latter's son and successor, Il-Arslan (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1156–1172</span>). Under the two Khwarazmshahs, Vatvat also served as a propagandist, circulating rumors that the Seljuk Empire was near its end, and the Khwarazmshahs were in the ascendancy. Vatvat's loyalty towards Atsiz earned him the hostility of the latter's overlord, the Seljuk ruler Ahmad Sanjar (<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><abbr style="border-bottom: 0px; cursor: help;" title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1118–1157</span>), who, at one point, was determined to have Vatvat cut into 30 pieces, but was talked out of it by his chief secretary Muntajab al-Din Juvayni. Vatvat died in 1182/1183 in Khwarazm.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to 15th-century biographer Dawlatshah Samarqandi, Vatvat was given the nickname "Vatvat" (the swallow) due to his small size and eloquent words. He was disliked by several poets and courtiers due to his bad temper, which led them to mock him at court meetings for his small size and baldness. Vatvat successfully defended himself against these taunts with his rhetorical skills.</span></p><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <i>divan </i>of Vatvat, written in Persian, contains 8,500 verses, mainly panegyric <i>qasidas</i> often dedicated to Atsiz. Due to his position as a poet laureate of the court, Vatvat was in extensive poetic correspondence with the leading poets of his time, such as Khaqani, Adib Sabir, and Anvari, who all praised him. Vatvat also praised them (particularly Adib Sabir) in his own poems, but his panegyrics were often written in a satirical way either due to the change in political climate or because of his notably bad temper.</span></p></div><div><i>Rashid al-Din Vatvat </i>see <i>Rashid al-Din Watwat</i></div><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Watwat</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Watwat, Rashid al-Din</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Muhammad Umar-i Vatvāt</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Watwat, Rashid al-Din</i><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rashid al-Din Vatvat</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Watwat, Rashid al-Din</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br /><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Wayto</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wayto</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weyto</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Wayto of Lake Tana in north central Ethiopia are one of the rare remnants of the pre-agricultural African peoples (hunters, gatherers and fishermen) and constitute one of the few instances in the world of Muslim hunters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They live in scattered settlements on the Tana shore and dispersed among Amhara peoples further inland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wayto in both locations may total as many as 2,000, but they are constantly “passing” and disappearing into the society of the Amhara peoples, the dominant people of Ethiopia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They spoke their own indigenous language and possessed an aboriginal religion in the late eighteenth century, but since at least the mid-nineteenth century the Wayto speak only Amharic (an Ethno-Semitic language) and profess to be Muslims.<br /><br />The Weyto people were a group of hippopotamus hunters who once spoke the Weyto language. They lived in Ethiopia near Lake Tana. They were never a large community, but they were not always endangered. Their language is now an extinct language. Ninety-three percent (93%) of these people speak Amharic, the dominating language. Since Weyto has been extinct for quite some time, it is little known and considered an unclassified language.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The <b>Weyto</b> (also <b>Wayto</b>) are a caste living in the Amhara region along the shore of Lake Tana in northern Ethiopia. They worship the Nile River. They currently live in Bahir Dar, Abirgha, Dembiya and Alefa. The Weyto also make up part of the population of the Blue Nile Falls and Fogera. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Weyto are thought to have been one of the Konso tribes that migrated to northern Ethiopia, assimilating through time as a caste among the dominant Amhara people. Their endogamous stratum has existed in the hierarchical Amhara society, one of the largest ethnic groups found in Ethiopia and neighboring regions. Their hereditary occupation was hunting and leather work (tanning).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The general term for hunter-gatherers in Ethiopia is <i>Wayṭo</i>/<i>Woyṭo</i> in Amharic (<i>Uoïto</i> in Italian records), <i>Watta</i> (pl. <i>Watto</i>) in Oromo, <i>Fuga</i> in the Gurage, and <i>Manjo</i> (<i>Mangio</i> in Italian records) in Kafa. At least one group is reported to have called themselves <i>Addo</i> or <i>Addoye</i>, though that may be the Oromo word for 'potters', another minority caste. Despite being lumped under common terms for hunter-gatherer, the Amharic-speaking <i>Wayṭo</i> of Lake Tana are a distinct people from the Kafa-speaking <i>Manjō</i> of the Keffa Zone, as well as from other <i>Wayṭo/Watta/Fuga</i> groups elsewhere in Ethiopia.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Weytos’ livelihood strongly depends on Lake Tana. The Weytos used to fish and hunt hippopotamus. The Weytos were organised autonomously and equally divided their catch. In the 20th century, the demand for ivory tusks increased. Combined with the introduction of rifles, this led to a rapid decrease of the hippo population, and the Weyto were compelled to turn to fishing and agriculture. By the 1960s, the fish catches decreased also and many Weyto reverted to stone crushing and “tankwa” reed boat preparation. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Currently, the Weyto rely on the lake (Lake Tana) for fish, papyrus grass, and regression agriculture on the shores. The men produce reed boats for sale, and the women do basketry. Petty trade is a further source of income. The Weyto people are described in historical texts as a group of hippopotamus hunters in Ethiopia around Lake Tana, Lake Zwai, and Bahir Dar. Due to their diet on hippopotamus meat, the Weyto have been considered an outcast people and despised by the Amhara and other ethnic groups. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Weyto have been a small part of a more elaborate Amhara caste system, ranked higher than slaves in its social stratification system. The caste system depended on: endogamy; hierarchical status; restraints on commensality; pollution concepts; traditional occupation; inherited caste membership. Scholars accept that there has been a rigid, endogamous and occupationally closed social stratification among Amhara and other Afro-Asiatic-speaking Ethiopian ethnic groups. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"></sup></span></p><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Weyto are reported to have once spoken a Weyto language, </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">likely belonging to the Cushitic family.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The language became extinct at some point in the 19th century.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> According to the 1994 national census, 1172 individuals were reported belonging to this ethnic group; it was not an ethnic choice in the 2007 census.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The Weyto language was last documented in 1928.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> It has now disappeared and was replaced by Amharic. </span></span></div><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Weytos’ religion was related to water. “Abinas” was the God of the Blue Nile and provided resources and health. In return, the people sacrificed animals for Abinas. The Weyto converted to Islam, while continuing to worship the Nile.</span></p></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Amhara people consider the Weyto impure, because they eat catfish and supposedly hippopotamus, though the last hippo hunt dates back to the 1960s.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The Weyto population has long been marginalized by the Amharas settled on Lake Tana's shores.<span style="font-size: 13.3333px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> For instance, in Bahir Dar, the Weyto are outcasts because their traditional lifestyle is considered impure. For the Orthodox Christians, Weyto food habits are impure, and the Muslim community does not recognize them as true Muslims because they continue worshipping the Nile. Hence, the majority of the population remains wary of the Weyto.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Scholarly disregard</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> and the everyday culture of other ethnic groups also causes the dismissal of the Weyto culture.</span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The health of the Weyto community in Bahir Dar is strongly affected because they continue drinking the lake's water, which has become heavily polluted.</span></span></div><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px 1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In 1938, an Italian tourist guide noticed well established Weyto villages on Bahir Dar's lakeshore. Currently, the Weyto live in three distinct villages within Bahir Dar's city boundaries; the buildings are made of clay with thatched roofs and have a lifespan of about five years. The Weyto villages need regularly to change their place by order of the authorities for several reasons:</span></p><ul style="background-color: white; color: #202122; list-style-image: url("/w/skins/Vector/resources/skins.vector.styles/images/bullet-icon.svg?d4515"); margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">ritual places are contested by other population groups</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">the Amhara have greater financial power to obtain the land</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">the Weyto do not hold land titles</span></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="font-family: times;">overall, they have a weak position in negotiation</span></li></ul></div><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weyto</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> see </span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wayto</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><o:p style="font-size: 12pt; font-size: 12pt;"></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-27621042662488033492024-01-27T09:09:00.000-08:002024-01-27T09:09:14.758-08:002024: Wehbi - Weysi <p> </p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Wehbi, Sayyid</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wehbi, Sayyid</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Wehbi</i>) (d. 1736).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottoman Turkish poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With Ahmed Nedim (d. 1730), Mehmed Emin Beligh (d. 1729) and ‘Abd al-Razzag Newres, he is reckoned among the most important representatives of the romantic group in the reign of Sultan Ahmed III.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Wehbi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wehbi, Sayyid</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Wejihi, Husayn</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wejihi, Husayn</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Husayn Wejihi</i>) (d.1660).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottoman poet and historian from the Crimea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His history comprises the years 1637 to 1656.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Husayn Wejihi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wejihi, Husayn</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Weysi</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weysi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uways ibn Mehmed</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottoman scholar and poet. He was one of the best prose writers of his time, using a particularly fine persianizing style.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote a biography of the Prophet, which only comes down to the battle of Badr.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uways ibn Mehmed</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weysi</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-41265992599931046462023-10-23T03:13:00.006-07:002024-01-27T09:02:13.146-08:002024: Widodo - Women<p> </p><div style="color: #252525; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><b style="line-height: 22.4px;"><i>Widodo, Joko</i></b></span></span></div><div style="color: #252525; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><p style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><i><span style="color: #202122;">Joko Widodo</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></i><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">(b. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="color: #202122;" title="Name at birth">Mulyono, </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">June 21, 1961, Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia), popularly known as</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span style="color: #202122;">Jokowi. </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> An Indonesian politician and businessman who became the 7th President of Indonesia.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">A member of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">(</span></span><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><i lang="id" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan -- </i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">PDI-P), he was the country's first president to not have emerged from the country's political or military elite. He previously served as governor of Jakarta</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">from 2012 to 2014 and mayor of Surakarta</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">from 2005 to 2012.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Widodo was born and raised in a riverside slum in Surakarta. He graduated from Gadjah Mada University in 1985, and married his wife, Iriana, a year later. He worked as a carpenter and a furniture exporter before being elected mayor of Surakarta in 2005.</span><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="font-size: 20px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> He achieved national prominence as mayor and was elected governor of Jakarta in 2012, </span><span style="font-size: large;">with Basuki Tjahaja Purnama</span><span style="font-size: large;"> as his deputy.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="font-size: large;">As governor, Widodo reinvigorated local politics, introduced publicized </span><i style="font-size: x-large;">blusukan</i><span style="font-size: large;"> visits (unannounced spot checks)</span><span style="font-size: large;"> and improved the city's bureaucracy, reducing corruption in the process. He also introduced years-late programs to improve quality of life, including universal healthcare, dredged the city's main river to reduce flooding, and inaugurated the construction of the city's subway system. </span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">In 2014, Widodo was nominated as the PDI-P's candidate in that year's presidential election, choosing Jusuf Kalla as his running mate. Widodo was elected over his opponent Prabowo Subianto, who disputed the outcome of the election. Widodo was inaugurated on October 20, 2014. Since taking office, Widodo has focused on economic growth and infrastructure development as well as an ambitious health and education agenda. On foreign policy, his administration has emphasized protecting Indonesia's sovereignty, with the sinking of illegal foreign fishing vessels and the prioritizing and scheduling of capital punishment for drug smugglers. The latter was despite intense representations and diplomatic protests from foreign powers, including Australia and France. He was re-elected in 2019 for a second five-year term, again defeating Prabowo Subianto.</span></p></span></div><div style="color: #252525; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times, times new roman, serif;"><b><i><br /></i></b></span></span></div><div style="color: #252525; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Wilopo</span></i></b></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="color: #202122;"><i>Wilopo</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">(b. August 21, 1909, Purworejo, Kedu Residency, Dutch East Indies – d. June 1, 1981, Jakarta, Indonesia) was an Indonesian politician and lawyer. A capable administrator, he served as prime minister of Indonesia</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">from 1952 to 1953. He also held various other positions during his career, including as Minister of Labor, Minister of Economic Affairs, speaker of the Constitutional Assembly, and chairman of the Supreme Advisory Council.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span></span></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br />Born into a Muslim family in Purworejo, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">Wilopo attended the <i>Rechts Hogeschool</i> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">in Batavia (now Jakarta)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">, during which time he became involved in educational and nationalist groups. After graduating, he worked as a lawyer and was active in the Indonesian nationalist movement, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">becoming involved in the Partindo and Gerindo </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">political parties. During the Japanese occupation period </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">(1942–1945), Wilopo became an official in the occupation government and was a figure in both the <i>Putera </i>and <i>Suishintai</i> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">organizations. Following the proclamation of Indonesian Independence </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">in 1945, Wilopo joined the newly formed Republican government, first as an aide to Jakarta Mayor Suwiryo, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">then as a member of the Central Indonesian National Committee.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"> During the Indonesian National Revolution </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">(1945–1949), he joined the Indonesian National Party </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">(</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;"><i lang="id" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Partai Nasional Indonesia -- </i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">PNI) and became Junior Minister of Labor in 1947.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Following the recognition of sovereignty in the Dutch Indonesian Round Table Conference, in which he took part, Wilopo was appointed Minister of Labor by Prime Minister Mohammad Hatta in 1949. He also emerged as a leader in the Indonesian National Party (PNI) and became Minister of Economic Affairs in the Soekiman Cabinet. In 1952, following a foreign policy debacle, the Soekiman Cabinet fell and Wilopo was appointed <i>formateur </i>of a new cabinet by President Sukarno. He opted to form a new cabinet consisting of pro-Western technocrats with unity, a common policy orientation, and the support of the PNI and Masyumi Party, even though both parties were unenthusiastic partners.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;">As prime minister, Wilopo presided over a realignment of political forces as the PNI grew increasingly wary of the Masyumi, the Nahdlatul Ulama split off from the Masyumi, and the Communist Party (</span><span style="font-family: times;"><i>Partai Komunis Indonesia --</i></span><span face="sans-serif"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">PKI) re-entered the political scene. His premiership was also marked by a succession of crises, including an economic crisis and a show of force by the Indonesian Army,</span><span style="font-family: times;"> who opposed his cabinet's demobilization scheme, </span><span style="font-family: times;">culminating in the downfall of his cabinet over a land dispute in North Sumatra. </span><span style="font-family: times;"> Afterwards, Wilopo continued to serve in public office, serving as speaker of the Constitutional Assembly (1956–1959) and chairman of the Supreme Advisory Council (1968–1978). </span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wilopo died in Jakarta </span><span style="font-family: times;">in 1981.</span></span></p></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Wolof</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wolof</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"> (</span><i style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ouolof</i><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Ethnic group and language of Senegal that became the principal national language of Senegal. The Wolof inhabit Senegambia in West Africa, from the river Senegal in the north to the river Gambia in the south.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">They form thirty-six percent of the population of Senegal and fifteen percent of the population of Gambia.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The region is ethnically mixed and also includes Mandinka (Soose), Fulani (Fulbe) and Serer.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The Wolof are the dominant element in the former states of Waalo (Oualo), Kahoor (Kayor), Jolof, Baol, Sin (Sine) and Saalum (Saloum) and were already occupying this portion of West Africa when the first Portuguese voyagers reached the coast in the middle of the fifteenth century.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Practically all Wolof are Muslim, with a small number of Christian Wolof found mainly in the coastal cities (Dakar, Goree, Banjul).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Islam came to northern Senegal about the eleventh century, and the early Portuguese travellers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries mention that most Wolof rulers, even though they generally followed traditional ways, had religious teachers at their courts.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">One of the functions of such men was to provide supernatural protection against evil forces -- malicious spirits, witchcraft and the evil eye.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">However, Islam was slow in reaching the mass of the people, and Muslim converts often had to form separate communities of their own.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">It was not until the religious wars of the nineteenth century, particularly as a result of the jihad of El Hadj Omar, who was followed by such warriors as Ma Ba in southern Senegal, that widespread conversion took place.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Muslim religious leaders were then engaged in a struggle both with traditional rulers, who were opposed to this new threat to their power, as well as with the French.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Ironically, though the French were opposed to the expansion of Islam, the period of peace and improved communications that followed the success of the French conquest enabled religious teachers to move more freely, and Islam spread rapidly and widely.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">A Wolof usually belongs to one the three main brotherhoods: Tijani (brought by El Hadj Omar), to which about sixty percent of the Wolof owe allegiance; Mouridism, which includes thirty percent of the Wolof (a group founded by Ahmadou Bamba at Touba, where there is now one of the largest mosques in sub-Saharan Africa and which has become the center of an important annual pilgrimage); and Qadiri, to which about ten percent belong.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The Wolof are a Muslim people of Senegal and The Gambia who speak the Wolof language of the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The typical rural community is small (about 100 persons). Most Wolof are farmers, growing peanuts (groundnuts) as a cash crop and millet and sorghum as staples. Many, however, live and work in Dakar and Banjul as traders, goldsmiths, tailors, carpenters, teachers, and civil servants. Traditional groups were characterized by a markedly hierarchical social stratification, including royalty, an aristocracy, a warrior class, commoners, slaves, and members of low-status artisan castes. At their head was a paramount chief.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">In the past, the Wolof observed double descent; i.e., descent was traced through both the male and female lines. Islamic influence, however, has tended to make the male line dominant. A household unit may consist of a nuclear family (husband, wife, and minor children) or a polygynous family (a husband, his several wives, and their children). Other close kin, however, may sometimes be found together with the nuclear family. Wolof women are renowned for their elaborate hairstyles, abundant gold ornaments, and voluminous dresses.</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span><span style="font-family: times;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The origins of the Wolof people are obscure. Archeological artifacts have been discovered in Senegal and the Gambia, such as pre-historic pottery, the 8th-century stones, and 14th-century burial mounds, but these provide no evidence that links them exclusively to the Wolof ethnic group. Their name as the Wolof first appears in the records of 15th-century Portuguese travelers.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">With the Arab conquests of West Africa in last centuries of the 1st millennium CC, one theory states that the Wolof people were forced to move into north and east Senegal where over time villages and towns developed into autonomous states such as Baol, Kayor, Saloum, Dimar, Walo, and Sine the overall ruling state being that of Jolof who came together voluntarily to form the Jolof Empire.</span><span style="font-size: 20px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">This migration likely occurred at the end of the11th century CC when the Ghana Empire </span><span style="font-size: large;">fell to the Muslim armies from Sudan.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Another oral tradition tells of a legend in Walo, which starts with two villages near a lake in a dispute. A mysterious person arose from the lake to settle the dispute. The villagers detained him; he settled among them and became the one who settled disputes with sovereign authority. He was called <i>Ndyadyane Ndyaye</i>, and his descendants were called <i>Ndiayes</i> or <i>Njie</i>, and these led to ruling families of Wolof. The documented history, from 15th-century onwards, is a complex story of the rivalry between powerful families, wars, coups and conquests in Wolof society.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The Jolof or Wolof Empire was a medieval West African state that ruled parts of Senegal and the Gambia from approximately 1350 to 1890. While only ever consolidated into a single state structure for part of this time, the tradition of governance, caste, and culture of the Wolof dominate the history of north-central Senegal for much of the last 800 years. Its final demise at the hands of French colonial forces in the 1870s–1890s also marks the beginning of the formation of Senegal as a unified state.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">By the end of the 15th century, the Wolof states of Jolof, Kayor, Baol, and Walo had become united in a federation with Jolof as the metropolitan power. The position of king was held by the Burba Wolof, and the rulers of the other component states owed loyalty and tribute payments to him. Before the Wolof people became involved in goods and slave trading with the Portuguese merchants on the coast, they had a long tradition of established trading of goods and slaves with the Western Sudanese empires and with Imamate of Futa Toro and other ethnic groups in North Africa.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Slavery had been a part of the Wolof culture since their earliest recorded history. Prior to the arrival of Europeans to regions inhabited by the Wolof, slaves there were either born into slavery or enslaved via purchase or capture in warfare. Beginning in the 16th century, Portuguese slave traders started to purchase slaves from Senegambian ports to transport to their American colonies; these slaves frequently passed through Wolof lands before arriving at the coast. As the European demand for slaves increased during the 17th and 18th centuries, the era saw a corresponding increase in Wolof slave raids with the purpose of acquiring captives to transport to the coast.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-size: x-large; margin: 0.5em 0px;">The transatlantic slave trade also led to the Wolof acquiring European firearms, which were commonly bartered for slaves at the West African coast. With these firearms, the intensity and violence of Wolof slave raids (and conflicts with other ethnic groups in general) increased. However, these slave raids eventually began to subside as European and American governments progressively outlawed their nations' involvement in the slave trade. During the New Imperialism era, the Scramble for Africa saw the majority of African territory, including lands inhabited by the Wolof, fall under European colonial rule. These new colonial regimes moved to outlaw slavery, and by the 1890's the French authorities in West Africa had largely abolished the institution. However, the social distinctions between free-born Wolof and slaves remained present during the period of colonial rule, continuing even after the decolonization of Africa in the mid-20th century, which saw the Wolof become independent from European colonial rule.</p></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Woman’s Action Forum</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Woman’s Action Forum</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">WAF</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khavatin Mahaz-i 'Amal</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Formed in 1981 in response to the government of Pakistan’s implementation of an Islamic penal code, the Women’s Action Forum (WAF; Khavatin Mahaz-i ‘Amal) sought the strengthening of women’s position in society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Members feared that many of the proposed laws being put forward by the martial law government of General Zia ul-Haq might be discriminatory against women and compromise their civil status, as they had seen with the promulgation of the Hudud Ordinances in 1979 when women were indicted after having been raped. Women, most from elite families, banded together on the principal of collective leadership in the three major cities of Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad to formulate policy statements and engage in political action to safeguard women’s legal position.<br /><br />In its charter, the WAF asserts that it is “committed to protecting and promoting the rights of women by countering all forms of oppression” by being a consciousness-raising group and acting as a lobby and pressure group, in order to create a heightened awareness of women’s rights and mobilize support for promoting these rights and “counter adverse propaganda against women.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The WAF has played a central role in the public exposure of the controversy regarding various interpretations of Islamic law, its role in a modern state, and ways in which women can play a more active role in political matters.<br /><br />The WAF’s first major political action was in early 1983 when members in Lahore and Karachi openly marched in protest against the Majlis-i Shura’s (Consultative Assembly) recommendation to President Zia that he promulgate the Qanun-i Shahadat (Law of Evidence).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As initially proposed, the law would require oral testimony and attestation of either two male witnesses or that of one male and two females; the witness of two or more females without corroboration by a male would not be sufficient, and no testimony by a woman would be admissible in the most severe hudud cases (cases that require mandatory punishments for crimes against Allah) as stipulated in the sunnah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A revised evidence law, eventually promulgated in October 1984 following nearly two years of protests, modifies the one previously enacted during the British Raj.<br /><br />WAF members used Islamic precepts as the basis of their protest.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They argued that the proposed Qanun-i Shahadat was not the only acceptable evidence law in Islam, and that there is only one instance in the Qur’an (see Sura 2:282) in which two women are called to testify in the place of one man.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But, they contended, the latter was in regard to a specific financial matter and the role of the second woman was to remind the first about points that she may have forgotten.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The intent (niyah) of the law must be taken into consideration, as it was initially intended to help women and not discriminate against them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The protesters claimed that criteria for witnesses as stated in the Qur’an are possession of sight, memory and the ability to communicate; as long as witnesses have these, testimony should be equally weighed regardless of gender.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also argued that the rigid interpretation of the Qur’an that would support the Qanun-i Shahadat (reading “male” for the generic word “man”) would virtually exclude women from being members of the religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Opponents of the evidence law also feared that women might be restricted from testifying in certain kinds of hudud cases at all, such as when a woman is the sole witness to her father’s or husband’s murder.<br /><br />The final adopted version restricts to financial cases the testimony of two women being equal to that of one man.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other instances, acceptance of a single woman’s testimony has been left to the discretion of the judge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even though the final evidence law was modified substantially from the initial proposal, the WAF held the position that the state’s declaring a woman’s evidence in financial cases unequal to that of a man’s would constrain women’s economic participation and was symbolic of an ideological perspective that could not perceive women as equal economic participants with men.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They argued that for the first time in Pakistan’s history, the laws regard men and women as having different legal rights, and, despite the rhetoric that such laws were being promulgated to protect women, they were indeed constraining women’s power and participation in the larger society.<br /><br />At protests in Lahore and Karachi in February 1983, women demonstrators were attacked by police, prompting much public outcry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The WAF’s lawyers countered the martial law government’s actions on Islamic grounds by claiming that the police, as unrelated men, had no right to physically touch the protesting women.<br /><br />In fall 1983, the WAF and other women’s groups organized demonstrations throughout the country to protest both the Qanun-i Shahadat andt eh public flogging of women.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following year, in 1984, the now separate WAF groups mounted a campaign against the promulgation of the proposed Qisas and Diyat (Retaliation and Blood Money) Ordinance, which stated tht the compensation to the family of a female victim be only half that given to the family of a male victim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In the aftermath of the lifting of martial law in December 1985, the WAF became instrumental in organizing protests (which included nearly thirty other groups) in the wake of the debate over the Shariat Bill and the Ninth Amendment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>WAF argued that in their proposed forms, both negated principles of justice, democracy, and fundamental rights of citizens, and that their passage would give rise to sectarianism and serve to divide the nation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The remaining years of the Zia regime (until fall 1988) found WAF members focused on protesting against the Ninth Amendment, instituting legal aid cells for indigent women, opposing the gendered segregation of universities, and playing an active role in condemning the growing incidents of violence against women and bringing them to the attention of the public.<br /><br />During the tenure of Benazir Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party’s first government (December 1988 - August 1990), the WAF was faced with the difficult task of transforming itself from a protest movement based on a collective moral conscience to an advocate, lobbying a more sympathetic government. With the displacement of that government, it then focused its activities on three goals: to secure women’s political representation in the parliament; to work to raise women’s consciousness, particularly in the realm of family planning; and to counter suppression and raise public awareness by taking stands and issuing statements on events as they occur.<br /><br />Women's Action Forum (WAF) is a women's rights organization and has a presence in several cities in Pakistan. It is a non-partisan, non-hierarchical and non-funded organization. It is supportive of all aspects of women's rights and related issues, irrespective of political affiliations, belief system, or ethnicity.<br /><br />Women's Action Forum came into being in Karachi in September 1981. The following year, the Lahore and then the Islamabad Chapters were formed. Some years later, the Peshawar chapter came into being. And in May 2008, a Chapter of WAF started in Hyderabad, in the Province of Sindh.<br /><br />Women's Action Forum engaged in active lobbying and advocacy on behalf of women in Pakistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It held demonstrations and public-awareness campaigns. It was committed to a just and peaceful society based on democracy. The issues picked up by WAF have included challenging discriminatory legislation against women, the invisibility of women in government plans and policies, the exclusion of women from media, sports and cultural activities, dress codes for women, violence against women and the seclusion of women. WAF's activism has led to the birth of many women's rights groups and resource centers thereby increasing its outreach. WAF considers all issues as "women's issues" and has taken positions on national and global developments. It allies itself with democratic and progressive forces in the country as well as linking its struggle with that of minorities and other oppressed peoples.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">WAF</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Woman’s Action Forum</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khavatin Mahaz-i 'Amal</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Woman’s Action Forum</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Women in Islam</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Women in Islam</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The revelation of Muhammad that gave rise to Islam called for a massive restructuring of the social order.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Islam’s early years this effectively improved the status of women, placing new restraints on divorce and polygamy and requiring husbands to support their wives, as well as bringing women the right to inherit and retain control of their dowries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Qur’an still taught, nonetheless, that “men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other.” {See Sura 4:34.}<br /><br />To temper the dangers of sexual attraction and also to protect women followers of the faith from insult, the Qur’an called for modesty in the form of covering one’s inner dress and ornaments in public. In time, however, and under pressure of local custom, such teachings were cited to justify demands that women be veiled from head to foot in public.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In some regions, and especially among the upper social classes, women were totally secluded in the home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Muslim popular culture also preserved strict menstrual taboos; among other prohibitions, these excluded from the mosques both menstruating women and those who had recently given birth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Menstrual taboos also closed to women some religious offices, such as that of imam, or prayer leader.<br /><br />As in Christianity, and in many other new religions that challenge repressive establishments, women such as Khadija and ‘A’isha were very prominent in the early Muslim community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In later centuries, some women became prominent scholars.<br /><br />Women such as the mystic poetess Rabia were important to the Sufi orders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, a number of Sufi orders even had women’s branches and convents from very early times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even though largely restricted to the home, many women of traditional Muslim countries have elaborated their own religious networks and practices, transmitting religious instruction and holding gatherings in their homes.<br /><br />The study of women in Islam investigates the role status of women within the religion of Islam. The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world.<br /><br />Sharia (Islamic law) provides for differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and obligations. Majority Muslim countries give women varying degrees of rights without regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education based on different interpretations. Scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are just and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status while liberal Muslims, Muslim feminists, and others argue in favor of other interpretations. Despite the obstacles, some women have achieved high political office in Muslim majority states.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-77860293042770845722023-10-22T07:01:00.002-07:002023-10-22T07:01:49.165-07:002023: Xangoline<p><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;">Xangoline</span></i></b></p><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xangoline</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muslim saint honored by Hausa slaves in Brazil.<o:p></o:p></span><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-35846290236390536412023-10-16T01:33:00.004-07:002024-03-05T05:38:33.649-08:002023: Yacef - Yalunka<p><b style="color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Yacef, Saadi</span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Saadi Yacef</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">(b. January 20, 1928, Algiers, Algeria – d. September 10, 2021, Algiers, Algeria) was an Algerian independence fighter, serving as a leader of the National Liberation Front</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">during his country's</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"> war of independence. </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">He was a Senator in Algeria's Council of the Nation</span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"> </span><span style="color: #202122; font-family: times; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">until his death.</span></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: large; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Yacef was born in Algiers, the son of parents from the Algerian region of Kabylia. He started his working life as an apprentice baker. In 1945, he joined the Parti du Peuple Algerien, a nationalist party which the French authorities soon outlawed, after which it was reconstituted as the Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertes Democratiques (MTLD). From 1947 to 1949, Yacef served in the MTLD's paramilitary wing, the Organisation Secrete (OS). After the OS was broken up, Yacef moved to France and lived there until 1952, when he returned to Algeria to work again as a baker.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: large; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: large; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Yacef joined the FLN at the start of the Algerian War in 1954. By May 1956, he was the FLN's military chief of the Zone Autonome d'Alger (Autonomous Zone of Algiers), making him one of the leaders on the Algerian side in the Battle of Algiers. He was captured by French troops on September 24, 1957 and eventually sentenced to death. General Paul Aussaresses later asserted that while in custody, Yacef betrayed the FLN and the Algerian cause by providing the French army with the location of Ali la Pointe, another leading FLN commander. Yacef denied it. He was ultimately pardoned by the French government after Charles de Gualle's 1958 return to power.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: large; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Yacef claimed to have written his memoirs of the battle in prison although he was illiterate. The writings were published in 1962 as </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Souvenirs de la Bataille d'Alger</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">. After the Algerian War, Yacef helped produce Italian filmmaker Gillo Pontecorvo's film </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">The Battle of Algiers </i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">(1966), based on </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Souvenirs de la Bataille d'Alger</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">. Yacef played a character modeled on his own experiences in the battle.</span></span></div><h1 class="css-rsa88z e1h9rw200" data-testid="headline" style="border: 0px; color: #121212; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 3rem; margin-bottom: 1rem; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px auto 1rem calc((100% - 600px) / 2); max-width: none; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-size-adjust: 100%; vertical-align: baseline; width: 660px;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-weight: 400; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Yacef died on September 10, 2021.</span></p></h1><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div><div><b style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Yafi‘i, ‘Abd Allah ibn As‘ad al-</span></i></b></div><div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><i style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yafi‘i, ‘Abd Allah ibn As‘ad al-</i><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"> (</span><i style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘Abd Allah ibn As‘ad al-Yafi‘i</i><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">) (1300-1367).</span><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">Sufi author from Yemen.</span><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;">He compiled several biographical works on the lives of saints and Sufis.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div><h1 class="css-rsa88z e1h9rw200" data-testid="headline" style="border: 0px; color: #121212; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 3rem; margin-bottom: 1rem; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px auto 1rem calc((100% - 600px) / 2); max-width: none; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-size-adjust: 100%; vertical-align: baseline; width: 660px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="MsoPlainText" style="color: black; font-weight: 400; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Abd Allah ibn As'ad al-Yafi'i</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yafi‘i, ‘Abd Allah ibn As‘ad al-</i></span></div></span></div></span></h1></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Ya‘furids</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ya‘furids</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hiwalids</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Name of a dynasty which ruled in San‘a’ from 861 until the beginning of the tenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was founded by Ya‘fur ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Hiwali.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hiwalids</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ya‘furids</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yaghma Jandaqi</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaghma Jandaqi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Hasan Rahim ibn Hajji Ibrahim Quli</i>) (1782-1859).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Persian poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote funeral chants and slanderous and obscene satires.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jandaqi, Yaghma</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaghma Jandaqi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Hasan Rahim ibn Hajji Ibrahim Quli</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaghma Jandaqi</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya</i> (d. 1572).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turkish poet of Albanian origin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Istanbul, he became a bitter enemy of the court poet Khayali Bey and wrote a satirical lament upon the Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya ibn Adam ibn Sulayman</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya ibn Adam ibn Sulayman</i> (757-818).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muslim student of religion from Kufa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was primarily a traditionist and legist and wrote a work on land tax (in Arabic, kharaj).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya ibn ‘Ali</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya ibn ‘Ali</i> (856-912).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the best-known theorists of music of the old Arabian school.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His grandfather Yahya ibn Abi Mansur al-Munajjim (d. 831) was the famous astronomer at the court of the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun, and his father ‘Ali ibn Yahya ibn Abi Mansur and his uncle Muhammad has particular skill in music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote a Treatise on Music.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya ibn Khalid</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya ibn Khalid</i> (d. 805/806).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Member of the Barmakid family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was imprisoned by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Hadi, but the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, whose tutor he had been, appointed him as vizier with unlimited power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 803, his son Ja‘far ibn Yahya, the favorite of Harun al-Rashid, was suddenly executed, and Yahya imprisoned until his death.<br /><br />Yahya ibn Khalid was a member of the powerful Persian Barmakids family, son of Khalid ibn Barmak.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Around 765, he was appointed to Azerbaijan by the Caliph Al-Mansur. Yahya's son Al-Fadl was born at Ar-Reiy, at the same time as Caliph al-Mahdi's son Harun. Al-Mahdi entrusted Yahya in 778 with Harun's education.<br /><br />When Al-Hadi was Caliph, Yahya dissuaded the Caliph several times from proclaiming his own son as heir instead of Harun. He eventually did so, and cast Yahya into jail, but died shortly afterwards. When Harun became Caliph as Harun al-Rashid, he made Yahya Vizier.<br /><br />Under his influence, the Caliph invited to Baghdad many scholars and masters from India, especially Buddhists. A catalog of both Muslim and non-Muslim texts prepared at this time, Kitab al-Fihrist, included a list of Buddhist works. Among them was an Arabic version of the account of Buddha’s previous lives, Kitab al-Budd.<br /><br />He had three sons, among which Jafar succeeded him as Vizier, Musa ruled Damascus, and Fadl was governor of Khurasan, then of Egypt.<br /><br />In 803, his family fell into disgrace, and he was cast into prison, where he died in 806 (according to the story, because his son Jafar had an affair with Harun al-Rashid's sister, but most likely because the family had too much power).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya ibn Zayd al-Husayni</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya ibn Zayd al-Husayni</i>. Regarded as Imam by the Zaydis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After his father’s death in 740 at Kufa, he fled to Khurasan but was imprisoned by the governor Nasr ibn Sayyar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Released at the order of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid II, he defeated the commander of Nishapur but fell in the fight against Salm ibn Ahwaz, sent by Nasr.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His death deeply affected the Shi‘a of Khurasan, and vengeance for him became the watchword of the followers of Abu Muslim, the leader of the ‘Abbasid movement in Khurasan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yahya Khan</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya Khan</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan</i>) (b. February 4, 1917, Chakwal, British Raj (now Pakistan) - d. August 10, 1980, Rawalpindi, Pakistan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>President of Pakistan (March 25, 1969 - December 20, 1971).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Born into a prominent family of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, he received his commission in the army from the Military Academy, Dehra Dun, India, in 1938.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During World War II, he saw action in the Middle East and Italy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1947, he joined the Pakistan Army, becoming a full general and, in 1966, commander in chief.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1969, when Ayub Khan’s government collapsed, Yahya Khan became president of Pakistan under martial law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His rule ended in 1971with the secession of East Pakistan and the defeat of the Pakistan army in war with India.<br /><br />Yahya was born to a family that was descended from the elite soldier class of Nader Shah, the Persian ruler who conquered Delhi in the 18th century. He was educated at Punjab University and later graduated first in his class from the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun. He served in Italy and the Middle East during World War II and, after the partition of India in 1947, organized the Pakistani Staff College.<br /><br />After serving in the war with India over the Kashmir region, he became Pakistan’s youngest brigadier general at age 34 and its youngest general at 40. He became commander in chief in 1966. A protégé of President Mohammad Ayub Khan, Yahya was in command of the military when street riots erupted in the country. Ayub called on him to take over the direction of the government and preserve the integrity of Pakistan. He was appointed chief administrator of martial law, which he declared with the words “I will not tolerate disorder. Let everyone return to his post.”<br /><br />Yahya Khan succeeded Ayub Khan as president when the latter resigned his office in March 1969. In 1971 a serious conflict erupted between the central government and the Awami Party of what was then East Pakistan, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The East Pakistani leader demanded autonomy for his half of the geographically divided country, and Yahya Khan responded by ordering the army to suppress the Awami Party. The brutality with which his orders were carried out and the resulting influx of millions of East Pakistani refugees into India led to the Indian invasion of East Pakistan and the rout of its West Pakistani occupiers. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh, and with its loss Yahya Khan resigned (December 20, 1971).<br /><br />He was replaced by his foreign minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who put him under house arrest. Shortly afterward he was paralyzed by a stroke and, after his release, played no further important political role.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yahya Khan</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Yakan</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yakan</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yakan are one of the Muslim groups of the southern Philippines who are part of the Sama people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are practically all Sunni Muslims of the Shafi school.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A homogeneous group which has only slight local variations in living and language, they live on the island of Basilan, predominantly in the interior.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Information about them traces back only to the latter part of the nineteenth century and is scarce.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Probably the Yakan were the original inhabitants of Basilan, but today they comprise less than one-half the population, now sharing the island with later arrivals:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christian Filipinos, mainly living in and around the two municipalities of Isabela and Lamitan, and the Muslim Tausug and Sama, mostly in the coastal villages.<br /><br />The Yakan are one of the 13 Moro groups in the Philippines. They mainly reside in Basilan.<br /><br />The Yakans are the traditional settlers of Basilan Island in the Southern Philippines, situated to the west of Zamboanga in Mindanao. It is said that their typical physical characteristics are strikingly different when compared to the other ethnic Filipino groups (relatively high-bridged noses and tall stature). Traditionally they wear colorful, handwoven clothes. The women wear tightfitting short blouses and both sexes wear narrow cut pants resembling breeches. Traditionally, the women covered themselves partly with a wrap-around material while the man wraps a sash-like cloth around the waist where he places his weapon - usually a long knife. Nowadays most of the Yakans wear western clothes and use their traditional clothes only for special festivals.<br /><br />In the early 1970s, some of the Yakan settled in Zamboanga City due to political unrest which led to armed conflicts between the militant Muslims and government soldiers. The Yakan village in Upper Calarian is famous among local and foreign tourists because of the Yakan art of weaving. Traditionally, they have used plants like pineapple and abaca converted into fibers as basic material for weaving. Using herbal extracts from leaves, roots and barks, the Yakans dyed the fibers and produced colorful combinations and intricate designs.<br /><br />The seputangan is the most intricate design worn by the women around their waist or as a head cloth. The palipattang is patterned after the color of the rainbow while the bunga-sama, after the python. Almost every Yakan fabric can be described as unique since the finished materials are not exactly identical. Differences may be seen in the pattern or in the design or in the distribution of colors.<br /><br />Contacts with Christian Filipinos and the American Peace Corps brought about changes in the art and style of weaving. Many resorted to the convenience of chemical dyes and they started weaving table runners, placemats, wall decor, purses and other items which are not present in a traditional Yakan house. In other words, the natives catered because of economic reason to the needs of their customers. New designs were introduced like kenna-kenna, patterned after a fish; dawen-dawen, after the leaf of a vine; pene mata-mata, after the shape of an eye or the kabang buddi, a diamond-shaped design.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><i>Yaker, Layachi </i></b></span></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><i>Layachi Yaker</i></span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (b.</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> January 11, 1930, Souk Ahras, French Algeria – d. November 25, 2023, Algiers, Algeria) was an Algerian diplomat and politician of the National Liberation Front (</span></span><i lang="fr" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><span style="font-family: times;">Front de libération nationale</span></i><i lang="fr" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif;"> - </i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">FLN). </span></p><p style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: times;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The eldest of twelve children, Layachi Yaker was born on January 11, 1930, in Souk-Ahras to a family from Tamazirt, a commune of Irdjen, Tizi Ouzou. He became engaged, at age 17, in the Algerian National Movement in the framework of the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA).</span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> </span><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Self-taught, he combined political action with salaried work while training as an accountant.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span>Sent to Paris by his firm in order to become a chartered accountant, Yaker was elected vice-president of the General Union of Algerian Muslim Students in July 1955.</span><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span><span> T</span><span>his was a key election for the communist youth of Algeria in their struggle for liberation.</span><span> During the Algerian War, Yaker</span><span> was a fundraising agent for the FLN in France. </span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In February 1957, Yaker was arrested by the French government and spent two and a half years in French prisons (La Santé and Fresnes Prison). After several hunger strikes, he obtained the status of political prisoner. He was released on parole in October 1959.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Layachi Yaker joined the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA) in Cairo, Egypt in January 1961. In November of the same year, he was appointed Representative of the GPRA to India and Bangladesh.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">After Algeria's independence in July 1962, Layachi Yaker returned to the country and was appointed a senior official at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He was nominated Minister of Commerce in June 1969, serving until April 1977. He then served in the People's National Assembly from 1977 to 1979. From September 1979 to August 1984, he served as Ambassador of Algeria to the Soviet Union (1979-1982) and to the United States (1982-1984).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">In 1989, Yaker joined the United Nations system. He served as Special Advisor to the Director-General of UNESCO in Paris until 1992, and then as Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) from 1992 to 1995 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">From 1995 to 1997, Yaker was President of the International Ocean Institute (IOI).</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Throughout his career, Layachi Yaker was very actively involved in strengthening and improving relations between developed countries and so-called Third World countries, in particular as a Member of the Brandt Commission and co-editor of the North-South Report.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: times;">Layachi Yaker died in Algiers on November 25, 2023.</span></p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yalunka</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yalunka</i>. The name “Yalunka” is interpreted by the Yalunka themselves to mean “people of the Yalun.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This means that they consider themselves to be the original inhabitants of the Futa Jalon plateau in West Africa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yalunka (Dialonke, Djalonke, Dyalonke, Jallonke, Jalunka) live in the northeastern corner of Sierra Leone and portions of the Republic of Guinea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The Yalunka people originated in the mountainous Koulikoro along the Niger River valley. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> According to Susu oral tradition, they identify the Yalunka with the medieval Sosso Empire of Soumaoro Kante.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The earliest evidence suggests that sometime around the eleventh century, the Yalunka people arrived in the hilly plateau region of the Futa Jallon in Guinea, since the disintegration of the Sosso Empire.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The Yalunka people were agricultural animists and among the first settlers in Jallonkadu, the former name in what eventually became Futa Jallon. At first, the Yalunka accepted Islam. After the seventeenth century, Islamic theocracies supported by the Fula people </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">began a period of Fula dominance and their version of Islam in the region traditionally occupied by the Yalunka. The Yalunka people, along with the Susu people, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">then renounced Islam.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The Fula people and their leaders, such as Karamokho Alfa and Ibrahima Sori, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">launched a series of jihads targeted against the Yalunka in the eighteenth century. The Yalunka were defeated, subdued, and returned to Islam in 1778.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> The jihads contributed immensely to the Solima Yalunka state's creation in Guinea and Sierra Leone's northeastern boundary in the nineteenth century.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> In the time of the Yalunka's desolation, Almamy Samori Toure </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">collaborated with the Fulani, French, and Toucouleur </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">allies, to exploit and oppress the Yalunka people, In the process, Samori Touré sold many Yalunka captives to the Fulani and Europeans. The Yalunka people were considered strongly "pagan" and violently anti-Muslim.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Sporadic relations with the British at Freetown were established in the 1820s and continued throughout the nineteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the 1820s the Yalunka were strongly pagan and violently anti-Muslim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although some were drawn to Islam in this period, between the 1820s and early 1880s Islam made only modest headway among them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Itinerant Muslim Quranic teachers, goldsmiths and gunsmiths were in the area from time to time.<br /><br />In 1884, Solima was conquered by one of the armies of Samory Toure and incorporated into his empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Toure, a Mandinka, was a great nineteenth century state builder and proponent of Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was heroic resistance (the ruler of Falaha blew himself up rather than surrender), but after Toure’s conquest all the survivors were forcibly converted to Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1892, the British and French had driven Toure from the Yalunka area, and with the creation of the Sierra Leone Guinea border, Solima was divided into two colonial spheres. (The territories of the other former Yalunka polities are entirely in Guinea.)<br /><br />With the departure of Toure’s troops and the imposition of colonial rule, most Yalunka lapsed into pagan ways, although some remained Muslim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, more Muslims came from what was now Guinea into the Yalunka region of Sierra Leone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Christian mission (Church Missionary Society) was started in the 1890s but had collapsed by the early 1900s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the 1950s, another Christian mission (Missionary Church Society) was begun, but it met with only modest success.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Throughout this period Islam gained steadily, and by the 1960s over ninety percent of the Yalunka were Muslim, the remainder being Christian (the last elderly pagan Yalunka died in the 1950s.)<br /><br />The Yalunka are a Mande people who were one of the original inhabitants of Futa Jallon (or Fouta Djalon), a mountainous region in Guinea, West Africa, and they are a branch of the Mandinka people of West Africa. Today, the Yalunka are concentrated mostly in Guinea and Sierra Leone. Most of the Mandinka in both Guinea and Sierra Leone are considered ethnic Mandinka primarily because of the similarities in costume and languages.<br /><br />Small communities also live in Senegal and Mali. The Yalunka are also known as the Dialonke or Jallonke, which literally means "inhabitants of the Jallon (mountains)." In the eighteenth century, many of the Yalunka were dispersed from the Futa Jallon by the Fulani, another vast people group in the region.<br /><br />The language of the Yalunka, also called Yalunka, belongs to the Mande branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Yalunka is partially understood by those who speak Susu, another Mande language. In fact, the Yalunka often refer to themselves as the ancestors of the Soso, and some scholars see the two as one group. The Yalunka region has tall grass with a few trees and some bush areas. The country is hilly, and most of it is 1,000 to 2,000 feet above sea level.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /></span></span></div></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br />skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-14994264144235387312023-10-16T01:31:00.008-07:002023-10-18T02:53:40.434-07:002023: Yambio - Yazuri<p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yambio</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yambio</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mbio</i>) (c. 1820s-1905).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the most powerful of the late nineteenth century Zande rulers (1869-1905).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Yambio’s father was the chief of the Gbudwe branch of the Zande in southwestern Sudan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yambio succeeded to the chieftainship on his father’s death in 1869, but by then the state had already been informally partitioned among his brothers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab slavers penetrating Zande country attempted to play Yambio’s family factions off against each other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yambio himself consistently refused to collaborate with outsiders and strove to consolidate the Zande unaided.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1870, Yambio drove an Arab slave caravan out of his territory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shortly afterwards, Yambio rebuffed an attempted conquest by the powerful merchant prince, al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur.<br /><br />The Egyptian administration being established, at that time, in Sudan eased the problem of the slavers, but it too had designs on Zande territory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1881, Yambio defeated an Egyptian force only to be attacked by a stronger army the next year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Yambio was captured and held prisoner until 1884, when the Mahdists troops of Muhammed ‘Ahmad freed him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Mahdists, who were then sweeping through Sudan, wished to use Yambio as an ally in their drive towards the Congo basin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yambio refused to co-operate and, instead, returned home to re-assert his authority over the Zande.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Meanwhile, the Mahdists withdrew to consolidate their hold on central Sudan and Yambio was left to live in relative peace and prosperity for over a decade.<br /><br />Yambio’s peace was shattered by Mahdist raids in 1897, but he repelled their assaults.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two years later, the Mahdist state fell to the British-Egyptian government, and Zande country became the focus of aggressive imperial rivalry between the British from the northeast and Belgians from the southwest.<br /><br />Once again, Yambio struggled to remain independent while neighboring chiefs and relatives aligned themselves with the Europeans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1903 and 1904, Yambio spurned British attempts to negotiate an accommodation while Leopold’s forces massed against him along his southwestern border.<br /><br />Late in 1904, Yambio led a costly and futile attack on the Belgian positions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Terribly outmanned, Yambio was forced to fall back to await his fate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Early in 1905, Yambio’s demoralized troops crumbled before a combined British-Sudanese onslaught in which Yambio was killed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On his death, Yambio’s kingdom, which fell into British hands, was partitioned among his sons.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mbio</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yambio</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yamin, Muhammad</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yamin, Muhammad</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Yamin</i>) (1903 - October 17,1962).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indonesian lyric poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yamin’s Tanah Air (“Fatherland”), published in 1922 was the first collection of modern Malay verse to be published.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The “fatherland” to which Yamin there referred was Sumatra, not Indonesia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another volume of verse, Indonesia, Tumpah Darahku (“Indonesia, My Homeland”) appeared on October 28, 1928, the day Muhammad Yamin and his fellow nationalists resolved to revere a single -- Indonesian -- homeland, race and language.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad Yamin’s play on a Javanese historical subject -- Ken Arok dan Ken Dedes -- also appeared in 1928.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although a pioneer in literary form, his language remains much closer to classical Malay than that of younger writers.<br /><br />Muhammad Yamin was born in Talawi, Sawahlunto, in the heartland of the Minangkabau on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. He was the son of Oesman Gelar Baginda Khatib (1856-1924) the Penghulu ("Head of sub-district") of Indrapura. Oesman had five wives with whom he had sixteen children who make up a veritably influential, but incohesive, political and intellectual family in early modern Indonesian history. Other well-known sons of Oesman are Muhammad Yaman, the eldest, an educator; Djamaluddin, a renowned journalist, who later in life added to his name his nom de plume, Adinegoro; and Ramana Oesman (1924-1992), a pioneer of the Indonesian diplomatic corps.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Yamin</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yamin, Muhammad</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yao</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yao</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wayao</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahyao</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Veiao</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Adjao</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Known by a variety of names -- Wayao, Wahyao, Veiao, Adjao -- that no doubt reflect their mobility over the past centuries, the Yao live in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Three other peoples are sufficiently close culturally and linguistically to be grouped with the Yao.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are the Mwera, Makua and Makonde, most of whom live in Tanzania; an unknown number live in Mozambique.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The majority -- as many as seventy-five percent -- of the Yao claim to be Sunni Muslim of the Shafi school.<br /><br />The Yao claim that their traditional homeland was between the Lujenda and Rovuma rivers east of Lake Malawi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For at least two centuries before the colonial intrusion of the late nineteenth century the Yao were active as traders bartering ivory, slaves, beeswax and tobacco for guns, gunpowder, cloth and beads.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The suppliers of these commodities were the Arab and Swahili people on the coast, who did not themselves make any major penetration into the interior until the early nineteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not only were the Yao active in the slave trade, but slaves were also an integral part of their economic and political system before the coming of Europeans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rapid spread of Islam among the Yao seems to have been due partly to their long association with Arabs but much more to their suspicion of Europeans and Christian missionaries as being antagonistic to their way of life.<br /><br />Before the colonial conquest the Yao lived in autonomous villages, each with a headman.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several villages were grouped under a chief of a district. Because of the possession of slaves and workers and their value for trade, the chiefs were very powerful and only submitted to colonial rule by force of arms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Divested of their slaves, their economic power was undermined, and until recently a headman or chief lived in a manner little different from anyone else.<br /><br />The average Yao village consisted of only about a dozen houses, but it was a highly important unit of social organization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The headman was politically powerful and belonged to the dominant matrilineage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Matrilineal descent was the rule and produced conflicts of interest for the headman.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whereas many men married matrilocally, the headmen often could not move and so his wives came to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His responsibilities to his matrikin were supposed to be preeminent, but his emoticonal links to his children sometimes conflicted with these.<br /><br />In 1967, Tanzania adopted “The Arusha Declaration” with the objective of building a Socialist society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This policy envisaged the voluntary formation of villages based on the principles of ujamaa (familyness), which is used to translate the English term “African socialism.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1974, lack of enthusiasm for the policy prompted the government to pass the Villagization Act, which required that all inhabitants of the rural areas be gathered into villages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the case of the Yao, much larger agglomerations than had been customary were formed, in some cases involving the compulsory settlement together of Muslims and Christians and of peoples practicing both matrilineal and patrilineal descent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The social effect of these new groupings is hard to estimate, but the combination of radically changed patterns of settlement, land tenure and authority coupled with universal primary education for boys and girls cannot but have had profound effects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />By 1800, the Yao had become known as traders plying between the inland tribes and the Arabs on the east coast. Much of this trade was in slaves, which led eventually to clashes with European powers who were establishing control over former Yao territory in the 19th century. The Yao were never united but lived as small groups ruled by chiefs who were predominantly military and commercial leaders. By 1900 all Yao chiefdoms had come under German, Portuguese, or British rule.<br /><br />The Yao are an agricultural people using slash-and-burn techniques to cultivate their staples, corn (maize) and sorghum. Fish provide protein in areas near lakes or larger rivers. In Malaŵi they cultivate tobacco as an important cash crop.<br /><br />The Yao live in compact villages of 75 to 100 persons under traditional headmen. These headmen, like the chiefs, succeed matrilineally, the office usually going to the eldest sister’s firstborn son. On marriage the man leaves his village to live in that of his wife, so that villages are composed basically of groups of women related through the female line, together with their spouses. Yao social life features annual initiation ceremonies involving circumcision for boys. Originally, these ceremonies were closely connected with the worship of ancestor spirits, but through Arab contact most Yao are Muslims, and the rites incorporate Islamic elements.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wayao</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yao</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wahyao</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yao</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Veiao</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yao</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Adjao</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yao</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut al-Rumi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shihab al-Din Abu ‘Abd Allah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut al-Hamawi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn-'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi</i>) (1179-1229).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab encyclopedist. Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah was a Greek born in Asia Minor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yaqut was captured as a child and sold as a slave in Baghdad to a merchant who had him educated, and who later sent him as his agent to the Persian Gulf and to Syria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yaqut was freed in 1199 and became a scribe and bookseller.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1213, Yaqut set out again to travel to Syria, Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan (northeast Persia).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yaqut spent two years working in libraries at Merv, in Central Asia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1218, he went on to Khiva, but had to leave, in order to escape the Mongol invasion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He arrived in Mosul destitute, but was given assistance in reaching Aleppo.<br /><br />Yaqut returned to Mosul two years later in order to finish his Geographical Dictionary (Lexicon of the Countries).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The work on the Geograpical Dictionary lasted until 1224.<br /><br />While he was in Damascus, Yaqut narrowly escaped death at the hands of the Shi‘ite Muslims for his Sunnite views.<br /><br />As a trader in the Persian Gulf, Yaqut travelled widely and ransacked libraries wherever he went.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote on the Arab genealogies and composed a work containing biographies of men of letters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His fame rests upon his Geographical Dictionary, which contains not only geographical information but also, under each place name, astrological and historical data, quotations from poems and a list of eminent natives of the place.<br /><br />Yaqut’s other great book is his Dictionary of Learned Men.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Dictionary of Learned Men contains biographies of all those who were in any way connected with Arabic literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some sections are now lost.<br /><br />Yaqut’s works, like those of most Arab compilers, are full of anecdotes and digressions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, in the Dictionary of Learned Men, there is a long discussion between a Christian philosopher and a Muslim theologian.<br /><br />Yaqut ibn-'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi was a Syrian biographer and geographer renowned for his encyclopedic writings on the Muslim world. "Al-Rumi" ("from Rûm") refers to his Greek (Byzantine) descent; "al-Hamawi" means that he is from Hama, Syria, and ibn-Abdullah is a reference to his father's name, Abdullah. The word yaqut means ruby.<br /><br />Yaqut was sold as a slave to someone who later moved to Baghdad, Iraq. Upon recognizing his abilities, Yaqut's purchaser provided him with a good education. He was later freed and traveled a great deal. Yaqut also earned a living copying and selling manuscripts.<br /><br />The works of Yaqut include:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Kitab mu'jam al-buldan ("Dictionary of Countries")<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mu'jam al-udaba' , ("Dictionary of Writers") written in 1226.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* al-Mushtarak wadh'a wa al-Muftaraq Sa'qa.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut al-Rumi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shihab al-Din Abu ‘Abd Allah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn-'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut al-Hamawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaqut ibn ‘Abdullah</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yarbu’</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yarbu’</i>. Name of an important group of the tribe of Tamim, whose territory stretched between al-Yamama to below the Euphrates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the death of the Prophet, they were the first to rebel, the prophetess Sajah being one of them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They lent considerable support to the Kharijites and counted a number of remarkable poets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Ya‘rub ibn Qahtan ibn Hud</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ya‘rub ibn Qahtan ibn Hud</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Grandson of the prophet Hud, who is regarded as the ancestor of the Himyar kings.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Ya‘rubids</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ya‘rubids</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dynasty of Oman (r. 1624-1741).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are named after their ancestor Ya‘rub ibn Malik and ruled in al-Rustaq, Yabrin and al-Ham.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were followed by the Al Bu Sa‘id.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yasawi, Ahmad</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmad Yasawi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmed Yasavi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmat Yassawi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmat Yssawi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qoja Axmet Yassawi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xoja Ahmad Yassivi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmet Yasevi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed Yesevi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ata Yesevi</i>) (b. 1093, Sayram [Kazakhstan] - d. 1166, Hazrat-e Turkestan [Kazakhstan]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muslim saint from Turkestan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is regarded as having converted the Turks to Islam. Timur erected a splendid mausoleum in his honor in the town of Turkestan.<br /><br />Ahmad Yasawi was a Turkic poet and Sufi (Muslim mystic), an early mystic who exerted a powerful influence on the development of mystical orders throughout the Turkic-speaking world. Yasawi is currently the earliest known Turkic poet who composed poetry in a Turkic dialect. He was a pioneer of popular mysticism, founded the first Turkic tariqah (order), the Yasaviyya (Yeseviye), which very quickly spread over the Turkic-speaking areas.<br /><br />Yasawi made considerable efforts to spread Islam throughout Central Asia and had numerous students in the region. Yasawi's poems created a new genre of religious folk poetry in Central Asian Turkic literature and influenced many religious poets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yasawi made the city of Yasi into the major center of learning for the Kazakh steppes, then retired to a life of contemplation at the age of 63. He dug himself an underground cell where he spent the rest of his life.<br /><br />A mausoleum was later built on the site of his grave by Tamerlane the Great in the city (today called Türkistan). The Yasaviyya Tariqah which he founded continued to be influential for several centuries afterwards, with the Yasavi Sayyid Ata Sheikhs holding a prominent position at the court of Bukhara into the 19th century. In the Yasaviyya Sufis one comes across the greatest number of the shamanistic elements compared to other Sufi Orders.<br /><br />The first Turkish-Kazakh university, Ahmet Yesevi University, and lyceum, Hoca Ahmed Yesevi Lisesi, were named in his honor.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmad Yasawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmed Yasavi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmat Yassawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khoja Ahmat Yssawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qoja Axmet Yassawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xoja Ahmad Yassivi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yasawi, Ahmad</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yaya</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaya</i>. Turkish term which refers to the infantryman in the Ottoman army.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i><b>Yazdi, Ibrahim</b></i></span><br /><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Ibrahim Yazdi</i>, or Ebrahim Yazdi, (Persian: <span dir="rtl" lang="fa" xml:lang="fa">ابراهیم یزدی</span>; b. September 26, 1931, Qazvin, Iran – d. August 27, 2017, Izmir, Turkey) was an Iranian politician and diplomat who served as deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs in the interim government of Mehdi Bazargan, until his resignation in November 1979, in protest at the Iran hostage crisis. From 1995 until 2017, he headed the Freedom Movement of Iran.</span></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">Yazdi studied pharmacology at the University of Tehran. Then he received a master's degree in philosophy again from the University of Tehran.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">After the military coup of 1953, which deposed the government of Mohammad Mossadegh, Yazdi joined the underground National Resistance Movement of Iran, and was active in this organization from 1953 to 1960. This organization opposed to the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Yazdi traveled to the United States in 1961 to continue his education and in the United States, continued his involvement in political activities against the Shah.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Yazdi was co-founder of the Freedom Movement of Iran, Abroad, along with Mostafa Chamran, Ali Shariati, and Sadegh Qotbzadeh in 1961. They were all part of the radical external wing of the group. In 1963, Yazdi, Chamran and Ghotbzadeh went to Egypt and met the authorities to establish an anti-Shah organization in the country, which was later called SAMA, special organization for unity and action. Chamran was chosen as its military head before returning to the United States. In 1966, Yazdi moved the headquarters of SAMA to Beirut. In 1967, he enrolled at Baylor University and received a Ph.D. in biochemistry. Yazdi</span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"> became a naturalized United States citizen in Houston in 1971. </span></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">Yazdi worked as a research assistant of pathology and research instructor of pharmacology at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston until 1977. He also worked at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Houston.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">In 1975, Yazdi was tried in absentia in an Iranian military court and condemned to ten years imprisonment, with orders issued for his arrest upon return to Iran. Because of his activities, he was unable to return to Iran and remained in the United States until July 1977. When Ayatollah Khomeini moved to Neauphle-le-Chateau, a Parisian suburb from Iraq in 1978, Yazdi also went to Neauphle-le-Château and began to serve as an advisor to the Ayatollah. He was also his spokesperson in Paris.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">In 1978, he joined Ayatollah Khomeini in Paris where the latter had been in exile and became one of his advisors. He translated the reports of Khomeini into English in a press conference on February 3, 1979, in Tehran.<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>He was the deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs in the interim government of Mehdi Barargan, until November 6, 1979. Yazdi proposed to celebrate 'Jerusalem Day' and his suggestion was endorsed by Khomeini in August 1979. In May 1980, he was appointed by Khomeini as head of the <i>Kayhan</i> newspaper.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">On November 4, 1979, the United States embassy was taken over for a second time, this time by a group calling itself "Students Following the Line of the Imam (i.e., Ayatollah Khomeini)” and led by Mohammad Mousavi Khoeiniha, who had closer ties to certain revolutionary leaders.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">As before, Yazdi was asked to go to the embassy and resolve the crisis. He asked and received permission of Khomeini to expel the occupiers, but shortly thereafter found out Khomeini had changed his mind and appeared on state television openly endorsing the takeover of the embassy. The entire cabinet of the interim government, including Yazdi and Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan, resigned in protest the next day. They stated that they opposed the embassy takeover as “contrary to the national interest of Iran”.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">The embassy takeover is considered to have been motivated in part by an internal struggle between various factions within the revolutionary leadership, with Yazdi and Bazargan on one side, and more radical clergy on the other. The embassy attackers, in subsequent statements indicated that one of their primary objectives in the takeover of the United States embassy in November 1979 was to force the resignation of Yazdi, Bazargan, and the entire cabinet.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">Among the areas of conflict between the two factions was the behavior of the Revolutionary Courts and the Revolutionary Committees. Yazdi and Bazargan supported a general amnesty for all members of the Shah’s regime, provided that they cease to act against the revolution. They publicly opposed the secret trials and the summary executions carried out by the Revolutionary Courts, led by Ayatollah Sadegh Khalkhaali. Bazargan and other members of the interim government called for fair and open trials for those accused of crimes committed under the Shah’s regime. The radical clerics, on the other hand, stated that the rapid trials and executions were essential to protect the revolution.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">After resignation from office, Yazdi and other members of the Freedom Movement of Iran ran in elections for the first post-revolutionary Islamic Consultative Assembly or parliament. Yazdi, Bazargan, and four other members of the Freedom Movement, namely Mostafa Chamran, Ahmad Sadr, Hashem Sabbaghian, and Yadollah Sahabi, were elected. They served in the parliament from 1980 to 1984.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">After the Iraqi invasion of Iran in September 1980, Yazdi fully supported the Iranian war effort against the invasion but opposed the continuation of the war after the Iranian victory in Khorramshahr in 1982. The war continued for an additional six years. During these six years, Yazdi and others in the Freedom Movement issued several open letters to Ayatollah Khomeini opposing the continuation of the war. These letters and other public statements resulted in the firebombing of Yazdi’s residence in Tehran in 1985, and the arrest and imprisonment of several members of the Freedom Movement.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">In subsequent elections in Iran for president, parliament, and city councils, Yazdi and other members of the Freedom Movement filed for candidacy but were barred from running by the Guardian Council, because of their opposition to policies and actions of the government.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">After the death of Bazargan in January 1995, Yazdi was elected as leader of Freedom Movement of Iran. Under pressure from the revolutionary court prosecutor, Yazdi offered his resignation as FMI Leader on March 20, 2011, to the leadership council of the FMI. By the time of Yazdi's death, the leadership council had yet to accept his resignation and Yazdi continued to function as the leader of the Freedom Movement of Iran.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Yazdi was arrested in December 1997 for "desecrating religious sanctities" and was freed on December 26 on bail.<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Even after his release, he was barred from leaving the country for many years and was summoned on a regular basis to answer questions before the revolutionary council, with his lawyer, Nobel Prize–winning Shirin Ebadi.</span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">On June 17, 2009, during the 2009 Iranian election protests, it was reported that Yazdi was arrested while undergoing tests at the Tehran hospital according to the Freedom Movement of Iran website. On June 22, Yazdi was released back to the hospital for a medical procedure. On December 28, 2009, Yazdi was arrested again in the wake of renewed protests, according to the Jaras reformist website.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">Yazdi and several others were arrested on October 1, 2010, in Isfahan for participating in an "illegal Friday prayer." All others were freed within days. Ibrahim Yazdi remained in "temporary custody" — first in Evin prison and then in a "secure" facility under the control of Iran's security forces until March 2011. He was released in April 2011.</span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">On August 27, 2017, Yazdi died of pancreatic cancer in Izmir, Turkey, where he was under treatment.<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span>His body transferred to Iran and was buried in Behesht-e Zahra. </span></div></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yazid I ibn Mu‘awiya</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazid I ibn Mu‘awiya</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazīd I</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiyah ibn Abī Sufyān</i>) (b. c. 645, Arabia — d. 683, Damascus), Umayyad Caliph (r.680-683).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a prince he had commanded the Arab army at the siege of Constantinople.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At his accession to the throne, al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali and ‘Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr refused to recognize him and took refuge in Mecca.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From there al-Husayn left for Iraq, where in 680 he met his death at Karbala’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At Medina, Yazid was declared deposed when the town was taken by Muslim ibn ‘Uqba.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid is described as a generous patron, who was a poet himself, and fond of music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alone among the caliphs he earned the title of “water engineer.” He completed his father’s administrative organization and reorganized the finances.<br /><br />Yazīd I was particularly noted for his suppression of a rebellion led by Ḥusayn, the son of ʿAlī. The death of Ḥusayn at the Battle of Karbalāʾ (680) made him a martyr and made permanent a division in Islam between the party of ʿAlī (the Shīʿites) and the majority Sunnis.<br /><br />As a young man, Yazīd commanded the Arab army that his father, Muʿāwiyah, sent to lay siege to Constantinople. Soon afterward he became caliph, but many of those whom his father had kept in check rebelled against him.<br /><br />Although presented in many sources as a dissolute ruler, Yazīd energetically tried to continue the policies of Muʿāwiyah and kept many of the men who had been in his father’s service. He strengthened the administrative structure of the empire and improved the military defenses of Syria. The financial system was reformed. He lightened the taxation of some Christian groups and abolished the tax concessions granted to the Samaritans as a reward for aid they had rendered in the days of the Arab conquests. He concerned himself with agricultural matters and improved the irrigation system of the Damascus oasis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yazidi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidiyya</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yezidi</i>) (<i>E</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zidi</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Name of a Kurdish tribal group and of their peculiar religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are found in the districts of Mosul, Diyarbakr, Aleppo and in Armenia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their religion includes pagan, Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Muslim elements, but also features from Christian sects, especially the Nestorians, from Sufism, from the Sabaeans and from the Shamans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They possess two Sacred Books: The Book of Revelation and The Black Book. God is only the Creator, not the Preserver of the world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The active organ of the divine will is Malak Tawus or “the peacock angel,” who is the denial of evil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Satan is the fallen angel who has been restored to God’s favor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yazidis do not believe in hell, but they do accept transmigration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their most concrete expressions are the figures of peacocks, called sanajiq, who are seven in number, corresponding to the seven angels who took part in the creation of the world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They consider themselves completely separated from the rest of mankind and have a high level of morality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The annual pilgrimage to the tomb of Shaykh ‘Adi, located north of Mosul, is a strict religious duty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Marriage is endogamous, and as a rule monogamous, except for the amir.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They practice baptism and circumcision and have burial ceremonies of their own.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The structure of Yazidi society is theocratic, consisting of laity and clergy, which is divided into six different classes. Muslim theologians hold the view that the Yazidis at one time were Muslims.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They have withstood numerous attempts at conversion and extermination by Turkish pashas and Kurdish tribes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Yazidis belong to Yazidism, a religion with around 700,000 members worldwide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The largest group of Yazidis live in Iraq, near Mosul, but there are small communities in Syria, Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Researchers believe that the Yazidi creed has elements from Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The two religious books of the Yazidis have Arabic text: Book of Revelation and Black Book.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yazidis call themselves Dasin, while the term Yazidism probably comes from the Persian word ized – “angel.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The name Yazidism is moreover connected to the sixth caliph, Yazid (680-683) from Shi‘a point of view one of world history’s most hated men, and highly disliked by most Sunnis as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, there is little evidence showing what role Yazid have played in the founding, or development of Yazidism.<br /><br />The Yazidi pantheon has God on top, but God is only the Creator, and is no longer an acting force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The acting forces is represented by Malak Ta’us and Shaykh Adil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shaykh Adil can have been caliph Yazid (there are many theories here), a man risen to divinity through transmigration, and is now an acting and good deity.<br /><br />Shaykh Adil is acting in a cooperation with Malak Ta’us, the peacock angel that has fallen into disgrace, but who repents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Malak Ta’us filled seven jars of tears through 7,000 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His tears were used to extinguish the fire in hell.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, there is no hell in Yazidism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazidism has six minor deities, which are also honored.<br /><br />The prayer in Yazidism must be performed in good distance from non-Yazidis, twice a day, and in the direction of the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The prayer is dedicatedc to Malak Ta’us.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Saturday is the day of rest, but it is Wednesday that is the holy day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In December, a three day fast is performed.<br /><br />There is an annual pilgrimage to the tomb of Shaykh Adil, north of Mosul in Iraq, through six days in late August.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This pilgrimage is the most important ritual of Yazidism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Central to this celebration are bathing in the river, washing of figures of Malak Ta’us, processions, music, hymns, ecstatic songs, and dances performed by the priests. Other elements are lighting of hundreds of oil lamps at the tombs of Shaykh Adil and other saints’ tombs, offerings of special foods and cooking of a sacrificed ox.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Important parts of the rituals here have never been seen by outsiders and are therefore unknown.<br /><br />Childhood baptism is important, and is performed by a Shayky, a religious leader.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Circumcision for boys is performed soon after the baptism but is not compulsory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Burials are done immediately after death, and the hands are crossed, pointing in an eastern direction.<br /><br />The Yazidis are organized much like the Kurds, with tribes headed by a chief.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are very stron ties between the laity and the religious leaders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Almost all Yazidis speak Kurdish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yazidis practice no intermarriage with other Kurds and have no communion with them.<br /><br />The Yazidis believe that they are the descendants of Adam only, while the rest of the world are descendants of Eve, hence inferior.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is impossible to convert to Yazidism, you must be born one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The strongest punishment among Yazidis is expulsion, which means that your soul is lost forever.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Monogamy is practiced, but the chief has the right to take several wives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Divorce is difficult to get, as this only comes from adultery, and three witnesses are needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But if a husband stays abroad for more than a year, he is automatically divorced from his wife, and also loses the right to remarry inside the Yazidi community.<br /><br />The reason for the Yazidis reputation of being devil worshippers is connected to the other name of Malak Ta’us, Shaytan, the same name as the Qur’an’s for Satan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there is little suggesting that the Yazidis worships Malak Ta’us as if he was equal to the Qur’an’s or the Bible’s devil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yazidis have never been regarded as Ahl al-Kitab, “people of the book,” and they have suffered much hardship from their Muslim neighbors.<br /><br />The Yazidi are members of a Kurdish religion with ancient Indo-European roots. They are primarily a Kurdish-speaking people living in the Mosul region of northern Iraq, with additional communities in Transcaucasia, Armenia, Turkey, and Syria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The traditional Yazidi communities have been in decline since the 1990s seeing many of the Yazidis emigrating to Europe, especially to Germany. Their religion, Yazidism, is a branch of Yazdanism, and is seen as a highly syncretic complex of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to the area by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. The Yazidi believe in God as creator of the world, which he placed under the care of seven holy beings or angels, the chief of whom is Melek Taus, the Peacock Angel.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidiyya</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yezidi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ezidi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazidi</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra al-Azdi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazid ibn al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra al-Azdi</i> (672-720).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Governor of Khurasan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He had strained relations with his brother-in-law al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who had him imprisoned in 705.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 708, he found support with the future Caliph Suleiman (Sulayman) at al-Ramla.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 715, he was appointed governor of Iraq.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid made himself generally hated by his extortions and was arrested at the orders of the Caliph ‘Umar II ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz. In 720, he preached open war on the Umayyads, seized Wasit but was defeated by Maslamah ibn ‘Abd al-Malik.<br /><br />In 698, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (al-Hajjaj bin Yousef) appointed al-Muhallab Khurasan's governor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 702, al-Muhallab's son Mughirah died and al-Muhallab sent Yazid to replace him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Soon afterwards al-Muhallab died, and al-Hajjaj appointed Yazid governor of Khurasan (Khorasan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There Yazid confronted external and internal enemies, including some rebels entering his province who were supporters of 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid defeated them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid seized Nizak's fortress and made peace with him.<br /><br />In 705, al-Hajjaj replace Yazid, naming al-Mufaddal governor of Khurasan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Various reasons are suggested, including that al-Hajjaj encountered a prophecy that his successor would be named Yazid, and al-Hajjaj considered this Yazid the only one threatening enough to worry about.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Hajjaj imprisoned and tortured Yazid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 708, Yazid, disguised, escaped and made his way to Palestine where he was granted refuge by Suleiman ibn 'Abd al-Malik.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Hajjaj pressed Caliph al-Walid I who commanded his brother (Suleiman) to send him Yazid in chains.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suleiman had his own son chained to Yazid approach the caliph and speak favoring Yazid's safety.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Walid accepted this and told al-Hajjaj to desist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid returned to Suleiman and the two became very close to each other.<br /><br />When Suleiman came to the throne in 715, he appointed Yazid to govern Iraq.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next year Suleiman appointed Yazid governor of Khurasan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid fought in Jurjan and Tabaristan, personally engaging in combat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 718, the new caliph Umar ibn 'Abd al-Aziz dismissed Yazid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid was captured on his way to Basra and brought before Umar who intensely disliked him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Umar imprisoned Yazid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 720, when Umar fell ill, Yazid escaped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Umar died.<br /><br />Yazid marched on Basra.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many joined him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He refused to swear allegiance to the new caliph, Yazid II.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He attacked those holding his brothers, defeated them and freed his brothers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His son Khalid was arrested in Kufah and sent to Damascus where he remained in prison until he died.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid was advised to head east, but he declined to follow this advice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 721, Maslamah ibn 'Abd al-Malik and al-Abbas ibn al-Walid led forces against him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On August 25, Maslamah's troops advanced to battle, frightening some of Yazid's men who fled.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yazid had these men beheaded.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He then rode directly at Maslamah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maslamah's cavalry intercepted him and cut him down.<br /><br />Fighting continued.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Wasit, Yazid's son Mu'awiyah, on news of his father's death, executed some prisoners, including Adi ibn Artat, the Basran governor who had sent Yazid to Umar in 718.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mu'awiyah and other surviving members of Yazid's family sailed to Bahrain, then near Kirman.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They advanced to Qandabil where they were denied entrance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was a battle in which all but two died, those two making their way to Zabulistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some captured boys were sent to Yazid II who beheaded them.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yaziji, al-Shaykh Nasif ibn ‘Abd Allah al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji, al-Shaykh Nasif ibn ‘Abd Allah al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Shaykh Nasif ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Yaziji</i>) (1800-1871).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab poet and philologist from Lebanon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He contributed to the popularity of al-Mutanabbi in Syria and obtained fame as the last representative of the Session genre.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also exercised great influence on modern Arabic literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His sons Ibrahim (1847-1906) and Khalil (1858-1889), and his daughter Warda (1838-1924) also contributed to the revival of the Arabic language.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shaykh Nasif ibn 'Abd Allah al-Yaziji, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji, al-Shaykh Nasif ibn ‘Abd Allah al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yaziji-oghlu Ahmed</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Ahmed</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed Bijan</i>) (d.c. 1456).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turkish poet, brother of the Mehmed Yaziji-oghlu.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was the author of several much-esteemed mystical works.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed, Yaziji-oghlu</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Ahmed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahmed Bijan</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Ahmed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bijan, Ahmed</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Ahmed</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yaziji-oghlu Mehmed</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Mehmed</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-zade</i>) (d.1451).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turkish poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is known as the author of a long didactic poem, which contains a lengthy expression of the doctrines and traditions of Islam based on the Qur’an and hadith.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mehmed, Yaziji-oghlu</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Mehmed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-zade</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaziji-oghlu Mehmed</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yazuri, Abu Muhammad al-Hasan</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazuri, Abu Muhammad al-Hasan</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Muhammad al-Hasan Yazuri</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Vizier and chief judge of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir bi-‘llah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the Zirid al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis rebelled against the Fatimids in 1051, Yazuri sent the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to ravage Ifriqiya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the east Yazuri gave considerable financial assistance to the Turkish military leader Arslan al-Basasiri in hi rebellion against the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Qa’im.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Muhammad al-Hasan Yazuri</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yazuri, Abu Muhammad al-Hasan</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-72921383397318198632023-10-03T16:33:00.012-07:002023-10-04T00:24:14.523-07:002023: Yoruba - Yousafzai<p><span style="font-size: large;"><b><i>Y</i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">oruba</span></i></b></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yoruba</i>. The term “Yoruba” is used to identify a people having, with considerable dialectic variation, a common language (of the Kwa group of the Niger-Congo family) and a common culture, which is remarkably persistent in spite of great political, geographical and religious differences that have arisen over the past three centuries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The language and culture are found as far from their West African origin as Brazil and Cuba, while substantial Yoruba communities are found in most West African states, especially in Sierra Leone and Ghana.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The greatest number are in southwestern Nigeria, adjacent areas of Benin and beyond in Togo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nearly one-half are Muslim, largely Sunni.<br /><br />Recent interpretations of Yoruba traditions of origin agree in identifying Yoruba as a Sudanic people who successfully imposed their rule on an indigenous population in the forest belt of present day Nigeria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All traditions confirm Ile-Ife as the first city of the Yoruba and the Ooni of Ife as the spiritual head from whom all other Yoruba kings derive their sanction to rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Urbanization among Yoruba is both basic and traditional, they have “always” lived in cities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prior to the wars of the nineteenth century, farming communities extended out from the cities, and hunters served as guardians of boundaries while establishing and maintaining routes for trade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fulani pressures from the north and colonial changes in the south forced the creation of strategic and defensible towns, such as Ibadan and Abeokuta, as well as the shifting of major cities to the south, notably Oyo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These new cities were built in patterns which can be seen today, substantially walled, largely windowless, large family compounds with internal courtyards, the whole built along intricate access paths.<br /><br />Although some Yoruba felt the influence of Islam in earlier centuries, it was not until the early nineteenth century, following the Fulani jihad in the north, that old Oyo came within Muslim influence and Ilorin fell to Muslim rule under a line of emirs that persists to the present.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the time Fulani military pressure forced the resettlement of Oyo to the south, Islam was firmly entrenched in the Yoruba savannas -- as far, indeed, as the horse could safely go.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thereafter, the advance of Islam in Yoruba country was peaceful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the 1830s, Hausa traders, some of whom were also religious teachers, had established themselves in the new city of Ibadan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As British colonial influence grew, freedom of trade movement further facilitated proselytization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the second quarter of the present century, British “indirect rule,” which reinforced powers of emirs and obas (kings), led to Islamic domination in the north and a consequent rapid growth in the south.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the forty years between 1913 and 1953, the proportion of professed Muslims in Ibadan alone increased from thirty-five to sixty percent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Simultaneously, Christian missionaries -- many of them returned slaves from America -- were active in the south, and eventually it could be said without great exaggeration that throughout the Yoruba territories fewer than one-seventh of the people remained professed traditionalists, while the remainder divided fairly equally between Islam and Christianity.<br /><br />The Yoruba numbered more than 20 million at the turn of the 21st century. They speak a language of the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo language family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most Yoruba men are farmers, growing yams, corn (maize), and millet as staples and plantains, peanuts (groundnuts), beans, and peas as subsidiary crops. Cocoa is a major cash crop. Others are traders or craftsmen. Women do little farm work but control much of the complex market system—their status depends more on their own position in the marketplace than on their husbands’ status. The Yoruba have traditionally been among the most skilled and productive craftsmen of Africa. They worked at such trades as blacksmithing, weaving, leatherworking, glassmaking, and ivory and wood carving. In the 13th and 14th centuries Yoruba bronze casting using the lost-wax (cire perdue) method reached a peak of technical excellence never subsequently equaled in western Africa. Yoruba women engage in cotton spinning, basketry, and dyeing.<br /><br />The Yoruba have shared a common language and culture for centuries but were probably never a single political unit. They seem to have migrated from the east to their present lands west of the lower Niger River more than a millennium ago. They eventually became the most urbanized Africans of precolonial times. They formed numerous kingdoms of various sizes, each of which was centered on a capital city or town and ruled by a hereditary king, or oba. Their towns became densely populated and eventually grew into the present-day cities of Oyo, Ile-Ife, Ilesha, Ibadan, Ilorin, Ijebu-Ode, Ikere-Ekiti, and others. Oyo developed in the 17th century into the largest of the Yoruba kingdoms, while Ile-Ife remained a town of potent religious significance as the site of the earth’s creation according to Yoruba mythology. Oyo and the other kingdoms declined in the late 18th and 19th centuries owing to disputes among minor Yoruba rulers and invasions by the Fon of Dahomey (now Benin) and the Muslim Fulani. The traditional Yoruba kingships still survive, but with only a hint of their former political power.<br /><br />In a traditional Yoruba town the large and elaborate palace of the oba lies at the center, and grouped around it are the compounds of the patrilineages. The palace and the compounds are now often modern structures.<br /><br />There is much diversity in social and political organization among the Yoruba, but they share many basic features. Inheritance and succession are based on patrilineal descent; members of the patrilineage live together under the authority of a headman, share certain names and taboos, worship their own deity, and have rights in lineage lands. The Yoruba also have several kinds of voluntary associations, including the egbe, a male recreational association; the aro, a mutual-aid association of farmers; and the esusu, whose members contribute a fixed amount of money and from which they can receive loans. Political authority is vested in the oba and a council of chiefs. Constituent towns each have their own ruler, who is subordinate to the oba. The oba is also a ritual leader and is considered sacred.<br /><br />Many Yoruba are now Christians or Muslims, but aspects of their traditional religion survive. The traditional Yoruba religion has an elaborate hierarchy of deities, including a supreme creator and some 400 lesser gods and spirits, most of whom are associated with their own cults and priests. The Yoruba language has an extensive literature of poetry, short stories, myths, and proverbs.<o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yoruba slaves</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yoruba slaves</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yoruba Kingdom was an ancient black kingdom located in central western Nigeria, apparently originating in the northern fringes of the forest.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Before the Europeans arrived, it was already a highly urbanized and industrialized state, experienced in the art of working iron, copper, and glassware.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It traded with the Mediterranean cities across the Sahara.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The slave trade in the area reached a high development when the Portuguese reached the Guinea or Gold Coast around 1510.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yoruba slaves were brought in great numbers to the New World, especially to Cuba and Brazil, where they were known as Lucumi in Cuba and Nagos in Brazil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were usually exported through the port of Lagos on the Slave Coast.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Brazil, they were thought to be robust, courageous, hard-working, and better tempered than other races, and they were noted for their intelligence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1826, the Yoruba slaves of Bahia set up a quilombo in the hinterland at Urubu, not far from the city.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They fought valiantly against the government troops but were ultimately subdued.<br /><br />A significant percentage of Africans enslaved during the Atlantic slave trade in the Americas managed to maintain the Yoruba tradition of 'Orisha' (also spelt, 'Orisa') veneration, as well as their continual belief in God, the Supreme Being, who they refer to under different names such as 'Olorun', 'Olodumare', 'Eleda', 'Olofin-Orun' and 'Eledumare'.<br /><br />During the 19th century, the term 'Yoruba ' or 'Yariba' came into wider use, first confined to the Ọyọ. The term is often believed to be derived from a Hausa ethnonym for the populous people to their south, but this has not been substantiated by historians.<br /><br />As an ethnic description, the word 'Yoruba' first appeared in a treatise written by the Songhai scholar Ahmed Baba (1500s) and is likely to derive from the indigenous ethnonyms Ọyọ (Oyo) or Yagba, two Yoruba-speaking groups along the northern borders of their territory. However, it is likely that the ethnonym was popularized by Hausa usage and ethnography written in Arabic and Ajami. Under the influence of Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a Creole (of Aku origin) clergyman, subsequent missionaries extended the term to include all speakers of related dialects.<br /><br />Aside from "Yoruba" and its variant "Yariba", this ethnic group was in different times and places known by a variety of other names, including "Yorubo", "Akú", "Okun", "Nago", "Anago" and "Ana" and "Lucumi".<br /><br />Before the abolition of the slave trade, some Yoruba groups were known among Europeans as Akú, a name derived from the first words of Yoruba greetings such as Ẹ kú àárọ? 'good morning' and Ẹ kú alẹ? 'good evening.' A variant of this group is also known as the "Okun", Okun being also a form of "A ku". These are Yorubas found in parts of the states of Kogi - the "Yagba", Ekiti and Kabba.<br /><br />The terms "Nago", "Anago" and "Ana" were widely used in Spanish and Portuguese documents to describe all speakers of the language. They derive from the name of a coastal Yoruba sub-group in present-day Benin. Yoruba in Francophone West Africa are still sometimes known by this ethnonym today.<br /><br />In Cuba and Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking America, the Yoruba were called "Lucumi" after the phrase "O luku mi", meaning "my friend" in some dialects. This term is at present used mainly to refer to an Afro-Caribbean religion derived from the traditional Yoruba religion, more often known as Santería now becoming popular in the United States.<br /><br />The origin of the Yoruba, who often refer to themselves as "Omo O'odua" (Children of Oduduwa), revolves around a man called Oduduwa who became the first Oba (meaning 'king' or 'leader' in the Yoruba language) at the Yoruba kingdom of Ile-Ife (also known as Ife), under the title of the Ooni of Ife. It was from Ile-Ife that the descendants of Oduduwa went on to find other Yoruba kingdoms such as Oyo and Ketou. One of them even managed to rule over a famous non-Yoruba-speaking kingdom towards the east of Ife as the Oba of Ile-Ibinu, which later became known as Ubini, the Edo, and finally Benin (not to be confused with the country called the Republic of Benin which was previously known as Dahomey).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Yoruk</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yoruk</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yuruk</i>). The Yoruk of Turkey are a distinct ethnic-tribal grouping, found widely throughout Turkey but primarily along the Aegean and Mediterranean coastlines.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike many groups with a unique cultural heritage in the Middle East, the Yoruk are not linguistically distinct from most of the rural populations among whom they live.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They speak the Western Turkish dialect standard in Anatolia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The Yoruk are Sunni of the Hanafi school of law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What distinguishes the Yoruk is their recognition of a common history in the form of membership in, or descent from, an assortment of Turkic tribes which are presumed to have moved to Anatolia from Iran or Central Asia in the eleventh century.<br /><br />As early as the reign of Bayazid I, there are accounts of Yoruk tribes in Macedonia, Thrace and elsewhere in the Balkans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following the conquest of Cyprus by Selim II, Yoruk groups moved to that island, where they may be found today as settled villagers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most historians regard the Yoruk as closely related to Turkmen tribes who came in large numbers after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, but it is also likely that indigenous nomadic pastoral populations along the coast became Turkified during the early period of Islamic rule in Anatolia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The term “Yoruk” is often thought to be derived from yurumek, “to walk.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Yoruk themselves do not make this the case, but regardless of the merits of the etymology, it is a fitting image for a nomadic people moving with their flocks of sheep and goats.<br /><br />During the Ottoman period, Yoruk tribes were important politically since they were recognized by the government for purposes of taxation, the raising of military levies and local administration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tribal leaders, for example, supplied 52,000 troops in the eighteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Today Yoruk people contine to speak of tribes, and most of the 88 listed in 1898 as then living in Aydin and Smyrna (Izmir) provinces still can be located readily.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the Turkish government now does not recognize tribes or tribal leaders for administrative purposes.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yuruk</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yoruk</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Young Egypt Party</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Egypt Party</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hizb Misr El-Fatah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Misr El-Fatah Party</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Egyptian nationalist movement having strong Fascist leanings.<br /><br />The Young Egypt Party is a small Egyptian political party.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Party platform calls for:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Establishing a parliamentary/presidential ruling system.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Enhancing the Egyptian-Arab ties.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Achieving integration with African countries.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Adopting non-alignment policies.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Establishing the so-called socialist Islamic economic system and boosting the role of the private sector.<br /><br />The Party fielded seven candidates to run for the 2000 legislative elections.<br /><br />The Party was formed October 1933 by its leader Ahmed Husayn. During the 1930s the fascist Young Egypt Party had a youth movement name the "Green Shirts" who had some violent confrontations with the Wafd party's "blue shirts".<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One member even tried to assassinate Mustafa el-Nahas Pasha in November 1937. Under government pressure, the Green Shirts were disbanded in 1938. The group was renamed the Nationalist Islamic Party in 1940, when it took on a more religious, as well as, anti-British tone. After the war it was renamed yet again, now the Socialist Party of Egypt. The groups one electoral success came when it sent Ibrahim Shukri, its vice-president to parliament in 1951. However, the military government that came to power in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 disbanded it, and all other parties, in 1953.<br /><br />Ibriham Shukri formed a group, the Socialist Labor Party in 1978, despite its name it took much of the populistic and nationalistic ideology of the Young Egypt Party. Its organ (publication) was Al-Sha'ab (The People).<br /><br />Another Young Egypt group, this one keeping the original name, was founded in 1990. It was led by Abdallah Rushdi.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hizb Misr El-Fatah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Egypt Party</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Misr El-Fatah Party</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Egypt Party</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Young Ottomans</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Ottomans</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yeni Osmanlilar</i>). The libertarian movement known as the Young Ottomans (Yeni Osmanlilar) developed the first constitutionalist ideology to appear in the Ottoman Empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was influential from around 1860 to 1876.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the first half of the nineteenth century Ottoman officials embarked on a policy of reforms that came to be known as the Tanzimat (Regulation).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first political expressions of this reform policy were contained in two documents: the Hatt-i Humayun of Gulhane (1839), a semi-constitutional charter that promised security of person and property to all Ottoman subjects, and the Reform Edict of 1856, which covered a more diverse catalog of rights and made a special point of guaranteeing protection to the non-Muslim population of the empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Reform Edict had extensive negative repercussions among Ottoman Muslims; one of its outcomes was the so-called Kuleli Conspiracy (1859).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The leader of the conspiracy was a Naqshbandi (in Turkish, Naksibendi) shaykh, and some younger officials took part in it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This alliance of disgruntled clerics and young officials shifted during the 1860s into a more clearly liberal constitutionalist stance inspired by Western liberalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At that time the religious component was relegated to a secondary role, possibly because the democratic ideals expressed in recently founded journals by the young officials could reach a wider audience through their use of demotic Turkish, although at least one newspaper represented the conservative strain.<br /><br />In 1865, some young civil officials in Istanbul established a secret society, the Patriotic Alliance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With one foot in officialdom and another in journalism, these men began systematically to criticize the policy of the architects of the Tanzimat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among their targets were two Ottoman officials, Ali Pasa and Fuad Pasa, who had shared the direction of Ottoman internal and foreign policy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These statesmen were accused of using westernization to establish the autocratic rule of a bureaucratic elite, of undermining Ottoman culture through their neglect of Islam as a guideline for social and political values, and of having failed to defend the interests of the Ottoman Empire against the encroachments of Western powers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two leaders of the Young Ottoman movement, the poet Mehmet Namuk Kemal and the administrator Ziya Bey (later Pasa), eventually had to flee from Istanbul into exile in 1867.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They organized an opposition movement in Paris and London, funded by an Ottoman-Egyptian prince who expected to use the movement for his own narrower aims.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The exiles were joined by the cleric Ali Suavi, who represented the earlier Islamic reaction to the Tanzimat and who seemed to support constitutionalism.<br /><br />Kemal and Ziya soon perceived that Suavi’s ideas of democracy had a very different foundtion from theirs; Ziya himself was more conservative than Kemal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The newspaper they published, Hurriyet (Freedom), boldly expressed democratic ideals in Turkish, but it soon had to cease publication owing to conflicts among the movement’s leaders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After 1870, the Young Ottoman leaders returned to Turkey and continued their defense of libertarian ideals, with repeated interruptions by censorship and exile.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their ideas were partially instrumental in inspiring civilian and military officials to dethrone Sultan Abdulaziz (r. 1861-1876), although the Young Ottomans themselves had never opposed the monarchic principle in theory.<br /><br />The Young Ottomans were in part responsible for the elaboration of the first Ottoman Constitution (1876) and the short-lived Ottoman parliament it created.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Namuk Kemal’s impassioned defense of liberty as well as his fiery patriotism -- both strongly influenced by European Romanticism -- continued to be an inspiration for the Young Turks who emerged in the 1890s.<br /><br />A forerunner of other Turkish nationalist groups (see Young Turks), the Young Ottomans favored converting the Turkish-dominated multi-national Ottoman Empire into a more purely Turkish state and called for the creation of a constitutional government. By 1867 the Young Ottomans had expanded from the original six (6) members to 245, including the noted poets Namık Kemal and Ziya Paşa. They were further supported financially and materially by the Egyptian prince Mustafa Fazıl and had attracted the attention of the Ottoman princes Murad and Abdülhamid.<br /><br />Exiled for revolutionary activities by the grand vizier Âli Paşa in 1867, the society established itself in Paris. There it made European contacts and began publishing Hürriyet (“Freedom”), an inflammatory newspaper, subsequently smuggled into Turkey, calling on the Turkish people to demand a constitution. The return to Istanbul of Mustafa Fazıl and Namık Kemal weakened the Young Ottomans, and in 1871–72, during the amnesty declared after the death of Âli Paşa, most of them returned to Turkey. The movement, however, had lost its impetus and, except for the isolated activity of such individuals as Namık Kemal, ceased to be a factor in national affairs.<br /><br />The failure of the "Young Ottoman" policies (Ottomanism) in reverting the decline of the Ottoman Empire led groups of intellectuals to search for other means. One of these groups was the Young Turks, which brought the Empire to the Second Constitutional Era and then to World War I, with the policies developed under the Three Pashas.<br /><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yeni Osmanlilar</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Ottomans</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><p><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></p><p><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Young Turks</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jöntürkler</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jön Türkler</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jeunes Turcs</i>). Name of a revolutionary group of Turkish nationalists, whose center was the Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem’iyyeti.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They initiated the rebellion against the regime of Sultan Abdulhamid II in 1908, took control of the Ottoman government, restored its constitution, and instituted westernizing reforms. The main organization of the Young Turks was the Committee of Union and Progress.<br /><br />Europe designated as the “Young Turks” the opposition to Sultan Abdulhamid II’s regime (1876-1908) that restored the constitution on July 23, 1908, and ruled the Ottoman Empire until its destruction in 1918.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This opposition movement was the successor to the “Young Ottomans” who had been responsible for the promulgation of the first constitution in December 1876.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But after Abdulhamid shelved the constitution in February 1878 and dissolved the New Ottoman Association, the movement went underground or into exile.<br /><br />In 1889, a new body was formed calling itself the Committee of Ottoman Union.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It soon became famous as the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was active mainly in Europe and Egypt, and its members came from virtually every ethnic and religious community in the empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turks, Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, Armenians, and Greeks united under the umbrella of Ottomanism in opposition to Hamidian autocracy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1906, certain officials and military officers formed the secret Ottoman Freedom Society in the port city of Salonika.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following year, the two bodies merged under the established name of the CUP, but it was the Salonika group that led the revolution and forced the sultan to restore the 1876 constitution.<br /><br />After July 1908, the Young Turks were divided into two broad groups, both determined to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, but by rather different methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Unionists emphasized unity and modernization under a centralized state as the way to progress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The liberals, who formed the Liberal Party (Ahrar Firkasi) in 1908 and the Liberal Union in 1911, favored a decentralized polity with substantial autonomy for the non-Turkish, non-Muslim communities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both groups stayed away from religion as much as they could, a difficult task in an empire still organized on essentially religious lines in millets or religious communities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, the Young Turks had to undermine the traditional privileges enjoyed by the non-Muslim millets in order to create a modern state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One such privilege permitted foreign states to act as protectors of particular permitted foreign states to act as protectors of particular millets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, Russia protected the Greek Orthodox community and France the Catholic, giving these nations power to interfere in Ottoman affairs and violating the state’s sovereignty.<br /><br />The goal of maintaining a multinational, multireligious empire forced the Young Turks to adopt a dynasty based ideology of Ottomanism and to shun both nationalism and religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were, however, both nationalists and Islamists in their ranks: Said Halim Pasha was an Islamist and Ziya Gokalp a nationalist, and both were prominent in the CUP.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Initially they were kept in the background, and Islam became the instrument of the conservative and reactionary opposition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet even the liberals exploited it during the insurrection of April 1909 led by the Ittihad-i Muhammadi Cemiyeti.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />After this traumatic event, the Unionists became more cautious about fostering social reform that might alienate Islamist opinion influenced by such journals as Sebilurresad and Sirat-i mustakim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus they emphasized the religious element in the ceremony of girding the sword of Osman when Sultan Mehmed V succeeded the deposed Abdulhamid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On May 10, 1909, Mehmed Resad was taken to the mausoleum of his ancestor at Eyub and, in the presence of civil and religious notables, Abdulhalim Efendi, the leader of the Mevlevi order who traced his line to Mevlana Jelal ed-Din Rumi (in Arabic, Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi), girded the sword on the new sultan.<br /><br />After the abortive insurrection of 1909, the two factions of the Young Turks competed for political supremacy under the watchful eye of the military high command under Mahmud Sevket Pasha, the general who had crushed the rebellion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In July 1912, while Istanbul ws at war with Italy over Libya, a military coup brought the liberals to power, and it seemed that the CUP’s days were numbered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the Unionists took advantage of the defeats suffered by Ottoman armies at the hands of the Balkan states (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece) in the war that broke out in October 1912.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the political chaos in the capital they seized power in January 1913 and consolidated it in June by destroying the liberal opposition.<br /><br />The wars with Italy and the Balkan states weakened the multinational, multireligious character of Ottomanism while strengthening its Islamic and nationalist elements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Italy’s attack and occupation of Libya, an Arab province, boosted Islamic solidarity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The loss of virtually all territories in the Balkans followed by the expulsions of much of their Muslim population left the empire with a predominantly Muslim/Turkish Anatolia and the Arab provinces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This trend continued during World War I with the massacre and deportation of the Armenians from eastern Anatolia as well as the arrival of Turks from the Caucasus.<br /><br />In 1913, following the example of the Jacobins in the French Revolution, the nationalist faction of the CUP organized the Committees of National Defense and Public Safety to facilitate the conduct of war.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To appease Arab opinion, Mahmud Sevket Pasha, who was born in Baghdad and claimed he was Arab, was appointed grand vizier in January 1913.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following his assassination in June 1913, the Egyptian prince Said Halim Pasha succeeded him and led the government until February 1917 -- the longest grand vizierate of the Young Turk period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottomanism strongly tinged with Islam had now become the ideology of the Young Turks.<br /><br />The Islam of the Unionists, however, was ideologically different from that of the Islamists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is apparent from articles that appeared in Islam mecmuasi (Journal of Islam), first published in February 1914.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike the Islamists, the Unionists argued that nationalism was not contrary to Islam but complemented it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, religion had to conform to the needs of everyday life; this idea was summed up in the word on the journal’s masthead, “A Religious Life and a Living Religion.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Islam had to be interpreted in terms of the new conditions confronting Muslims in order to be of living significance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The writers in Islam mecmuasi went so far as to propose the separation of religion from the state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Only this reform, they claimed, could make Islam a vital part of a Muslim’s everyday life; religious required taking measures to make religion a matter of conscience while subordinating the legal aspects of Islam to secular legislation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first step was the concern of religious leaders and institutions, while the second was the job of the state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of these ideas were put in action by the Unionist government during the war; they were adopted wholesale by Ataturk’s republic and provided the foundations for its policy of secularization.<br /><br />The Young Turks were ultimately a coalition of various reform groups that led a revolutionary movement against the authoritarian regime of Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II, which culminated in the establishment of a constitutional government. After their rise to power, the Young Turks introduced programs that promoted the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and a new spirit of Turkish nationalism. Their handling of foreign affairs, however, resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman state.<br /><br />In 1889 a group of students in the Imperial Medical Academy in Istanbul initiated a conspiracy against Abdülhamid that spread rapidly to other colleges in the city. When the plot was uncovered, many of its leaders fled abroad, mainly to Paris, where they prepared the groundwork for a future revolution against Abdülhamid. Among the most notable of the liberal émigrés was Ahmed Rıza, who became a key spokesman for the influential Young Turk organization known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government and the exclusion of all foreign influence. A major rival faction was formed by Prince Sabaheddin. His group, called the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, espoused many of the same liberal principles as those propounded by the CUP, but, unlike the latter, it favored administrative decentralization and European assistance to implement reforms.<br /><br />Although the CUP and the League played a significant role in disseminating and stimulating liberal thought, the actual impetus for the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 came from groups within the empire, particularly from discontented members of the Third (3rd) Army Corps in Macedonia. Many young officers of the corps garrisoned at Salonika (now Thessaloníka, Greece) organized to form the Ottoman Liberty Society in 1906. This secret revolutionary group merged with the CUP in Paris the following year, bringing to the Young Turk ideologists the command of the 3rd Army Corps. Later in 1907 the CUP and the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization agreed, though reluctantly, to work together to achieve their common goal.<br /><br />On July 3, 1908, Major Ahmed Niyazi of the 3rd Corps led a revolt against the provincial authorities in Resna. Other conspirators soon followed his example, and the rebellion rapidly spread throughout the empire. Unable to rely on government troops, Abdülhamid announced on July 23 the restoration of the 1876 constitution and recalled parliament. The Young Turks had succeeded in establishing a constitutional government, but their deep-seated ideological differences resurfaced and prevented them from taking effective control of that government until 1913, when the CUP under new leaders—the triumvirate of Talât Paşa, Ahmed Cemal Paşa, and Enver Paşa—set itself up as the real arbiter of Ottoman politics.<br /><br />While in power, the Young Turks carried out administrative reforms, especially of provincial administration, that led to more centralization. They were also the first Ottoman reformers to promote industrialization. In addition, the programs of the Young Turk regime effectuated greater secularization of the legal system and provided for the education of women and better state-operated primary schools. Such positive developments in domestic affairs, however, were largely overshadowed by the disastrous consequences of the regime’s foreign policy decisions. An overly hasty appraisal of Germany’s military capability by the Young Turk leaders led them to break neutrality and enter World War I (1914–18) on the side of the Central Powers. Upon the end of the war, with defeat imminent, the CUP Cabinet resigned on October 9, 1918, less than a month before the Ottomans signed the Armistice of Mudros.<br /><br />The Young Turk movement built a rich tradition of dissent that shaped the intellectual and political life of the late Ottoman period and laid the foundation for Atatürk's revolution. Most of their leaders believed that the state, not popular will, was the instrument by which social and political change would be achieved. They bequeathed to Atatürk the conviction that reformers should seize state power and then use it ruthlessly for their own ends, not to democratize society in ways that would weaken the centralized state.<br /><br />Except for the shift in focus on nationalism, the official ideology of the early modern Turkish state was shaped during this period. The Young Turks who lived long enough to witness the coming into being of the Republic of Turkey saw many of their ideals realized – it was a regime based on a popular materialistic-positivist ideology and nationalism. The new regime worked to be included in western culture while exerting an anti-imperialist rhetoric and convened a parliament composed not of elected politicians but of virtually selected intellectuals working on behalf of the people without cooperating in any capacity with the 'ignorant' masses. The effect of the Young Turks on shaping the official ideology of early modern Turkey went far beyond the political changes they brought about.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jöntürkler</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jon Turkler</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jeunes Turcs</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Turkler, Jon</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Turcs, Jeunes</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Young Turks</i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><strong style="font-size: x-large;"><em><span style="font-family: Times;"><br /></span></em></strong></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><strong style="font-size: x-large;"><em><span style="font-family: Times;">Yousafzai, Malala</span></em></strong></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><em style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Malala Yousafzai</em><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"> (</span><em style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Malalah Yusafzay</em><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">) (b. July 12, 1997, Mingora, North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan). A Pakistani education activist from the town of Mingora in the Swat District of Pakistan's northwestern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. She became known for her activism for rights to education and for women, especially in the Swat Valley, where the Taliban had at times banned girls from attending school. In early 2009, at the age of 11–12, Yousafzai wrote a blog under a pseudonym for the BBC detailing her life under Taliban rule, their attempts to take control of the valley, and her views on promoting education for girls. The following summer, a </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">New York Times</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"> documentary was filmed about her life as the Pakistani military intervened in the region, culminating in the Second Battle of Swat. Yousafzai rose in prominence, giving interviews in print and on television, and she was nominated for the International Children's Peace Prize by South African activist Desmond Tutu.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">On October 9, 2012, Yousafzai was shot in the head and neck in an assassination attempt by Taliban gunmen while returning home on a school bus. In the days immediately following the attack, she remained unconscious and in critical condition, but later her condition improved enough for her to be sent to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham, England, for intensive rehabilitation. On October 12, 2012, a group of 50 Islamic clerics in Pakistan issued a fatwa against those who tried to kill her, but the Taliban reiterated its intent to kill Yousafzai and her father.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">The assassination attempt sparked a national and international outpouring of support for Yousafzai. </span><em style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"></em><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">The United Nations Special Envoy for Global Education Gordon Brown launched a United Nations petition in Yousafzai's name, using the slogan "I am Malala" and demanding that all children worldwide be in school by the end of 2015 – a petition which helped lead to the ratification of Pakistan's first Right to Education Bill. In the April 29, 2013, issue of </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Time</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"> magazine, Yousafzai was featured on the magazine's front cover and as one of "The 100 Most Influential People in the World". She was the winner of Pakistan's first National Youth Peace Prize and was nominated for the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize (which was awarded to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons). On July 12, 2013, Yousafzai spoke at the United Nations to call for worldwide access to education, and in September 2013 she officially opened the Library of Birmingham.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white;"><p style="color: #202122; font-family: times; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">After her recovery from her wounds, Yousafzai became a more prominent activist for the right to education. Based in Birmingham, England, she co-founded the Malala Fund, a non-profit organization, with Shiza Shahid. In 2013, she co-authored </span><i style="font-size: x-large;">I Am Malala</i><span style="font-size: large;">, an international best seller.</span><span style="font-size: 20px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> In 2013, she received the Sakharov Prize,</span><span style="font-size: large;"> and in 2014, she was the co-recipient of the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize </span><span style="font-size: large;">with Kailash Satyarthi </span><span style="font-size: large;">of India. Aged 17 at the time, she was the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></p><p style="color: #202122; font-family: times; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">In 2015, Yousafzai was the subject of the Oscar-shortlisted documentary <i>He Named Me Malala.</i> The 2013, 2014 and 2015 issues of <i>Time</i> magazine featured her as one of the most influential people globally. In 2017, she was awarded honorary Canadian citizenship and became the youngest person to address the House of Commons of Canada.</span></p><p style="color: #202122; font-family: times; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p><p style="color: #202122; font-family: times; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai completed her secondary school education at Edgbaston High School, Birmingham in England from 2013 to 2017.</span><span style="font-size: 20px; text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> From there she won a place at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, </span><span style="font-size: large;">and undertook three years of study for a Bachelor of Arts degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics </span><span style="font-size: large;">(PPE), graduating in 2020.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> She returned in 2023 to become the youngest ever Honorary Fellow at Linacre College, Oxford. </span></p></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai was born on July 12, 1997, into a Sunni Muslim family of Pashtun ethnicity. She was given her first name </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Malala</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"> (meaning "grief stricken") after Malalai of Maiwand, a famous Pashtun poet and warrior woman from southern Afghanistan. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><sup></sup>Her last name, Yousafzai, is that of a large Pashtun tribal confederation that is predominant in Pakistan's Swat Valley, where she grew up. At her house in Mingora, she lived with her two younger brothers, her parents, and two pet chickens.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai was educated in large part by her father, Ziauddin Yousafzai, who was a poet, school owner, and an educational activist himself, running a chain of schools known as the Khushal Public School. She once stated to an interviewer that she would like to become a doctor, though later her father encouraged her to become a politician instead. Ziauddin referred to his daughter as something entirely special, permitting her to stay up at night and talk about politics after her two brothers had been sent to bed.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai started speaking about education rights as early as September 2008, when her father took her to Peshawar to speak at the local press club. "How dare the Taliban take away my basic right to education?" Yousafzai asked her audience in a speech covered by newspapers and television channels throughout the region.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Toward the end of 2008, the TTP (the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">; often</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> called the Pakistani Taliban)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> announced that all girls’ schools in Swat would be shut down on January 15, 2009. The British Broadcasting Corporation </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">(BBC) approached Yousafzai’s father in search of someone who might blog for them about what it was like to live under TTP rule. Under the name Gul Makai, Yousafzai began writing regular entries for BBC Urdu about her daily life. She wrote from January through the beginning of March of that year 35 entries that were also translated into English.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Meanwhile, the TTP shut down all girls’ schools in Swat and blew up more than 100 of them.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">In February 2009 Yousafzai made her first television appearance, when she was interviewed by Pakistani journalist and talk show </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">host Hamid Mir on the Pakistan current events show</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Capital Talk</em><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">. In late February the TTP, responding to an increasing backlash</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">throughout Pakistan, agreed to a cease-fire, lifted the restriction against girls, and allowed them to attend school on the condition that they wear burkas. However, violence resurged only a few months later, in May, and the Yousafzai family was forced to seek refuge outside of Swat until the Pakistani army was able to push the TTP out. In early 2009 <i>The New York Times</i></span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">reporter</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span id="ref1261384" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"></span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Adam Ellick worked with Yousafzai to make a documentary,</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><span id="ref1261385" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span>Class Dismissed</em><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">, a 13-minute piece about the school shutdown. Ellick made a second film with her, titled</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><span id="ref1261386" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span>A Schoolgirl’s Odyssey</em><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">.</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">The New York Times</em><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">posted both films on its web site </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">in 2009. That summer she met with the United States special envoy to Afghanistan</span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">and Pakistan, Richard Holbrooke, </span><span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">and asked him to help with her effort to protect the education of girls in Pakistan.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">With Yousafzai’s continuing television appearances and coverage in the local and international media, it had become apparent by December 2009 that she was the BBC’s young blogger. Once her identity was known, she began to receive widespread recognition for her activism. In October 2011, she was nominated by human rights</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">activist Desmond Tutu</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">for the International Children’s Peace Prize. In December of that year, she was awarded Pakistan’s first National Youth Peace Prize (later renamed the National Malala Peace Prize).</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">On October 9, 2012, Yousafzai was shot in the head by a TTP gunman while she was en route home from school. Fazlullah and the TTP took responsibility for the attempt on her life. She survived the attack and was flown from Peshawar to Birmingham, England, for surgery. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">The incident elicited</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">protests, and her cause was taken up around the world, including by the United Nations special envoy for global education, Gordon Brown,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">who introduced a petition that called for all children around the world to be back in school by 2015. That petition led to the ratification of Pakistan's</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">first Right to Education bill. In December 2012, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">announced the launch of a $10 million education fund in Yousafzai’s honour. About the same time, the</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span id="ref1261390" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Malala Fund was established by the Vital Voices Global Partnership to support education for all girls around the world.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai recovered, staying with her family in Birmingham, where she returned to her studies and to activism. For the first time since being shot, she made a public appearance on July 12, 2013, her 16th birthday, and addressed an audience of 500 at the United Nations in New York City, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Among her many awards, in 2013 Yousafzai won the United Nations Human Rights Prize, awarded every five years. She was named one of <i>Time</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">magazine’s most influential people in 2013 and appeared on one of the seven covers that were printed for that issue. With Christina Lamb (foreign correspondent for <i>The Sunday Times</i>)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">, Yousafzai coauthored a memoir,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">I Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">(2013). She also wrote the picture book</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><span id="ref1261392" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span>Malala’s Magic Pencil</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">(2017), which was based on her childhood. In 2014, she became the youngest person to win the Liberty Medal, awarded by the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">to public figures striving for people’s freedom throughout the world. Nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013 but passed over that year, Yousafzai in 2014 won the prize, becoming the youngest Nobel laureate. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Yousafzai shared the prize with Kailash Satyarthi, a children's rights </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">activist from India.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">She became the second Pakistani to receive a Nobel Prize after 1979 Physics Nobel laureate Abdus Salam.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Her life, before and after the attack she endured, was examined in the documentary</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><span id="ref1261393" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span>He Named Me Malala</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">(2015). The title referenced the fact that Yousafzai had been named for the Afghan heroine Malalai, or Malala, who purportedly led her people to victory against the British in the 1880 Battle of Maiwand.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">After winning the Nobel Prize, Yousafzai continued to attend school in England—she graduated from the University of Oxford </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">in 2020—while using her enhanced </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">public profile to bring attention to human rights issues around the world. In July 2015, with support from the Malala Fund, she opened a girls’ school in Lebanon</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">for refugees from the Syrian Civil War. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">She discussed her work with refugees as well as her own displacement in</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><span id="ref1263858" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></span>We Are Displaced</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">(2019).</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">In 2015, the All Pakistan Private Schools Federation (APPSF) banned her autobiographical book, <i>I Am Malala</i>, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">at all Pakistani private schools, with the APPSF president Mirza Kashif Ali releasing his own book against her, </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">I Am Not Malala</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> His book accused Yousafzai of attacking the Pakistan Armed Forces </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">under the pretense of female education, described her father as a "double agent" and "traitor", and denounced the Malala Fund's </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">promotion of secular education. However, Ali pointed out that the APPSF had gone on a national strike when Yousafzai was attacked by the Pakistani Taliban. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">Conspiracy theorists in newspapers and social media also alleged that Yousafzai had staged her assassination attempt, or that she was an agent of the United States Central Intelligence Agency </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">(CIA).</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Many Pakistanis view Yousafzai as an "agent of the West",</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> due to her Nobel prize, Oxford education and residence in England.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">On March 29, 2018, Yousafzai returned to Pakistan for the first time since the 2012 shooting. Meeting Prime Minister Shahid Khaqan Abbasi, Yousafzai</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> gave a speech in which she said it had been her dream to return without any fear.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Yousafzai then visited her hometown Mingora in the Swat District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">The APPSF, representing 173,000 private schools in Pakistan, organized an "I Am Not Malala Day" on March 30, 2018, in response to what the federation said were her "anti-Islam and anti-Pakistan" views.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> Yousafzai responded by saying "I am proud of my religion and country."</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">On November 9, 2021, Yousafzai married Asser Malik, a manager with the Pakistan Cricket Board, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">in Birmingham, England.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malala-Yousafzai"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Malala Yousafzai | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica</span></a></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malala_Yousafzai"><span style="font-size: large;">Malala Yousafzai - Wikipedia</span></a></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><div class="tude-ad-div" data-google-query-id="CLD7u4HL24EDFX3i_QUd1hEDSg" id="tude-incontent-2" style="align-items: center; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; color: #1a1a1a; flex-wrap: wrap; justify-content: center; line-height: 0; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 10px; min-height: 250px; overflow-x: visible; padding: 20px; position: relative; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="tude-ad-div" data-google-query-id="CPSHp4HL24EDFdnl_QUdhFUFjg" id="tude-incontent-0" style="align-items: center; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; color: #1a1a1a; flex-wrap: wrap; justify-content: center; line-height: 0; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 10px; min-height: 250px; overflow-x: visible; padding: 20px; position: relative; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-39605645598601141592023-09-27T04:18:00.011-07:002023-09-28T09:26:13.155-07:002023: Yunfa - Yusuf <p><br /></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yunfa</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunfa</i> (d. 1808).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ruler of the Hausa kingdom of Gobir (r. c.1801-c.1808).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tradition says that, in his youth, Yunfa was tutored by ‘Uthman, then a resident of Gobir.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When Yunfa’s father, the ruler of Gobir died, ‘Uthman rallied support for Yunfa against his cousins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yunfa soon came to fear ‘Uthman because of his immense popularity and the Muslim threat to traditional authority, and Yunfa may have attempted to assassinate him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He banished the Fula leader to Gudu, in a distant part of the kingdom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘Uthman attracted a large following which further frightened Yunfa, who attacked ‘Uthman in 1804.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The war continued until the final Muslim victory at Alkalawa in 1808, when Yunfa was killed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The battles marked the beginning of ‘Uthman’s jihad (holy war) which swept through the Hausa states.<br /><br />Yunfa was a king of the Hausa city-state of Gobir in what is now Nigeria. He is particularly remembered for his conflict with Islamic reformer Usman (Uthman) dan Fodio.<br /><br />Nephew and designated heir of Bawa, Yunfa appears to have been taught by Fulani religious leader Usman dan Fodio as a young man. Though dan Fodio helped Yunfa succeed Nafata to the throne in 1801, the two soon came into conflict over dan Fodio's proposed religious reforms. Fearing dan Fodio's growing power, Yunfa summoned him and attempted to assassinate him in person.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Yunfa's pistol backfired and wounded him in the hand. The following year, Yunfa expelled dan Fodio and his followers from their hometown of Degel.<br /><br />Dan Fodio soon called for help from other Fulani nomad groups and declared himself the imam of a new caliphate in jihad against Gobir. A widespread uprising soon began across Hausaland, and in 1804, Yunfa appealed to rulers of neighboring city-states for aid. In December of that year, Yunfa won a major victory in the Battle of Tsuntua, in which Dan Fodio's forces were said to have lost 2,000 men, 200 of whom knew the Qur'an by heart.<br /><br />However, dan Fodio soon launched a successful campaign against Kebbi and established a permanent base at Gwandu. In October 1808, the jihadists seized the Gobir capital of Alkalawa and killed Yunfa.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yunus al-Katib</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus al-Katib (al-Mughanni</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Musician and writer on music in the eighth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is mentioned in the Thousand-and-One Nights and composed verses extolling the beauty of Zaynab bint ‘Ikrima ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, which became the rage under the name of Zayanib.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Katib, Yunus al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus al-Katib</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mughanni, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus al-Katib</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yusuf ibn Tashfin</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus ibn Tashfin</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus ibn Tashufin</i>). Sanhaja Berber who was the first independent ruler of the Almoravids (r.1061-1106).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1062, he founded Marrakesh as his capital.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After Toledo had fallen to Alphonso VI of Castile in 1085, he was summoned by the Muluk al-Tawa’if to save Islam in the Iberian Peninsula.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He defeated Alphonso in the battle of Zallaqa in 1086 and suppressed almost all the Tawa’if.<br /><br />Yusuf ibn Tashfin was a king of the Berber Almoravid empire in North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia).<br /><br />Yusuf ibn Tashfin emerged from a line of military rulers. Abu Bakr ibn Umar, one of the original disciples of Ibn Yasin, a natural leader of Sanjaha extraction who served as a spiritual liaison for followers of the Maliki school of thought, was appointed general after the death of his brother Yahya ibn Ibrahim. His brother oversaw the military for Ibn Yasin but was killed in a Saharan revolt in 1056. Ibn Yasin, too, would die in battle with the Barghawata three years later. Abu-Bakr was an able general, taking the fertile Sus and its capital Aghmat a year after his brother's death, and would go on to suppress numerous revolts in the Sahara himself, on one such occasion delegating permanent governorship of Sus and thus the whole of his northern provinces to his pious cousin Yusuf, who had received such authority in the interim; even going so far as to giving him his wife, Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyat, purportedly the richest woman of Aghmat. This sort of trust and favor on part of a seasoned veteran and savvy politician reflected the general esteem in which Yusuf was held, not to mention the power he attained as a military figure in his absence. Daunted by Yusuf's newfound power, Abu Bakr saw any attempts at recapturing his post politically unfeasible and returned to the fringes of the Sahara to settle the unrest of the southern frontier.<br /><br />In the year 1091 the last sovereign king of al-Andalusia, al-Mu'tamid, saw his Abbadid-inherited taifa of Seville, controlled since 1069, in jeopardy of being taken by the increasingly stronger king of Castile-León, Alfonso VI. The Taifa period followed the demise of the Umayyad Caliphate. Previously, the emir launched a series of aggressive attacks on neighboring kingdoms to garner more territory for himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, his military aspirations and capabilities paled in comparison to the Castilian king, who in the name of Christendom, in 1085, captured a culturally refined Toledo and induced parias, or tribute, from proud Muslim princes in places like Granada, al-Mu'tamid of Seville being no exception. The tribute of the emirs bolstered the economy of the Christian kingdom. These are the circumstances that led to the Almoravid conquest.<br /><br />Yusuf was an effective general and administrator, evidenced by his ability to organize and maintain the loyalty of the hardened desert warriors and the territory of Abu Bakr, as well as his ability to expand the empire, cross the Atlas Mountains onto the plains of Morocco, reaching the Mediterranean and capturing Fez in 1075, Tangier in 1079, Tlemcen in 1080, Ceuta in 1083, as well as Algiers, Ténès and Oran in 1082-83. He is regarded as the co-founder of the famous Moroccan city Marrakech (in Berber Murakush, corrupted to Morocco in English). The site had been chosen and work started by Abu Bakr in 1070. The work was completed by Yusuf, who then made it the capital of his empire, in place of the former capital Aghmat. By the time Abu Bakr died in 1087, after a skirmish in the Sahara as result of a poison arrow, Yusuf had crossed over into al-Andalus and also achieved victory at the Battle of az-Zallaqah, also known as the Battle of Sagrajas in the west. He came to al-Andalus with a force of 15,000 men, armed with javelins, daggers, most of his soldiers carried two swords, shields, cuirass of the finest leather and animal hide, as well as drummers for psychological combat. Yusuf's cavalry was said to have included 6,000 shock troops from Senegal mounted on white Arabian horses. Camels were also put to use. On October 23, 1086, the Almoravid forces, accompanied by 10,000 Andalusian fighters from local Muslim provinces, decisively checked the Reconquista, defeating the largest Christian army ever assembled up to that point. The death of Yusuf's heir, however, prompted his speedy return to Africa.<br /><br />When Yusuf returned to al-Andalus in 1090, he saw the lax behavior of the taifa kings, both spiritually and militarily, as a breach of Islamic law and principles, and left Africa with the express purpose of usurping the power of all the Muslim principalities, under the auspices of the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, who he had shared correspondence with and under the shibboleth "The spreading of righteousness, the correction of injustice and the abolition of unlawful taxes." The emirs in such cities as Seville, Badajoz, Almeria and Granada had grown accustomed to the extravagant ways of the east. On top of doling out tribute to the Christians and giving Andalusian Jews unprecedented freedoms and authority, they had levied burdensome taxes on the populace to maintain this lifestyle. After a series of fatwas and careful deliberation, Yusuf saw the implementation of orthodoxy as long overdue. That year he exiled the emirs 'Abd Allah and his brother Tamim from Granada and Malaga, respectively, to Aghmat, and a year later al-Mutamid of Seville would suffer the same fate. When all was said and done, Yusuf united all of the Muslim dominions of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Zaragoza, to the Kingdom of Morocco, and situated his royal court at Marrakech. He took the title of amir al-muslimin (Prince of the Muslims), seeing himself as humbly serving the caliph of Baghdad, but for all intents and purposes he was considered the caliph of the western Islamic empire. The military might of the Almoravids was at its peak.<br /><br />The Sanhaja confederation, which consisted of a hierarchy of Lamtuna, Musaffa and Djudalla Berbers, represented the military's top brass. Amongst them were Andalusian Christians and heretic Africans, taking up duties as diwan al-gund, Yusuf's own personal bodyguard; including 2,000 black horsemen, whose tasks also included registering soldiers and making sure they were compensated financially. The occupying forces of the Almoravids were made up largely of horsemen, totaling no less than 20,000. Into the major cities of al-Andalus, Seville (7,000), Granada (1,000), Cordoba (1,000), 5,000 bordering Castile and 4,000 in western Andalusia, succeeding waves of horsemen in conjunction with the garrisons that had been left there after the Battle of Sagrajas, made responding, for the Taifa emirs, difficult. Soldiers on foot used bows and arrows, sabres, pikes, javelins, each protected by a cuirass of Moroccan leather and iron piked shields. During the siege of the fort-town Aledo, in Murcia, captured by the Spaniard Garcia Giménez previously, Almoravid and Andalusian hosts are said to have used catapults, in addition to their customary drum beat. Yusuf also established naval bases in Cadiz, Almeria and neighboring ports along the Mediterranean. Ibn-Maymun, the governor of Almeria, had a fleet at his disposal. Another such example is the Banu-Ganiya fleet based off the Balearic Islands that dominated the affairs of the western Mediterranean for much of the 12th century.<br /><br />Although the Almoravids had not gained much in the way of territory from the Christians, rather they merely offset the Reconquista, Yusuf did succeed in capturing Valencia. A city divided between Muslims and Christians, under the waffling rule of a petty emir paying tribute to the Christians, including the famous El Cid, Valencia proved to be an obstacle for the Almoravid military, despite their untouchable reputation. Abu Bakr ibn Ibrahim ibn Tashfin and Yusuf's nephew Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad both failed in defeating the El Cid. Yusuf then sent Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali al-Hajj but he was not successful either. In 1097, upon his fourth trip to al-Andalus, Yusuf sought to personally dig down and fight the armies of Alfonso VI, making way toward the all but abandoned, yet historically important, Toledo. Such a concerted effort was meant to draw the Christian forces, including those laying siege to Valencia, into the center of Iberia. On August 15, 1097, the Almoravids delivered yet another blow to Alfonso's forces, a battle in which El Cid's son was killed.<br /><br />Muhammad ibn 'A'isha, Yusuf's son, who he had appointed governor of Murcia, succeeded in delivering an effective pounding to the El Cid's personnel at Alcira. Still not capturing the city, but satisfied with the results of his campaigns, Yusuf left for his court at Marrakesh only to return two years later on a new effort to take the provinces of eastern Andalusia. El Cid had died in the same year, 1099, and his wife, Jimena, had been ruling until the coming of another Almoravid campaign at the tail end of 1100, led by Yusuf's trusted lieutenant Mazdali ibn Banlunka. After a seven-month siege, Alfonso and Jimena, hopeless to the prospects of staving off the Almoravids, set fire to the great mosque in anger and abandoned the city. Yusuf had finally conquered Valencia and exerted complete dominance over the east of al-Andalus, now unquestionably the most powerful ruler in western Europe. He receives mention in the Spanish epic Poema del Cid, also known as El Cantar del Mio Cid, the oldest of its kind.<br /><br />A wise and shrewd man, neither too prompt in his determinations, nor too slow in carrying them into effect, Yusuf was very much adapted to the rugged terrain of the Sahara and had no interests in the pomp of the Andalusian courts. According to Abd Allah's "Roudh el-Kartas" (History of the Rulers of Morocco) and A. Beaumier's French translation of the 14th century work, Yusuf was of "teint brun, taille moyenne, maigre, peu de barbe, voix douce, yeux noirs, nez aquilin, meche de Mohammed retombant sur le bout de l'oreille, sourcils joints l'un a l'autre, cheveux crepus"; meaning - "Brown color, middle height, thin, little beard, soft voice, black eyes, straight nose, lock of Muhammad falling on the top of his ear, eyebrow joined, wooly hair". He went on to reach the 100 years old mark and, unlike his predecessors, not die in battle.<br /><br />Since Yusuf's reign represented the apogee of the Almoravid dynasty, something has to be said for its certain demise after his death. His son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, was viewed just as devout a Muslim but he neither commanded the same respect nor retained the clientele of his father. As he prayed and fasted the empire crumbled about him. Córdoba, in about 1119, served as the launch pad for Andalusian insurrection. Christians on the northern frontier gained momentum shortly after his father's death, and the Almohads, beginning about 1120, were to engulf the southern frontier. These incursion led to the ultimate disintegration of Yusuf's hard-fought territories by the time of Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1146) and Ishaq ibn Ali (1146–1147), the last of the Almoravid dynasty.<br /><br />Much of the disparaging things written about the Almoravids, whether it be from Almohads or Christian sources, was propaganda. While Yusuf was the most honorable of Muslim rulers, he spoke Arabic poorly. Ali ibn Yusuf in 1135 exercized good stewardship by attending to the University of Al-Karaouine and ordering the extension of the mosque from 18 to 21 aisles, expanding the structure to more than 3,000 square meters. Some accounts suggest that Ali ibn Yusuf hired two Andalusian architects to carry out this work, It was Ali ibn Yusuf who also built the central aisle of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, Algeria, in 1136.<br /><br />In popular culture<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Ben Yussuf is the name of Yusuf ibn Tashfin in El Cid.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Yusuf appears in Age of Empires II: The Conquerors as one of the primary antagonists in the "El Cid" campaign. However, he is described as "never showing his face", always covering it with a cloth.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus ibn Tashufin </i>see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yunus ibn Tashfin</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yusuf ibn al-Hasan</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf ibn al-Hasan</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dom Jeronimo-Chingulia</i>) (c. 1606-c. 1638).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sultan of Mombasa when most of the East African coast was under nominal Portuguese rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />When Yusuf was seven, his father was mysteriously murdered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Portuguese apparently wished to atone by raising Yusuf as a Christian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was sent to Goa, where he was educated by the Augustinians and baptized as a Dom Jeronimo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He returned to Mombasa in 1626 to assume the office of Sultan but found himself despised by local Muslims and bullied by Portuguese officials.<br /><br />After several years a rumor arose that Yusuf was observing Islamic prayers -- a capital offense to the Catholic Portuguese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hearing of a Portuguese plan to arrest him, he seized the initiative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On a Catholic feast day in mid-1631 he entered the massive bastion of Fort Jesus with several hundred followers and massacred almost every Portuguese there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He then renounced Christianity.<br /><br />Within days, he was the true master of the city.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He attempted to raise a general coastal revolt but lacking military resources he found little sympathy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next year, the Portuguese muffed an attempt to retake Mombasa and retreated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yusuf seems to have lost heart, for the fled to Arabia, abandoning Mombasa to the Portuguese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Over the next few years, he conducted minor raids against coastal towns, until he was killed, apparently by pirates, in the Red Sea around 1638.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dom Jeronimo-Chingulia</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf ibn al-Hasan</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jeronimo-Chingulia, Dom</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf ibn al-Hasan</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yusufi, Mawlana</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusufi, Mawlana</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mawlana Yusufi</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Secretary to the Mughal Emperor Humayun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He acquired a place in Indian literature with his epistolary manual.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mawlana Yusufi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusufi, Mawlana</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yusuf (Islam)</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Yusuf </i>(</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">)</span> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusef Islam</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cat Stevens</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Steven Demetri Georgiou</i>) (b. July 21, 1948, London, England).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pop musician who achieved notoriety during the 1970s under the name Cat Stevens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was born in Soho, London, the son of a Greek London restaurateur and a Swedish mother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In July 1966, he began his musical career playing folk music at Hammersmith College.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He contracted tuberculosis in 1968 and spent over a year recuperating.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Afterwards, he adopted a new more sensitive and reflective style which would catapult him to international success during the 1970s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His hits included "Wild World", "Moon Shadow", "Peace Train", "Morning Has Broken", "Oh Very Young", and "Another Saturday Night".<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His fame increased when his songs were used on the soundtrack of Hal Ashby’s cult movie, “Harold and Maude.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On December 23, 1977, Stevens formally embraced Islam and changed his name to Yusuf Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He retired from the music business in 1979 citing a desire to follow a more spiritual path and later that year he married Fouzia Ali at Kensington Mosque in London.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />In 1981, Yusef Islam financed the establishment of, and began to teach at, a Muslim school in North London.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this year, he also officially confirmed that he had left show business.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He auctioned all the trappings of his pop career, including his gold records, and donated the money to his Islamic work.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In February of 1989, Yusuf Islam sparked a controversy by concurring with the Ayatollah Khomeini’s fatwa calling for the death of Salman Rushdie.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In June of 1990, he was barred from entering Israel because he had become an “undesirable.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In November 1990, Yusuf visited Iraq and successfully secured the release of a number of British Muslims held hostage during the Gulf War crisis.<br /><br />In May of 1993, Yusuf, then the President of the Islamic Association of North London, won a libel action over an article which claimed the misused charitable funds to buy arms for Afghan rebels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yusuf subsequently donated his damage award to Islamic charities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In September of 1995, after 18 years of musical silence, Yusuf, living with his wife and five children at the Islamia School he founded in 1983 in the North London suburb of Kilburn, signed copies of his new album in London, the predominantly spoken word: <i>The Life of the Last Prophet</i>.<br /><br />Yusuf Islam has been given several awards for his work in promoting peace in the world, including the 2003 World Award, the 2004 Man for Peace Award, and the 2007 Mediterranean Prize for Peace. In 2006, he returned to pop music with his first album of new pop songs in 28 years, entitled <i>An Other Cup</i>. He also began to go professionally by the single name "Yusuf".</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;">Yusuf’s full return to music making came in 2006 with the release of </span><em style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #040404; font-family: times;">An Other Cup</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;">. The album was enthusiastically received, delighting audiences who had dreamt of hearing his soft voice, compelling melodies, and poignant lyrics once again. Three years later another new album,</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;"> </span><em style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #040404; font-family: times;">Roadsinger, </em><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;">cemented his reconnection with the music industry. The "Guess I’ll Take My Time" tour followed which saw Yusuf perform songs from both his new and old catalog throughout the United Kingdom in 2009, Australia in 2010, and the rest of Europe in 2011.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;">In 2012, Yusuf explored a new musical avenue with the staging of a musical called</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;"> </span><em style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #040404; font-family: times;">Moonshadow</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times;">which was launched in Australia in May of that year. The story tells the magical tale of a young man and his Moonshadow’s struggle against an oncoming darkness. Using songs from throughout his career, the musical explores many of the themes and ideas that have informed Yusuf's music. </span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: large;">Yusuf’s return to music has been greeted with joy and excitement across the world but nowhere more so than in the United States. The emotional reaction to his performance at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame induction in New York on the April 10, 2014, showed the love and appreciation that exists within the music industry for a legendary singer-songwriter who was truly considered one of their own. In 2016, the "Cat’s Attic" tour gave the American public their opportunity to echo these feelings.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #040404; font-family: times; font-size: large;">2017 kicked off a series of significant anniversaries as it marked 50 years since the release of Yusuf’s first two albums, <i>Matthew & Son</i> and <i>New Masters</i> in 1967. The celebrations ramped up in 2020 with the 50th anniversary of two albums that began the seminal period of Yusuf / Cat Stevens’ career, <i>Mona Bone Jakon</i> and the legendary<i> Tea for the Tillerman</i>, and the festivities continued into 2021 as <i>Teaser and the Firecat</i> also reached half a century.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusef Islam</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cat Stevens</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Stevens, Cat</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Islam, Yusuf</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Steven Demetri Georgiou</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Georgiou, Steven Demetri </i>see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Islam</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yusuf Khass Hajib</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Balasaghuni</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khas Hajib Balasaghuni</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Ḥajib Balasağuni</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Has Hacip</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Has Hajib</i>). Turkish author of the eleventh century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote a “Mirror of Princes” for the Ilek-Khanid prince of Kashghar Bughra-Khan (d. 1102).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is the first classic of Turkish poetry of Central Asia.<br /><br />Yusuf Balasaghuni was an 11th century Uyghur scribe from the city of Balasaghun, the capital of the Karakhanid Empire. He wrote the <i>Kutadgu Bilig </i>and most of what is known about him comes from his own writings in this work.<br /><br />Balasagun was located near present-day Tokmok in Kyrgyzstan. Yusuf Khas Hajib was about 50 years old when he completed the <i>Kutadgu Bilig</i>. After presenting the completed work to the prince of Kashgar he was awarded the title Khass Hajib, an honorific similar to "Privy Chamberlain" or "Chancellor".<br /><br />He is often referred to as either Yusuf Balasaguni or Yusuf Khass Hajib.<br /><br />Some scholars suspect that the prologue to the <i>Kutadgu Bilig,</i> which is much more overtly Islamic than the rest of the text, was not written by Yusuf, particularly the first prologue, which is in prose, unlike the rest of the text.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />Yusuf Khas Hajib died in 1085 at the age of 66 in the Uyghur city Kashgar, and was buried there. There is now a mausoleum erected on his gravesite. He is remembered as a prominent Uyghur scholar.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hajib, Yusuf Khass</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Balasaghuni</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khas Hajib Balasaghuni</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib Balasaguni</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Has Hacip</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yusuf Khass Hajib</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-4216881060370213322023-09-26T01:15:00.003-07:002023-09-28T09:29:52.216-07:002023: Zacharias - Zaghlul<p> </p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zacharias</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zacharias</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zakariyya’</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zechariah</i>) (b. c. 100 B.C.T. - d. c. 20) Father of John the Baptist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the Qur’an, he is reckoned along with John, Jesus and Elias among the righteous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His story is expanded by later legend.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />Zakariyya is one of the prophets mentioned in the Qur'an. Muslims also believe Zechariah to be the guardian of Mary, mother of Prophet Jesus, and they believe Zakariyya to be the father of Prophet John.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zakariyya</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zacharias</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zechariah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zacharias</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zafar, Bahadur Shah</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zafar, Bahadur Shah</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Zafar Siraj ud-Din Muhammad Bahadur Shah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bahadur Shah II</i>) (b. October 24, 1775, Delhi, India — d. November 7, 1862, Rangoon [now Yangon], Myanmar).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Poetic pen name of Abu Zafar Siraj ud-Din Muhammad Bahadur Shah, the last Mughal emperor of Delhi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Living only the facade of a royal life, he endured with dignity his helpless position as a British pensioner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His reign began only at the age of sixty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As an old man of eighty, he was made the figurehead of the Rebellion of 1857.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this, the British exiled him to Rangoon, where he died.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is known as the author of a large number of melancholy and devotional Urdu poems and songs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is also known for his two brilliant court poets, Zauq and Ghalib.<br /><br />Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal emperor of India (r. September 28, 1837 – September 14, 1857), was a poet, musician, and calligrapher, more an aesthete than a political leader.<br /><br />He was the second son of Akbar Shah II and Lal Bai. For most of his reign he was a client of the British and was without real authority. He figured briefly, and unwillingly, in the Indian (Sepoy) Mutiny of 1857–58. During the mutiny, rebel troops from the city of Meerut seized Delhi and compelled Bahadur Shah to accept nominal leadership of the revolt. At the age of 82, and in fear of his life, he acquiesced. After the rebellion was put down by the British, he was exiled to Burma (Myanmar) with his family.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bahadur Shah Zafar</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zafar, Bahadur Shah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Zafar Siraj ud-Din Muhammad Bahadur Shah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zafar, Bahadur Shah</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bahadur Shah II</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zafar, Bahadur Shah</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaghlul, Sa’ad</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaghlul, Sa’ad (Sa'ad Zaghlul</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saad Zaghloul</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sa'd Zaghloul Pasha ibn Ibrahim</i>) (1857/1859-August 23, 1927).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prime Minister of Egypt from January 26, 1924, to November 24, 1924.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Egyptian politician and nationalist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaghlul was the founder of the Wafd movement.<br /><br />Zaghlul was born in July of 1857 into a middle-class peasant family in Ibaynah in the Nile River delta.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During his youth, he was educated at the Muslim University of Al-Azhar in Cairo, as well as at the Egyptian School of Law.<br /><br />In 1892, Zaghlul was appointed judge at the Court of Appeal.<br /><br />In 1895, Zaghlul married the daughter of the Prime Minister of Egypt, Mustafa Pasha Fatmi.<br /><br />In 1906, Zaghlul became head of the Ministry of Education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later in the year, he partook in the establishment of Hizbu al-Ummah, which was a moderate group in a time when more and more Egyptians claimed to revive their independence from the British.<br /><br />In 1910, Zaghlul was appointed Minister of Justice.<br /><br />In 1912, Zaghlul resigned from the post of Minister of Justice after a disagreement with Khedive Abbas Hilmi II.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later in the year, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly.<br /><br />In 1913, Zaghlul was appointed vice-president of the Legislative Assembly, a position he used to criticize the government.<br /><br />From 1914 to 1918, during World War I, Zaghlul and many members from the old Legislative Assembly formed activist groups all over Egypt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>World War I led to much hardship for the Egyptian population, due in large part to the many British restrictions.<br /><br />On November 13, 1918, with the end of World War I, Zaghlul and two other former members from the Legislative Assembly called upon the British high commissioner, asking for the abolishment of the protectorate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also ask to be representative for Egypt in the peace negotiations after the war.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These demands were refused, and Zaghlul’s supporters, a group now known as Wafd, instigated disorder all over the country.<br /><br />In March of 1919, Zaghlul and three other members of Wafd were deported to Malta.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaghlul was soon released after General Edmund Allenby took over as high commissioner of Egypt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He travelled to Paris, France, in an attempt to present his version of Egypt’s case to representatives of the Allied countries, but without much success.<br /><br />In 1920, Zaghlul had several meetings with the British colonial secretary, Lord Milner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They reached an understanding, but Zaghlul was uncertain of how the Egyptians would see him if he forged an agreement with the British, so he withdrew.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaghlul then returned to Egypt and was welcomed as a national hero.<br /><br />In 1921, Zaghlul used his supporters to hinder the establishment of a British-friendly government.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Allenby responded by deporting Zaghlul to the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean.<br /><br />In February of 1922, Egypt received limited independence, according to Lord Milner’s recommendations, as these were designed through the talks with Zaghlul.<br /><br />In 1923, Zaghlul was allowed to return to Egypt.<br /><br />In February of 1924, Zaghlul became prime minister after the Wafd won ninety percent of the parliament seats in the elections.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaghlul then found out that not even he was able to stop demonstrations and riots among Egyptians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In November of this year, after the British commander in chief of the Egyptian army was killed, Zaghlul was forced to leave office.<br /><br />In 1926, Zaghlul became president of the parliament, and from this position, he was able to control the actions of extreme nationalists.<br /><br />On August 23, 1927, Zaghlul died in Cairo.<br /><br />Zaghlul was considered as too moderate and cooperative by many nationalists until 1913.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1913, his politics changed, and he used his position as vice-president of the Legislative Assembly to criticize the government.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Zaghlul was not a great leader.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, he proved to be the most effective leader of popular opinions of his time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many ways, he was the instigator of the process that led to total independence of Egypt nearly thirty years after his death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaghlul was shrewd politician, who knew well how to deal with both the British opponent and his fellow Egyptian countrymen at the same time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Often he played a double game.<br /><br />Zaghlul derived much of his charisma and success from a combination of intelligence, diplomacy and eloquence, as well as a humble background with which most Egyptians could identify.<br /><br />Zaghlul was born in Ibyana village in the Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate of Egypt's Nile Delta. For his post-secondary education, he attended Al-Azhar University in Cairo. In the 1880s, he became politically active, for which he was arrested. After his release from prison, Zaghlul went on to practice law. He became increasingly active in nationalist movements, and in 1918, he led a delegation demanding complete independence from Britain at the Paris Peace Conference. The British in turn demanded that Zaghlul end his political agitation. When he refused, they exiled him to Malta and later to the Seychelles. At the time of his arrival in the Seychelles, a number of other prominent anti-imperialist leaders were also exiled there, including Mohamoud Ali Shire, the 20th Sultan of the Somali Warsangali Sultanate, with whom Zaghlul would soon develop a rapport.<br /><br />Zaghlul's absence caused disturbances in Egypt, ultimately leading to the Egyptian Revolution of 1919. Upon his return from exile, Zaghloul led the Egyptian nationalist forces. The elections of January 12, 1924, gave the Wafd Party an overwhelming majority, and two weeks later, Zaghloul formed the first Wafdist government.<br /><br />Following the assassination on November 19, 1924, of Sir Lee Stack, the Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sudan, and subsequent British demands which Zaghloul felt to be unacceptable, Zaghloul resigned, deciding to play no further role in government.<br /><br />Zaghlul's wife, Safiyya, was the daughter of Mustafa Fahmi Pasha, the Egyptian cabinet minister and two-time Prime Minister of Egypt. A feminist and revolutionary, she was also active in politics.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sa'ad Zaghlul</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaghlul, Sa’ad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saad Zaghloul</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaghlul, Sa’ad</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sa'd Zaghloul Pasha ibn Ibrahim</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaghlul, Sa’ad</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-31866971285410928202023-09-25T03:03:00.003-07:002023-09-28T09:40:24.540-07:002023: Zahawi - Zahrawi<p><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zahawi, Jamil Sidqi al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahawi, Jamil Sidqi al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi</i>) (1863-1936). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab poet, scholar and philosopher of Kurdish descent from Iraq.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He associated with the Young Turks, was opposed to the Wahhabis and an ardent champion of the emancipation of women.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is also celebrated as a Persian poet.<br /><br />Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi was a prominent Iraqi poet and philosopher. He is regarded as one of the greatest contemporary poets of the Arab world and was known for his defense of women's rights.<br /><br />Zahawi was born in Baghdad. His father, of Iraqi Kurd origin, was the Mufti of Iraq and a member of the Baban clan. His mother was a Turkmen. He lived in Baghdad, then left for Istanbul, then to Jerusalem to complete his studies.<br /><br />During the Ottoman era he held numerous positions: as a member of the Baghdad Education Council, where he championed education for women; as an editor of the only newspaper in Baghdad, al-Zawra; as a member of the Supreme Court in Yemen and Istanbul; as a professor of Islamic philosophy at the Royal University and as a professor of literature at the College of Arts in Istanbul. After Iraq's independence in 1921, he was elected to parliament twice and appointed to the upper chamber for one term.<br /><br />He was one of the leading writers in the Arab world, publishing in the major newspapers and journals of Beirut, Cairo, and Baghdad. In the 1930s, because of his political views, he was marginalized by the political establishment.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jamal Sidqi al-Zahawi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahawi, Jamil Sidqi al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><br /></div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><b><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zahedi, Ardeshir</span></i></b></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><i>Ardeshir Zahedi</i> (b. October 16, 1928, Tehran, Persia [now Iran] – d. November 18, 2021, Montreux, Switzerland). An Iranian politician and diplomat who served as the country's foreign minister from 1966 to 1971, and its ambassador to the United States and the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s.</span></p><div><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Born in Tehran, Ardeshir Zahedi was the son of Fazlollah Zahedi and his wife, Khadijeh Pirnia. Fazlollah Zahedi, was general who served as prime minister after participating in the CIA-led coup which led to the fall of Mohammed Mossadegh, and his wife Khadijeh Pirnia.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zahedi received a degree in agriculture from Utah State University in 1950, where he was a member of Kappa Sigma. Seven years later, he married the daughter of the Shah of Iran, Princess Shahnaz Pahlavi. The marriage ended in divorce in 1964.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zahedi served as ambassador to the United States from 1960 to 1962 and to the United Kingdom from 1962 to 1966.<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> Under Prime Minister Amir Abbas Hoveida, Zahedi served as minister of foreign affairs from 1966 to 1971.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zahedi again became ambassador to the United States from 1973 until the Iranian Revolution climaxed in January 1979. During his second stint in Washington, he won a reputation for extravagance. In the mid-1970s, Zahedi became known as a companion of the American actress Elizabeth Taylor. During the 1977 Hanafi Siege of a federal building in Washington, Zahedi and two other ambassadors from Muslim nations were able to talk the hostage-takers into surrendering and releasing 149 hostages.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Over the course of 1978, it was reported in some circles that Zahedi urged the Shah to appease the rioters by making scapegoats of several high-ranking officials, including Amir Abbas Hoveida (then Prime Minister) and SAVAK director Nematollah Nassiri. When the Shah left Iran in 1979, Zahedi was still serving as ambassador in Washington, but resigned as soon as Khomeini came to power. He started fervent attempts at securing political asylum for the ailing Shah and the Imperial family in Panama, Mexico, Morocco and finally Egypt. He was present at the Shah's death bed and funeral in Cairo in 1980. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zahedi lived in retirement in Montreux, Switzerland. He received many awards and honors from nations around the globe for his humanitarian service and record in international affairs.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">In an interview in May 2006, Zahedi voiced his support for Iran's Nuclear Program asserting that it as an "inalienable right of Iran", under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Zahedi told Voice of America that the United States approved the start of Iran's $50 billion nuclear program in the 1970s. Two documents in particular, dated April 22, 1975, and April 20, 1976, show that the United States and Iran held negotiations on a nuclear program and the United States was willing to help Iran by setting up uranium enrichment and fuel reprocessing facilities.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Ardeshir Zahedi died in Switzerland on November 18, 2021, at the age of 93.</span></p></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zahir al-Din al-Mar‘ashi, Sayyid</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir al-Din al-Mar‘ashi, Sayyid</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Zahir al-Din al-Mar‘ashi</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Persian statesman and historian of the fifteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He composed a chronicle of Tabaristan from the earliest times to 1476.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Zahir al-Din al-Mar'ashi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir al-Din al-Mar‘ashi, Sayyid</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zahir Ghazi, al-Malik al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Ghazi, al-Malik al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Az-Zahir Ghazi</i>) (1172-1215/October 8, 1216). Ayyubid prince.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was the second son of Saladin, who made him ruler of Aleppo in 1186.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the wars with the Crusaders, he loyally assisted his father and later his brother al-Malik al-Afdal, the ruler of Damascus., and his uncle al-Malik al-‘Adil, the ruler of Egypt and, after al-Afdal had been deposed, of Damascus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He played an energetic part in the fighting for Acre and Jaffa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1198, he recognized al-‘Adil’s suzerainty.<br /><br />Az-Zahir Ghazi was governor and then ruler of Halab (now Aleppo) from 1186 (A.H. 581) to 1216 (A.H. 613). He was the third son of Saladin and his lands included northern Syria and a small part of Mesopotamia.<br /><br />In 1186, az-Zahir's father appointed him governor of Aleppo, Mosul and supporting areas which had recently been taken from the Zengids. At the same time his two older brothers were appointed, respectively, as governor of Syria (al-Afdal) and Egypt (al-Aziz). The lands that az-Zahir received had been under the control of his uncle, Saladin's brother al-Adil, and al-Adil took an avuncular interest in az-Zahir. As the third son, when he inherited in 1193, he was to owe suzerainty to his eldest brother, al-Afdal, in Damascus. However, he failed to do so, and he conducted his affairs independently from his brothers.<br /><br />In 1193, faced with the on-going revolt of the Zengid 'Izz al-Din in Mosul, he called upon his uncle, al-Adil, to provide the forces to suppress the revolt, which was quickly quelled. In 1194 az-Zahir received Latakia as part of a settlement in which he recognized al-Afdal's authority. However, by 1196 al-Afdal had proved himself incompetent as a ruler, and had lost the support of his uncle, al-Adil. Az-Zahir joined with his brother al-Aziz and uncle al-Adil in deposing and exiling al-Afdal. In October 1197, noting that Amalric of Lusignan had retaken the port at Beirut and that Bohemond III of Antioch was threatening the ports of Latakia and Jableh, az-Zahir destroyed the ports. Although Bohemond took the two locations, they were no longer advantageous, and he soon withdrew. At which point az-Zahir reoccupied them and rebuilt the fortress at Latakia.<br /><br />While ruler in Aleppo, az-Zahir kept many of his father's advisors. He appointed Baha ad-Din as a qadi ("judge") in Halab. He brought the unorthodox as-Suhrawardi to Halab but was forced to imprison him in 1191 due to the demands of the orthodox ulama ("men of learning").<br /><br />When al-Aziz died in Egypt in 1198 and was succeeded by his son Malik al-Mansur, a boy of twelve, al-Aziz's ministers, worried about the ambitions of al-Adil, summoned al-Afdal from exile to act as Regent of Egypt in the name of his young nephew. Early in the next year, while al-Adil was in the north suppressing an Artuqid rebellion, al-Afdal and az-Zahir came together in alliance and were joined by most of the other Ayyubid princes. Together they besieged Damascus, but as it held out for several months az-Zahir, as did other Ayyubid princes, lost interest and withdrew his troops. Al-Adil was not pleased and after conquering Egypt, he returned and reduced az-Zahir's territories to the area around Aleppo, forcing him to recognize overarching al-Adil suzerainty. During the last decade of his life he skirmished with crusaders and lent his army to support other Ayyubid princes. In 1206, King Leo of Cilicia defeated az-Zahir forces at the Battle of Amq, but was unable to secure any permanent advantage against Aleppo. In 1207, the French attacked and besieged Homs and its emir, an Ayyubid prince called Mujadid Shirkuh II, appealed to az-Zahir, whose troops lifted the siege.<br /><br />Prior to his death in 1216, Az-Zahir appointed his younger son Malek al-Aziz Mohammed (b. 1213) to succeed him.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malik al-Zahir Ghazi, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Ghazi, al-Malik al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Ghazi, Az-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Ghazi, al-Malik al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Az-Zahir Ghazi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Ghazi, al-Malik al-</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zahiriyya</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahiriyya</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Zahiriyya</i>). Name of a school of law, which would derive the law only from the literal text (in Arabic, zahir) of the Qur’an and Sunna.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Founded by Dawud ibn Khalaf, it spread in Iraq, Persia and Khurasan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Spain, it was codified by Ibn Hazm, who remained practically isolated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Only in the reign of the Almohad Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur was the Zahiri school recognized as the state code.<br /><br />Ẓāhirī is a school of thought in Islamic jurisprudence and Aqida. The founder of this school was Daud ibn Khalaf (d. 270/883),[1] better known as Daud al-Zahiri because of his insistence on sticking to the manifest (zahir) or literal meaning of expressions in the Qur'an and the Sunnah; the school and its followers are called Zahiriyah.<br /><br />Among the textual evidence for their claim, the Zahirists use verses similar to "...this is a clear Arabic language" (Quran 16:103) to back their view. Anyone, in their understanding, possessing knowledge of the Arabic language is able to understand the message of God inasmuch is necessary to fulfill his religious duties.<br /><br />However, it should be known that the name Zahiri itself is not endorsed by the adherents of this method, using other textual proof to suggest that there is no name to be known by except what has been mentioned thereby in the religious texts. God said, "He named you submitters [Arabic muslimeen] from before and in this." (Quran 22:76) Ibn Hazm, a well-known practitioner and teacher of this school, would refer to himself and those who followed this view as ashab al-zahir, or "the people of the literal sense," defining rather than labeling.<br /><br />In history the Zahiri understanding has been persecuted by those preferring to interpret the texts by their inward meanings; this happened to such an extent that many of the scholars of Sunni and Shi'ite sects have labeled the Zahiri school extinct, but it is not clear that this is the case.<br /><br />The modern Salafi movement can be described as influenced by the Zahiri school.<br /><br />The famous quotation "Satan was the first to do Qiyas" is commonly used.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zahir, Mohammed</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammad Zahir</i>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed Zahir Shah</i>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed Zahir</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Zahir</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Shah</i>) (October 16, 1914, Kabul, Afghanistan - July 23, 2007, Kabul, Afghanistan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>King of Afghanistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zahir was born into the Pashtun Barakzai dynasty of Afghanistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was a descendant of Sardar Muhammad Khan, the half-brother of Dost Muhammad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His great grandfather, Yahya Khan was responsible for the mediation between Yaqub Khan and the British during the Gandomak Negotiations which is known as the Gandomak Treaty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the signing of the treaty, Yaqub Khan and Yahya Khan fled to British India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His Pashtun heritage and his preference of the Persian (Farsi) language gave him credibility with the two most important groups of the country.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Pashto-speaking tribes of the south and the Farsi-speaking elite of Kabul.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zahir Shah was educated in France, where he observed the democratic process and brought back progressive ideas that would be implemented over the course of his reign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He spoke fluent Pashto, French, English and Italian.<br /><br />Zahir married Homairah Begum on November 7, 1931.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They would have six sons and two daughters.<br /><br />On November 8, 1933, Zahir was proclaimed king after the assassination of his father, Mohammed Nadir Shah, which he witnessed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the first twenty years, Zahir did not effectively rule, ceding power to his paternal uncles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Between 1933 and 1963, the king was dominated by his uncles and his cousin Mohammad Daud.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They ruled while he reigned.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When Zahir finally took over the government, he introduced several reforms, including, in 1964, a new constitution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zahir instituted programs of political and economic modernization, ushering in a democratic legislature, and education for women.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These reforms put him at odds with the religious militants who opposed him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, he started an anti-Persian program to popularize the Pashtu language which resulted in failure.<br /><br />Zahir was also known for being an ethno-centric during his rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most government officials and members of parliament were from Pashtun origin and Pashtuns had more privilege than non-Pashtuns which resulted into the creation of anti-government movements and parties, for instance Sitam Milli headed by Tahir Badakhshi, Abdur Rahman Mahmoudi's movement and many more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the time Zahir returned to Afghanistan, in the 21st century of the Christian calendar, his rule had been characterized by a lenghty span of peace.<br /><br />In 1973, Zahir's cousin and former prime minister, Mohammad Daud staged a coup d'etat and established a republican government while Zahir was in Italy undergoing eye surgery for lumbago.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a former prime minister, Mohammad Daud had been fired by Zahir a decade earlier.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following this coup, Zahir abdicated rather than fight.<br /><br />Zahir lived in exile in Italy for twenty-nine years in a large villa in the affluent community of Olgiata on Via Cassia, north of the city of Rome.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was barred from returning to Afghanistan during Soviet-backed Communist rule in the late 1970s.<br /><br />In 1991, Zahir survived an attempt on his life by a knife-wielding assassin who pretended to be a Portuguese journalist.<br /><br />During the fundamentalist Islamic regime of the Taliban, Zahir remained secluded in Italy and refused to speak out against the Taliban.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Upon his return to Afghanistan in 2002, he vowed not to challenge Hamid Karzai for the presidency.<br /><br />In April 2002, Zahir returned to Afghanistan while the country was under American occupation to open the Loya Jirga which met in June 2002.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the fall of the Taliban, there were open calls for a return to the monarchy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zahir entertained the idea of becoming president.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, he made it clear that he did not want to return as king.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, Zahir was given the title "Father of the Nation," symbolizing his role in Afghanistan's history as a non-political symbol of national unity, even though he was an ethno-centric king during his reign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Hamid Karzai, a prominent figure from Zahir's clan became the president of Afghanistan and Zahir's relatives and supporters were handed over key posts in the transitional government.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zahir moved back into his old palace but was refused to be given the throne by the Loya Jirga. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Criticisms focused on Zahir's over zealous attempts to modernize Afghanistan often putting his policies against traditional values and his failure to come to a working and stable agreement with neighboring Pakistan which also contains a significant Afghan and Pashtun population.<br /><br />In an October 2002 visit to France, Zahir slipped in a bathroom, bruising his ribs and, on June 21, 2003, while in France for a medical check-up, he broke his femur by slipping again in a bathroom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On February 3, 2004, Zahir was flown from Kabul to New Delhi, India, for medical treatment after complaining of an intestinal problem.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was hospitalized for two weeks and remained in New Delhi under observation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On May 18, 2004, Zahir was brought to a hospital in the United Arab Emirates because of nose bleeding caused by heat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On December 7, 2004, Zahir attended the swearing in of Hamid Karzai as the President of Afghanistan.<br /><br />In 2005, Zahir reportedly attempted to sell his former palace, which by then was the property of the government of Afghanistan.<br /><br />In his final years, Zahir was frail and required a microphone pinned to his collar so that his faint voice could be heard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In January 2007, Zahir was reported to be seriously ill and bedridden.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On July 23, 2007, Zahir died in the compound of the presidential palace in Kabul after a prolonged illness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His death was announced on national television by President Karzai.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Weak, albeit well-meaning during his forty-year reign, Zahir was a symbol of a yearned for peace and unity in a nation that struggled to emerge from the turmoil that began with his 1973 ouster in a palace coup.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His return to Afghanistan from three decades of exile to bless the war-battered country's fragile course toward democracy brought hope for change.<br /><br />The sons of Moḥammad Nader Shah, Zahir and his brothers reasserted central government control during a period of anarchy and banditry in the late 1920s. Zahir Shah came to the throne at the age of 19, after the assassination of his father in November 1933, having previously served as a cabinet minister. For a number of years Zahir Shah remained in the background while his relatives ran the government, but he asserted his power through the constitution of 1964, which established a constitutional monarchy and prohibited royal relatives from holding public office.<br /><br />Zahir Shah undertook a number of economic development projects, including irrigation and highway construction, backed by foreign aid, largely from the United States and the Soviet Union. He was also able to maintain Afghanistan’s neutral position in international politics. His reforms seemed to have little effect outside the Kabul area, however. In the early 1970s the country suffered drought and famine. Pashto tribes along the Pakistan border continued to press for autonomy, and the political structure in the capital was unable to deal with the country’s economic problems. In a bloodless coup on July 17, 1973, Zahir Shah was deposed. The leader of the coup, General Mohammad Daud Khan (the king’s brother-in-law), proclaimed Afghanistan a republic with himself as its president. Zahir Shah formally abdicated on August 24, 1973, and went into exile in Italy. Following the U.S. overthrow of the Taliban, he returned to Afghanistan in 2002. Zahir Shah, who publicly opposed the restoration of the monarchy and declined to run for president, was later given the honorary title Father of the Nation.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammad Zahir</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Zahir</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir Shah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed Zahir</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammed Zahir Shah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahir, Mohammed</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><br /></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span>Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</span></i></b><span><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi </i></span></span><span style="font-family: times;">(</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahravi</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abul Qasim al-Zahravi</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahravi</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Albucasis</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abul Kasim</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn ʿAbbas az-Zahrawi</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (</span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Albucasis</i><span style="font-family: times;">) (b. c. 936, near Córdoba [Spain] - d. c. 1013).</span><span style="font-family: times; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">Undoubtedly the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages.</span><span style="font-family: times; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">He is best known for several original breakthroughs in surgery, as an inventor of several surgical instruments, and for his famous Medical Encyclopedia.</span><span style="font-family: times; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: times;">Al-Zahrawi is considered as “Father of Modern Surgery.”</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br />Al-Zahrawi was born and brought up in Zahra, the royal suburb of Cordova (in Arabic, Qurtuba), the capital of Muslim Spain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During this time Zahra competed in grandeur and magnificence with Baghdad and Constantinople.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zahrawi served in the capacity of the court physician to King al-Hakam II of Spain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Al-Zahrawi was a prominent surgeon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Patients and students from all parts of Europe came to him for treatment and advice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At this time, Cordova was the favorite destination for Europeans seeking surgical operations, and the services of al-Zahrawi were much in demand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Al-Zahrawi’s principles of medical science surpassed those of Galen in the European medical curriculum.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is famous for his thirty-volume medical encyclopedia <i>‘Al-Tasrif li man ajaz an-il-talif</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Three volumes of this vast encyclopedia deal with the surgical knowledge including his own inventions and procedures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last volume contains many diagramsand illustrations of more than two hundred surgical instruments, most of which he developed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zahrawi gave detailed descriptions of many surgical operations and their treatment, including cauterization, removal of stone from the bladder, surgery of eye, ear and throat, midwifery, removal of the dead fetus, amputation, dissection of animals, and stypics.<br /><br />As an inventor of many surgical instruments, al-Zahrawi is famous for developing instruments for internal examination of the ear, internal inspection of the urethra and for applying or removing foreign bodies from the throat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He introduced such new procedures as cauterization of wounds, crushing stones inside the bladder, vivisection and dissection. He applied cauterization procedure to as many as 50 different operations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, al-Zahrawi discussed the preparation of medicines and the application of such techniques as sublimation and decantation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He prescribed the use of diuretics, sudorifics, purgatives, the absorption of pure wine and hot baths.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zahrawi was the first to give detailed descriptions of hemophilia and was the first to use silk thread for stitching wounds.<br /><br />Al-Zahrawi was also an expert in oral surgery and dentistry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His <i>Al-Tasrif </i>contains sketches of complex instruments that he developed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He discussed the problem of non-aligned or deformed teeth and procedures to rectify these defects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, he developed the procedure for preparing and setting artificial teeth made from animal bones.<br /><br />Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187) translated <i>Al-Tasrif </i>into Latin in the Middle Ages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was then translated into Hebrew, French, English and into Latin dialect of the Provencal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zahrawi’s <i>Al-Tasrif</i> was an essential component of the medical curriculum in European countries for many centuries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The famous French surgeon Guy de Chauliac (1300-1368) appended its Latin edition to his own book on surgery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several editions of this book (surgical chapters) were published including one at Venice (1497), at Basel (1541) and at Oxford (1778).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This book was taught for approximately five centuries as a standard textbook on surgery at universities of Salerno in Italy, Montpellier in France, and several European universities.<br /><br />After a long and distinguished medical career, al-Zahrawi died in 1031.<br /><br />Al-Zahrawi was Islam’s greatest medieval surgeon, whose comprehensive medical text, combining Middle Eastern and Greco-Roman classical teachings, shaped European surgical procedures until the Renaissance.<br /><br />Abu al-Qasim was court physician to the Spanish caliph ʿAbd ar-Raḥman III an-Naṣir and wrote <i>Al-Taṣrif liman ʿajazʿan at-Taʾalif</i>, or <i>Al-Taṣrif </i>(“The Method”), a medical work in 30 parts. While much of the text was based on earlier authorities, especially the Epitomae of the 7th-century Byzantine physician Paul of Aegina, it contained many original observations, including the earliest known description of hemophilia. The last chapter, with its drawings of more than 200 instruments, constitutes the first illustrated, independent work on surgery.<br /><br />Although <i>Al-Taṣrif </i>was largely ignored by physicians of the eastern Caliphate, the surgical treatise had tremendous influence in Christian Europe. Translated into Latin in the 12th century by the scholar Gerard of Cremona, it stood for nearly 500 years as the leading textbook on surgery in Europe, preferred for its concise lucidity even to the works of the classic Greek medical authority Galen.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>see </span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahravi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abul Qasim al-Zahravi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahravi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Albucasis</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Father of Modern Surgery</i> see <o:p></o:p></span><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-</i></span></div><div><i style="font-family: times; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-62803578814737987652023-09-25T03:00:00.010-07:002024-03-13T23:46:01.870-07:002023: Za'im - Zamindar<p><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Za‘im</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Za‘im</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In modern usage the word za‘im means a political leader who possesses the support of a locally circumscribed community and who retains this support by fostering or appearing to foster the interests of as many as possible from amongst his clientele.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The main distinction of this type of leadership is that it is personal and not party based in the modern sense of organizations with political or ideological grassroots.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />There is a traditional social dimension that dictates visits by the clients to the za‘im and by him on special occasions and the observance of wajibat (“obligations”) between them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The za‘im might have a religious or community base or transcend confessional boundaries by having a local or geographic base.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He might also have a purely economic base as a large employer or landowner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His authority also has a moral dimension and involves a certain amount of reciprocity.<br /><br />Some distinguish among three different types of zu‘ama’, each referring to a different mode of political activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, there are feudal zu‘ama’ who are based mainly in the countryside where large estates and traditional lordships exist and whose power rests on their position as landowners, often of ancient lineage, and their ability to give protection and patronage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, there are populist politicans of the mainly Christian regions in the northern half of Lebanon where smallholdings are common who maintain leadership on a less-solid base of socio-economic power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leadership is derived on the one hand from the use of powers of protection and patronage to maintain political clans and on the other from some kind of ideology or program of action.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Third, there are Muslim leaders of the coastal cities who also obtain and retain leadership by ideological appeal and the exercise of patronage but add to these a third source of power -- the manipulation of the urban masses mobilized by strongarm men or qabadays.<br /><br />In modern Lebanon, za‘imship is often linked to the attainment of high office, such as membership of parliament or a ministerial post.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Political loyalty is also expressed by voting during elections.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Relations among zu‘ama’ ensure a wider availability of favors to the clients, and competition among them, especially in urban areas, provides a minimum of checks and balances to the otherwise absolute power that a za‘im may wield.<br /><br />The holding of an office is also important because the za‘im provides two kinds of services: general services, such as the provision of electricity, roads, and other amenities to the region or community; or personal services, such as the provision of employment, wasta’ (mediation), and access to welfare services.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence the za‘im’s power can be based on the loyalty of people in his district, the relationship he has with the state or central authorities, or both.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both wealth and frequent return to high office, giving the za‘im access to state patronage, are important components in the legitimization of his powers.<br /><br />Za‘imship as a system can be described as the relations between zu‘ama’ and their clients together with the relationship between local and national zu‘ama’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in a continuous process of fine tuning of the provision of favors and services in exchange for political loyalty and power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this system, every transaction is connected and dependent on the other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is often referred to as the traditional political system as opposed to the modern one based on political parties and state institutions.<br /><br />The final results of the process were not always seen as coinciding with the wider national interest, and the za‘im system was seen as a parallel or “backstage” system, which predominated over the “frontstage” of state institutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The clash between the system and central government, when the latter impinged on the powerbase from which the authority of the former was derived, was seen as restrictive of state sovereignty and authority and as a hindrance to the development of a strong central government.<br /><br />The decline and demise of the za‘im system has been declared, but it endures and sometimes emerges stronger from crises and government reforms, for example, during the presidency of General Fuad Chehab (Fu’ad Shihab, 1958-1964), who was particularly opposed to the system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also common to attack the system in political rhetoric, even by its very practitioners.<br /><br />The civil war of 1975-1990 has, however, had consequences onthe system which it is still too early to fully appreciate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The prolonged absence of state authority and institutions, the paralysis of the normal political process, the emergence of new powers in Lebanon, and the fragmentation of society must have taken their toll on the traditional system of zu‘ama’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether this involves a radical structural change or simply a change in the cast of characters, with the emergence of new and different types of zu‘ama’, remains to be seen.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b><i>Zaki, Sherif</i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><i>Sherif Zaki </i>(b. November 24, 1955, Alexandria, Egypt - d. November 21, 2021, Atlanta, Georgia, United States). A pathologist who as America's chief infectious disease detective helped identify the Covid-19, Ebola, West Nile and Zika viruses along with the severe acute respiratory syndrome -- SARS.</span></p><p><span face="nyt-imperial, georgia, "times new roman", times, serif" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-size: large; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-weight: inherit;">Sherif Ramzy Zaki was born on November 24, 1955, in Alexandria, Egypt. He spent his first six years in Chapel Hill, N.C., where his father, Ramzy Zaki, was attending graduate school. He later lived in the Caribbean, the Middle East and Europe, where his father worked for the United Nations’ International Labor Organization. His mother, Dalal (Elba) Zaki, was a teacher.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-style: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-weight: inherit;">Zaki graduated second in his class of 800 from the Alexandria Medical School in Egypt in 1978. But he was less interested in practicing medicine than in unraveling mysteries, which had been an obsession of his ever since he was captivated by the novels of the British author Enid Blyton as a child. Zaki's</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: times;"> obsession with solving puzzles and resolving mysteries was at the heart of his work at the C.D.C</span></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zaki earned a master’s in pathology from Alexandria University. But since autopsies were not permitted in Egypt for religious reasons, he did his residency in anatomic pathology at Emory University in Atlanta, where he also received a doctorate in experimental pathology.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: times;">Zaki then went to work at the C.D.C. and became a naturalized American citizen. </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: times;">Zaki joined the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1988 and became chief of the agency’s infectious diseases pathology branch in the early 1990s.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zaki and his team made strides in distinguishing rare diseases and their mutations and determining what made some of them, like SARS and Ebola, so contagious and lethal. To do so they applied a process called immunohistochemistry, which allows researchers to identify foreign pathogens by staining cells and observing them through electron microscopes capable of magnifying bacteria and viruses 740,000 times.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">In 2001, after the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, Zaki determined that a number of people who had come into contact with letters containing a white powder had died from anthrax after their skin was exposed to the bacteria, or after inhaling it.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times;">Zaki and his team helped identify a deadly outbreak of hantavirus in the Navajo Nation </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times;">in 1993. That discovery spurred the expansion of the infectious diseases pathology branch. The expanded branch subsequently discovered a previously unidentified bacterial illness called leptospirosis in Nicaragua; and the mosquito-borne Zika virus in the brain tissue of babies in Brazil, establishing that it could be transmitted during pregnancy.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times;">Zaki headed the agency’s Unexplained Deaths Project </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times;">a squad of detectives of last resort responsible for delving into the causes of the 700 or so baffling fatalities from disease that occur in the United States every year.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-size: large;">After four people who received organ transplants in Massachusetts and Rhode Island developed a viral infection and three of them died, Dr. Zaki and his colleagues pinpointed the cause as lymphocytic choriomeningitis, a rare rodent-borne virus. It turned out that the organ donor’s daughter had a pet hamster.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-size: large;">In 2005, a few days after complaining to his pediatrician of a fever, a headache and an itchy scalp, a 10-year-old Mississippi boy became so agitated that he bit a relative. After the boy was hospitalized, tests were inconclusive, but he died two weeks later.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: times; font-size: large;">About a week after that, Zaki’s team detected rabies virus in the boy’s body. They learned from follow-up interviews that dead bats had been discovered in the boy’s home, and that he had found a live bat in his bedroom.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: times;">Zaki married </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: times;">Nadia Abougad. They had two children, a daughter, Yasmin, and a son, Samy.</span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></span></p></div><p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> <i>Zaky, Ali </i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"><i>Ali Zaky</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> (b. 1930 – d. March 12, 2005)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;"> was an Egyptian gymnast who </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122;">competed at the 1948 Summer Oly</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;">mpics and the 1952 Summer Olympics. </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zamakhshari</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zamakhshari</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Qasim Mahmud al-Zamakhshari</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Umar al-Zamakhshari</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jar Allah</i> - "God's neighbor") (b. March 8, 1075, Khwarezm [now in Turkmenistan or Uzbekistan] - d. June 14, 1144, Al-Jurjaniya, Khwarezm).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Persian born Arabic scholar, theologian and philologist from Khwarazm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a theologian, he followed the teachings of the Mu‘tazila and as a philologist, in spite of his Persian descent, he championed the absolute superiority of Arabic. His principal work is a commentary on the <i>Qur’an</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the very beginning of the work, he declares the <i>Qur’an</i> created, but notwithstanding this clearly Mu‘tazila point of view, it was widely read in orthodox circles. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also wrote grammatical works, a collection of old proverbs, and composed a series of moral discourses.<br /><br />Al-Zamakhshari was a medieval Muslim scholar of Iranian origin who subscribed to the Muʿtazilite theological doctrine. He was born in Khwarezmia, but lived most of his life in Bukhara, Samarkand, and Baghdad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His chief work is Al-Kashshaf ʿan Ḥaqaʾiq at-Tanzil (“The Discoverer of Revealed Truths”), his exhaustive linguistic commentary on the <i>Qurʾan</i>.<br /><br />As is true for most Muslim scholars of his era, little is known of his youth. He was apparently well-traveled and resided at least twice (once for an extended period of time) in the holy city of Mecca, where he earned his nickname, Jar Allah. He studied at Bukhara and Samarkand (both now in Uzbekistan) and also spent time in Baghdad. At some point in his travels, one of his feet had to be amputated (probably because of frostbite), and thereafter—so the story goes—al-Zamakhsharī felt obliged to carry with him affidavits from noted citizens attesting that his foot had not been amputated as punishment for some crime.<br /><br />Theologically, he was affiliated with the rationalist Muʿtazilah school. As a philologist, he considered Arabic the queen of languages, in spite of the fact that his own native tongue was Persian (and though he wrote several minor works in that latter language). His great commentary, Al-Kashshāf ʿan Ḥaqāʾiq at-Tanzīl, was written in Arabic and became the work for which he is best known. A comprehensive study of the Muslim scripture that focused on its grammatical nuance, it was completed in 1134. It was widely read, in spite of its Muʿtazilite bias, especially in the East. In the western portions of the Islamic world, his dogmatic point of view was offensive to the Malikiyah school, though the great 14th-century Arab historian Ibn Khaldūn regarded the work highly.<br /><br />Of al-Zamakhshari’s grammatical works, <i>Al-Mufaṣṣal fi ʿilm al-ʿArabiyah </i>(“Detailed Treatise on Arabic Linguistics,” written 1119–21; and sometimes titled <i>Kitab al Mufaṣṣal fi al-Naḥw</i> ["Detailed Treatise on Grammar"]) is celebrated for its concise but exhaustive exposition. He was also the author of a collection of old proverbs. Though well regarded, this work has been considered second to the anthology <i>Al-Amthal</i> ("The Proverbs") written by his close contemporary Abu Faḍl al-Maydani with whom al-Zamakhshari had a notorious and somewhat undignified feud. Al-Zamakhshari’s other works include three collections of apothegms as well as treatises on moral discourses and a number of poems.<br /><br />The works of al-Zamakhshari include:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Al-Kashshaaf</i> ("the Revealer") — A tafsir of the <i>Qur'an</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Rabi al-Abrar</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Asasul-Balaghat dar-Lughat</i> <br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Fasul-ul-Akhbar</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Fraiz Dar-ilm Fariz</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Kitab-Fastdar-Nahr</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Muajjam-ul-Hadud</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Manha Darusul</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Diwan-ul-Tamsil</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Sawaer-ul-Islam</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Muqaddimat al-Adab</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Kitab al-Amkinah wa al-Jibal wa al-Miyah</i><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <i>Mufassal Anmuzaj</i> <br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Qasim Mahmud al-Zamakhshari</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zamakhshari</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zamindar</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zamindar</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zemindar</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jomidar</i>). Term which refers to a landowner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under the Mughals of India, the zamindar was a person who has a right to collect revenues from the land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In India, a zamindar was a holder or occupier (dār) of land (zamīn). The root words are Persian, and the resulting name was widely used wherever Persian influence was spread by the Mughals or other Indian Muslim dynasties. The meanings attached to it were various. In Bengal the word denoted a hereditary tax collector who could retain 10 percent of the revenue he collected. In the late 18th century the British government made these zamindars landowners, thus creating a landed aristocracy in Bengal and Bihar that lasted until Indian independence (1947). In parts of north India (e.g., Uttar Pradesh), a zamindar denoted a large landowner with full proprietary rights. More generally in north India, zamindar denoted the cultivator of the soil or joint proprietors holding village lands in common as joint heirs. In Maratha territories the name was generally applied to all local hereditary revenue officers.<br /><br />A zamindar or zemindar, was an official employed by the Mughals to collect taxes from Ryots (peasants). The zamindari system used the existing structure of the bhuiyan land tenure system of the pre-Mughal era by the Mughals as a key economic and political institution to implement the sharia-based Islamic rule over the "zimmis". The practice was continued under British rule with colonial landholders. After independence, however, the system was abolished in India and East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh). It is still current in modern Pakistan.<br /><br />Other terms were and are used in various provinces. For example, a zamindar is known as a wadera in Sindh. In Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya pradesh, Himachal pradesh, Haryana, Uttrakhand, Chhatisgarh, and Bihar it is thakur. In the Punjab and Haryana, many different terms occur, such as chaudhary, lambardar, and sardar. Malik is an Arabic term used in the Punjab which literally means "king". The word zamindar itself comes ultimately from Persian zamīn, "earth", and the common suffix -dar, "-holder".<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zemindar</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zamindar</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jomidar</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zamindar</i></span></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-74738889546826854572023-09-24T03:00:00.008-07:002023-09-28T10:34:18.992-07:002023: Zanata - Zanjani <p><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Zanata</span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanata</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Zanata</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zenata</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">Name given by the Arab historians of the Middle Ages to one of the two great confederations of the Berbers, the other being the Banu Sanhaja.</span></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><br />The Zenata were an ethnic group of North Africa, who were technically an Eastern Berber group and who are found in Tunisia, Algeria and the Rif mountains.<br /><br />Zenata tribes entered in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia from the east of Northern Africa in pre-Islamic times and grouped themselves with the tribes of Maghrawa, Miknasa, and Banu Ifran.<br /><br />According to Ibn Khaldun, an Arabic historian of the 14th century, there were Zenata tribes dispatched in all North Africa (current Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria), and some of them may have also lived in modern Egypt as well.<br /><br />According to Ibn Khaldun, the Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He added that these tribes, traditionally nomads, were concentrated in the Middle Maghreb (part of the current Algeria). It is why he called the Middle Maghreb home of the Zenata.<br /><br />The hypothesis of Ibn Khaldun about the origin of this Berber group or ethnicity is not widely accepted by modern historians.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Zanata</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanata</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zenata</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanata</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zand</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zand</i>. Short-lived Iranian dynasty (r. 1750/1751-1794) founded by Karim Khan Zand “the vakil” (“regent, deputy”; r. 1751-1779).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their main capital was Shiraz.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zand were a tribe of the southern Iranian group of Kurds known as the Lak.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Exiled to Khorasan by Nadir Shah in 1731, the Zand retreated under their leader, Muhammad Karim Khan Zand, into the southwest in 1747.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad Karim Khan (1750-1779) occupied the whole of southern Iran and assumed the title Wakil (“representative”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following the conquest of Mazandaran (in 1759) and Azerbaijan (in 1762), he developed a successful regime, led the country into great economic prosperity (involving trade with India, construction of irrigation channels, a fair tax policy), and made his court a cultural center.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following his death, the state disintegrated in the power struggle waged by pretenders, until the last Zand ruler was violently eliminated by the Qajars in Kerman in 1794.<br /><br />Between 1750 and 1765, Karim Khan salvaged most of western Iran between Urmia and Bandar Abbas from the wreck of Nadir Shah’s empire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With his capital at Shiraz, Karim Khan established a degree of trust and cooperation between tribal armies, urban administrators, and the peasantry, and hence a measure of internal security that encouraged and stimulated trade and agriculture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On Karim’s death in 1779 the internecine power struggle between his relatives destroyed most of what he had achieved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even before his funeral, his half-brother Zaki slaughtered most of his rivals in Shiraz and ruled in the name of one of Karim’s incompetent sons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ali Murad, of a different branch of the Zand tribe, seized Isfahan, but an attack by the Qajar chief Agha Muhammad Khan delayed Ali Murad and enabled Karim’s brother Sadiq, returning from his occupation of Basra, to seize Shiraz.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1781, Ali Murad took Shiraz but again had to turn his attention to Qajar attackes from Mazandaran.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His half brother Ja’far (son of Sadiq) marched on Isfahan, and Ali Murad died on his way to defending the city in February 1785.<br /><br />Zand control of the Elburz and uppre Zagros mountain ranges was now relinquished to the Qajara. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Killed in a palace coup in 1789, Ja’far was succeeded (after a brief reign by Said Murad Khan, a cousin of Ali Murad) by his popular son Lutf Ali Khan, whose energetic campaigns against Qajars and defecting vassals in the south and east briefly staved off the dynasty’s impending downfall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Haji Ibrahim, the powerful kalantar (mayor) of Shiraz, acting out of self-preservation (Lutf Ali had revealed his distrust by taking the son of the kalantar hostage) or out of a desire to end the destructive tribal warfare, gained control of the garrison and shut the gates of Shiraz against Luft Ali’s army.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Robbed of a base, the young Zand chief retreated to Kerman and finally to the fortress of Bam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here he was captured by Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, who blinded, tortured, and finally executed him in November 1794 at Tehran.<br /><br />The only material monuments of the Zand dynasty are Karim Khan’s mosque, fortress, and bazaar in Shiraz, which was sacked by the Qajar ruler before his return to the new capital of Tehran.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>None of Karim Khan’s successors aspired to the title of shah (which he had not assumed), or even to Karim’s title of vakil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dynasty is remembered chiefly for its founder’s unusual humanity and unselfishness, which produced a quarter of a century of comparative peace and prosperity in the middle of Iran’s bloodiest century since the Mongol invasions.<br /><br />Following the death of the Afsharid ruler Nader Shah (1747), Karim Khan Zand became one of the major contenders for power. By 1750 he had sufficiently consolidated his power to proclaim himself as vakil (regent) for the Ṣafavid Esmaʿil III. Karim Khan never claimed the title of shahanshah (“king of kings”). Instead, he maintained Esmaʿil as a figurehead. Karim Khan, with 30 years of benevolent rule, gave southern Iran a much-needed respite from continual warfare. He encouraged agriculture and entered into trade relations with Great Britain. His death in 1779 was followed by internal dissensions and disputes over successions. Between 1779 and 1789 five Zand kings ruled briefly. In 1789 Loṭf ʿAli Khan (ruled 1789–94) proclaimed himself as the new Zand king and took energetic action to put down a rebellion led by Agha Moḥammad Khan Qajar that had begun at Karim Khan’s death. Outnumbered by the superior Qajar forces, Loṭf ʿAli Khan was finally defeated and captured at Kerman in 1794. His defeat marked the final eclipse of the Zand dynasty, which was supplanted by that of the Qajars.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zand, Karim Khan</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zand, Karim Khan</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Karim Khan Zand</i>) (b. c. 1705 - d. March 1779, Shiraz, Zand, Iran).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ruler of western Iran (1751-1779).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among the tribal contingents of Nadir Shah Afshar’s army that returned to their home ranges after Nadir’s assassination in 1747 were the Bakhtiyari, under Ali Mardan Khan, and the Zand, led by Karim Khan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The latter were seminomads of the Lakk people, related to both the Lurs and the Kurds, pasturing between Hamadan and Isfahan.<br /><br />On the failure of the Afsharids to hold western Iran, these two chiefs in 1750 occupied the former Safavid capital of Isfahan in the name of a minor Safavid protégé styled Isma’il III, with Ali Mardan as vakil, or regent, and Karim as commander of the army.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While Karim was campaigning in Kurdistan, Ali Mardan staged a coup and plundered the province of Fars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Karim Khan captured Isfahan and defeated his rival in battle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Three other contestants for power occupied all of the Zand leader’s energies for three more years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His campaigns ranged from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian coast and the foothills of the Caucasus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Qajar chief Muhammad Hasan Khan was defeated and killed outside his fortress of Astarabad in 1759.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Azad Khan the Afghan was routed by his erstwhile ally, the Afshar leader Fath Ali Khan, in 1760.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He surrendered to Karim Khan and spent the rest of his life in Shiraz as a pensioner of the Zands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fath Ali made a last stand with a tribal coalition in Azerbaijan, but the province fell to the Zands in 1762 and was thereafter administered for them by Najaf Quli Khan Dunbuli, of an eminent local family of turkicized Kurds.<br /><br />In July 1765, having subdued all the Elburz and Zagros provinces, Karim Khan entered Shiraz and was not to leave for the remaining fourteen years of his life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This strategic southern city had come to be his refuge and capital during his early struggle for power against rivals based in northern Iran, and he now embellished it with a fortress-palace (arg), a mosque, a covered bazaar, and other buildings and gardens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the next decade, he sent expeditions led by his relatives to secure the Persian Gulf littoral and its hinterland, the provinces of Lar, Yazd, and Kerman.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He attempted to keep the Qajars in check -- with only moderate success -- by appointing a son of the late Muhammad Hasan Khan as governor of Damghan and keeping the eldest son, Agha Muhammad Khan, a hostage in Shiraz.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Impoverished Khurasan he left in the hands of Nadir Shah’s grandson, Shahrukh Shah, as a buffer againstthe new Afghan monarchy of Ahmad Shah Durrani.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>North of the Aras River Iran’s former vassals, the Georgian kingdom and the Darband khanate, began to drift into the economic and political orbit of Russia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In the Persian Gulf, the commercial centre of gravity moved from Bandar Abbas to Bushehr, the natural port of Shiraz, where the East India Company was granted facilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1766, Karim Khan regained Kharg Island from the hands of the colorful pirate Mir Muhanna, who had earlier captured it from the Dutch East India Company.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, he was unable to bring Hormuz Island under his control or to intimidate the imam of Oman, his commercial rival in the lower gulf.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Repeated expeditions against the Ka’b Arabs of Khuzistan -- even with the cooperation of the East India company and the Ottoman governor of Basra -- brought no more than fitful subservience until the death of their strong leader, Shaikh Salman, in 1768.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Karim Khan exchanged embassies with Haidar Ali, ruler of the Deccan, and Indian merchants frequented Shiraz and the gulf ports.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Armenian and Jewish merchants who had fled during the chaotic interregnum were encouraged to return to Iran, and commerce increased.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Agricultural subsidies and rebuilding programs, both in Shiraz and the provinces (e.g., in Isfahan and Kashan, hit by an earthquake in 1778), helped to restorte Iran’s threadbare economic and social fabric.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Seeking to divert Persian Gulf trade to Bushehr, Karim Khan in 1776 besieged and occupied Basra.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His death -- probably as a result of tuberculosis -- which occurred on March 2, 1779, when he was was about eighty years old, prompted an Iranian withdrawal Ironically, Basra’s trade was indeed largely diverted as a result of this war, but to Kuwait, rather than Bushehr.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The internecine wars of succession following his death further undermined much of the prosperity he had restored.<br /><br />Karim Khan’s virtues were universally acknowledged, even by his enemies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During his rise to power, he displayed prowess in the field, tenacity in adversity, and magnanimity in victory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As ruler he dressed and lived simply (although indulging a taste for wine and women) and never assumed the title shah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even his title vakil (“representative”) he modified from vakil al-daula, “sovereign’s regent,” to vakil al-ra’aya, “people’s deputy,” which was the designation of a traditional provincial ombudsman appointed by the crown.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apocryphal tales of his justice, kindness, humility, sense of humor, and concern for the safety and prosperity of the common man testify to his continuing place in his countrymen’s affection.<br /><br />Karim Khan was the first Zand ruler of Iran. He restored peace to the kingdom after the strife following the collapse of the Ṣafavid dynasty.<br /><br />Of humble tribal origin, Karim Khan became one of the generals of his predecessor, Nader Shah. In the chaotic aftermath of Nader Shah’s assassination in 1747, Karim Khan became a major contender for power but was challenged by several adversaries. In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karim Khan in 1757 placed on the throne the infant Shah Ismaʿil III, the grandson of the last official Ṣafavid king. Ismaʿil was a figurehead king, real power being vested in Karim Khan, who never claimed the title of shahanshah (“king of kings”) but used that of vakil (“regent”).<br /><br />By 1760, Karim Khan had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorasan, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shah Rokh, the blind grandson of Nader Shah. During Karim Khan’s rule, Iran recovered from the devastation of 40 years of war. He made Shiraz his capital, constructing many fine buildings. Moreover, he reorganized the fiscal system of the kingdom, removing some of the heavy burdens of taxation from the agricultural classes. An active patron of the arts, he attracted many scholars and poets to his capital.<br /><br />Karim Khan also opened Iran to foreign influence by allowing the English East India Company to establish a trading post in Bushire, the Persian Gulf port (1763). In advancing his policy of developing trade, in 1775–76 he attacked and captured Basra, the Ottoman port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, which had diverted much of the trade with India away from Iranian ports.<br /><br />The civil war that followed Karim Khan’s death ended only with the final establishment of the Qajar dynasty in 1796.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Karim Khan Zand</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zand, Karim Khan</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zangids</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zangids</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengids</i>). Dynasty of Turkish origin, which ruled in Mosul and Aleppo (r.1127-1222), and in Damasacus and Aleppo (r.1146-1181).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their main capital was Aleppo and Damascus in 1154.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The founder of the dynasty was Aqsunqur, a Seljuk military slave and atabeg (tutor) to the Seljuk Tutush of Aleppo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His son, Imad al-Din Zangi (r. 1127-1146), became governor of Iraq (with Baghdad) in 1127 and conquered Mosul (in 1127), Aleppo (in 1128), and other Syrian towns.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Through political skill and successful battles against the crusading nations, he acquired authority over Mesopotamia and large parts of Syria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While his son, Nur al-Din (r. 1146-1174), conquered Syria and occupied Damascus in 1154, his brother, Saif al-Din (r. 1146-1149), inherited Mesopotamia and established the Mosul dynastic branch (r. 1146-1262).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nur al-Din led Zangid rule to its apogee and was able to extend his sovereignty as far as Egypt (under the Fatimids) and over all branches of the family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His son, Isma‘il, was defeated in 1174 by the Ayyubids, under Saladin, who had risen in the service of the Zangids; the secondary dynastic branches in Sinjar (r. 1170-1220) and Jazira by the Ilkhanids in 1262.<br /><br />The Zengid (or Zangid) dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin, which ruled parts of Syria and northern Iraq on behalf of the Seljuk Empire.<br /><br />The dynasty was founded by Imad ed-Din Zengi (or Zangi), who became the Seljuk Atabeg (governor) of Mosul in 1127. He quickly became the chief Turkish potentate in Northern Syria and Iraq, taking Aleppo from the squabbling Ortoqid emirs in 1128, and capturing the County of Edessa from the Crusaders in 1144. This latter feat made Zengi a hero in the Muslim world, but he was assassinated by a slave two years later, in 1146.<br /><br />On Zengi's death, his territories were divided, with Mosul and his lands in Iraq going to his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, and Aleppo and Edessa falling to his second son, Nur ad-Din Mahmud. Nur ad-Din proved to be as competent as his father. In 1149 he defeated and killed Prince Raymond of Antioch in battle, and the next year conquered the remnants of the County of Edessa west of the Euphrates River. In 1154 he capped off these successes by his capture of Damascus from the Burid Emirs who ruled it.<br /><br />Now ruling from Damascus, Nur ad-Din's success continued. Another Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon was captured, and the territories of that Principality were greatly reduced. In the 1160s, Nur ad-Din's attention was mostly held by a competition with the King of Jerusalem, Amalric I, for control of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Ultimately, Nur ed-Din's Kurdish general Shirkuh was successful in conquering Egypt in 1169, but Shirkuh's nephew and successor as Governor of Egypt, Saladin, rejected Nur ad-Din's control.<br /><br />Nur ad-Din was preparing to invade Egypt to bring Saladin under control when he unexpectedly died in 1174. His son and successor As-Salih Ismail al-Malik was only a child, and was forced to flee to Aleppo, which he ruled until 1181, when he was murdered and replaced by his relation, the Atabeg of Mosul. Saladin conquered Aleppo two years later, ending Zengid rule in Syria.<br /><br />Zengid princes continued to rule in Northern Iraq well into the 13th Century, ruling Mosul until 1234; their rule did not come finally to an end until 1250.<br /><br />The Zengid Atabegs and Emirs of Mosul were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1127-1146<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Saif ad-Din Ghazi I 1146-1149<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Qutb ad-Din Mawdud 1149-1170<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Saif ad-Din Ghazi II 1170-1180<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud 1180-1193<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah I 1193-1211<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud II 1211-1218<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah II 1218-1219<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Nasir ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1234<br /><br />The Zengid Emirs of Aleppo were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1128-1146<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1146-1174<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174-1181<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1181-1183<br /><br />The Zengid Emirs of Damascus were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1154-1174<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174<br /><br />The Zengid Emirs of Sinjar (in Northern Iraq) were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1171-1197<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Qutb ad-Din Muhammad 1197-1219<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Imad ad-Din Shahanshah 1219-1220<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Jalal ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1220<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Fath ad-Din Umar 1219-1220<br /><br />The Zengid Emirs of Jazira (in Northern Iraq) were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mu'izz ad-Din Sanjar Shah 1180-1208<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mu'izz ad-Din Mahmud 1208-1241<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mahmud Al-Malik Al-Zahir 1241-1250<br /><br />After Zangī’s death in 1146, his sons divided the state between them, Syria falling to Nureddin (Nūr ad-Dīn Maḥmūd; r. 1146–74) and al-Jazīrah to Sayf ad-Dīn Ghāzī I (r. 1146–49). Nureddin’s expansionist policy led him to annex Damascus (1154), subjugate Egypt (1168), and present a broad and competent Muslim front against the crusaders, especially under such generals as Saladin, subsequent founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty of Egypt.<br /><br />The Syrian branch of the Zangids was reunited with the Iraqi line in 1181 and was eventually absorbed into Saladin’s new empire. The Zangids held on to al-Jazīrah and successfully repulsed several attempts made by Saladin to capture Mosul (1182 and 1185). They were, however, forced to accept his suzerainty. The rise to power of Badr ad-Dīn Luʾluʾ, a former slave, as regent for the last Zangid, Nāṣir ad-Dīn Maḥmūd (reigned 1219–22), marked the end of the dynasty. Luʾluʾ ruled Mosul as atabeg from 1222 to 1259.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Soon afterward the city fell to the Mongols.<br /><br />A third branch of the Zangids had established themselves in Sinjār, west of Mosul, in 1170 and ruled there for about 50 years. The Ayyūbids completed several architectural works begun by the Zangids. The most noteworthy is the Great Mosque in Aleppo, completed in 1190. The building, a perfect continuation of the Zangid artistic tradition, demonstrates simplicity in decorative architecture. It is built around a large, open, marble-floored court, with a polychrome mihrab (prayer niche facing Mecca) and a tall, square minaret. Large areas of wall are left undecorated in contrast to the expressive but delicately carved marble inlay ornaments.<br /><br />The Zangids are famous for their patronage of the 13th-century Mosul schools of metalwork and painting. Mosul produced the finest metal inlay pieces (usually bronze with silver inlay) in the Islāmic world at that time. Their craftsmen carried the technique to Aleppo, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and Iran, influencing the metalwork of those areas for centuries following. The Mosul school of painting was rivaled in Iraq only by the Baghdad school. Stylistically, Mosul miniatures were based heavily on Seljuq traditions, but they had an iconography of their own. Of somewhat less importance were knotted carpets made by Zangid craftsmen, two-colored silks being the speciality.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengids</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zangids</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zanj</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanj</i> (in plural form, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zunuj</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeng</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zinj</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Name of the black (African) tribes of the east coast of Africa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was given by the Arab historians to the rebel slaves who, having previously rebelled in 694, for fifteen years (868-883) terrorized Lower Mesopotamia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were led by a man called “the veiled”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They took al-Ubulla, now part of Basra; Abadan; Ahvaz, now the capital of Khuzistan; and finally Basra itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were in the end defeated by the ‘Abbasid regent al-Muwaffaq.<br /><br />Zanj ("Land of the Blacks") was a name used by medieval Arab geographers to refer to both a certain portion of the coast of East Africa and its inhabitants. It is the origin of the place name Zanzibar.<br /><br />The geographers divided the coast of East Africa at large into several regions based on each region's respective inhabitants. In northern Somalia was Barbara (around modern-day Berbera), which was the land of the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi (Berbers), as Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively. In modern-day Ethiopia was al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forbears of the Habesha.<br /><br />Beyond the Abyssinian highlands and the Berber coast lay to the south Zanj (also transliterated as Zenj or Zinj), a land inhabited by Bantu-speaking peoples called the Zanj, which stretched from the area far south of present-day Mogadishu, to Pemba Island in Tanzania. South of Zanj lay the Land of Sofala in Mozambique, the northern limit of which may have been Pangani, opposite Pemba Island. And beyond Sofala was the obscure realm of Waq-Waq, also in Mozambique. The tenth century Arab historian and geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī describes Sofala as the furthest limit of the Zanj settlement and mentions its king's title as Mfalme (a Bantu word).<br /><br />Arab writers used the term Zanj to refer to "Bantu-speaking Negroes" on the coast of East Africa and south of Barbara and Abyssinia. The Zanj traded extensively with Arabs, Persians and Indians, but only locally since they possessed no ocean-going ships. Through this trade, some Arabs intermarried with local Bantu women, which eventually gave rise to the Swahili culture and language -- both Bantu in origin but significantly influenced by foreign elements (e.g. clothing, loan words, etc.).<br /><br />Prominent settlements of the Zanj coast included Shungwaya (Bur Gao), as well as Malindi, Gedi, and Mombasa. By the late medieval period, the area included at least 37 substantial Swahili trading towns, many of them quite wealthy. However, these communities never consolidated into a single political entity (the "Zanj Empire" being a late nineteenth century fiction).<br /><br />The urban ruling and commercial classes of these Swahili settlements was occupied by Arab and Persian immigrants. The Bantu peoples inhabited the coastal regions, and were organized only as family groups. The term 'shenzi' used on the East African coast and derived from Swahili 'zanji' referred in a derogatory way to anything associated with rural blacks. An example of this would be the colonial term a 'shenzi' dog, referring to a native dog.<br /><br />The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab masters in Iraq. Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanji) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Java.<br /><br />The term "Zanj" apparently fell out of use in the tenth century. However, after 1861, when the area controlled by the Arab Sultan of Zanzibar was forced by the British to split with the parent country of Oman, it was often referred to as Zanj. The sea off the south-eastern coast of Africa was known as the "Sea of Zanj" and included the Mascarene islands and Madagascar. During the anti-apartheid struggle it was proposed that South Africa should assume the name 'Azania' to reflect ancient Zanj.<br /><br />The Zanj Rebellion (869–883) was a black-slave revolt against the ʿAbbasid caliphal empire. A number of Basran landowners had brought several thousand East African blacks (Zanj) into southern Iraq to drain the salt marshes east of Basra. The landowners subjected the Zanj, who generally spoke no Arabic, to heavy slave labor and provided them with only minimal subsistence. In September 869, ʿAli ibn Muhammad, a Persian claiming descent from ʿAli, the fourth caliph, and Fatimah, Muhammad’s daughter, gained the support of several slave-work crews—which could number from 500 to 5,000 men—by pointing out the injustice of their social position and promising them freedom and wealth. ʿAli’s offers became even more attractive with his subsequent adoption of a Kharijite religious stance: anyone, even a black slave, could be elected caliph, and all non-Kharijites were infidels threatened by a holy war.<br /><br />Zanj forces grew rapidly in size and power, absorbing the well-trained black contingents that defected from the defeated caliphal armies, along with some disaffected local peasantry. In October 869 they defeated a Basran force, and soon afterward a Zanj capital, al-Mukhtarah (Arabic: the Chosen), was built on an inaccessible dry spot in the salt flats, surrounded by canals. The rebels gained control of southern Iraq by capturing al-Ubullah (June 870), a seaport on the Persian Gulf, and cutting communications to Basra, then seized Ahvaz in southwestern Iran. The caliphal armies, now entrusted to al-Muwaffaq, a brother of the new caliph, al-Muʿtamid (r. 870–892), still could not cope with the rebels. The Zanj sacked Basra in September 871, and subsequently defeated al-Muwaffaq himself in April 872.<br /><br />Between 872 and 879, while al-Muwaffaq was occupied in eastern Iran with the expansion of the Ṣaffarids, an independent Persian dynasty, the Zanj seized Wasit (878) and established themselves in Khuzistan, Iran. In 879, however, al-Muwaffaq organized a major offensive against the black slaves. Within a year, the second Zanj city, al-Maniʿah (The Impregnable), was taken. The rebels were next expelled from Khuzistan, and, in the spring of 881, al-Muwaffaq laid siege to al-Mukhtārah from a special city built on the other side of the Tigris River. Two years later, in August 883, reinforced by Egyptian troops, al-Muwaffaq finally crushed the rebellion, conquering the city and returning to Baghdad with ʿAli’s head.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zunuj</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanj</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeng</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanj</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zinj</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanj</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al- Zanjani</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-‘Izzi</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab grammarian of thirteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Besides grammatical works, he wrote on the use of the astrolabe and made a collection of Arabic poems.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Izz al-Din 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Zanjani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'Izzi, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-63692671273357436032023-09-24T02:58:00.010-07:002023-09-28T11:09:51.179-07:002023: Zarathustra - Zaydiyya<p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">Zarathustra</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarathustra</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zoroaster</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zartosht</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Avestan</i>) (b. c. 628 B.C.T., probably Rhages, Iran - died c. 551).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Iranian prophet and the founder ot the Zoroastrian religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is in many contexts called Zoroaster.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are several conflicting stories about Zarathustra, and many of these are too young to be historically acceptable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In short, there is much that is unknown about who Zarathustra was, as well as when and where he lived.<br /><br />What is also not known fully is how much of the teachings and theology of Zoroastrianism comes from Zarathustra himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is good reason to believe that Zarathustra lived and worked in eastern Iran, considering the language used in the gathas, religious texts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is said that Zarathustra was of the lineage of Spitama and that he worked as a sacrifice priest but held a low social status. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Zarathustra’s teachings can be seen in connection with the old Iranian cult of sacrifice, where he fought the ancient sacrifice of murder, where life comes from the repetition of the cosmogonic murder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zarathustra did not go against the institution in itself, but he spent his time with opposing the taditional intentions with the sacrifice.<br /><br />Zarathustra is in the Baha’i religion considered a true manifestation of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, the Baha’i appear to accept Zarathustra in much the same way that Zoroastrians perceive him.<br /><br />Zarathustra (Zoroaster) was an Iranian religious reformer and founder of Zoroastrianism, or Parsiism, as it is known in India.<br /><br />A major personality in the history of the religions of the world, Zoroaster has been the object of much attention for two reasons. On the one hand, he became a legendary figure believed to be connected with occult knowledge and magical practices in the Near Eastern and Mediterranean world in the Hellenistic Age (c. 300 B.C.T. – c. 300 C.C.). On the other hand, his monotheistic concept of God has attracted the attention of modern historians of religion, who have speculated on the connections between his teaching and Judaism and Christianity. Though extreme claims of pan-Iranianism (i.e., that Zoroastrian or Iranian ideas influenced Greek, Roman, and Jewish thought) may be disregarded, the pervasive influence of Zoroaster’s religious thought must nevertheless be recognized.<br /><br />The student of Zoroastrianism is confronted by several problems concerning the religion’s founder. One question is what part of Zoroastrianism derives from Zoroaster’s tribal religion and what part was new as a result of his visions and creative religious genius. Another question is the extent to which the later Zoroastrian religion (Mazdaism) of the Sasanian period (224–651) genuinely reflected the teachings of Zoroaster. A third question is the extent to which the sources—the Avesta (the Zoroastrian scriptures) with the Gathas (older hymns), the Middle Persian Pahlavi Books, and reports of various Greek authors—offer an authentic guide to Zoroaster’s ideas.<br /><br />A biographical account of Zoroaster is tenuous at best or speculative at the other extreme. The date of Zoroaster’s life cannot be ascertained with any degree of certainty. According to Zoroastrian tradition, he flourished “258 years before Alexander.” Alexander the Great conquered Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenids, a dynasty that ruled Persia from 559 to 330 B.C.T., in 330 B.C.T. Following this dating, Zoroaster converted Vishtaspa, most likely a king of Chorasmia (an area south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia), in 588 B.C.T. According to tradition, he was 40 years old when this event occurred, thus indicating that his birthdate was 628 B.C.T. Zoroaster was born into a modestly situated family of knights, the Spitama, probably at Rhages (now Rayy, a suburb of Tehran), a town in Media. The area in which he lived was not yet urban, its economy being based on animal husbandry and pastoral occupations. Nomads, who frequently raided those engaged in such occupations, were viewed by Zoroaster as aggressive violators of order, and he called them followers of the Lie.<br /><br />According to the sources, Zoroaster probably was a priest. Having received a vision from Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, who appointed him to preach the truth, Zoroaster apparently was opposed in his teachings by the civil and religious authorities in the area in which he preached. It is not clear whether these authorities were from his native region or from Chorasmia prior to the conversion of Vishtaspa. Confident in the truth revealed to him by Ahura Mazda, Zoroaster apparently did not try to overthrow belief in the older Iranian religion, which was polytheistic; he did, however, place Ahura Mazda at the center of a kingdom of justice that promised immortality and bliss. Though he attempted to reform ancient Iranian religion on the basis of the existing social and economic values, Zoroaster’s teachings at first aroused opposition from those whom he called the followers of the Lie (<i>dregvant</i>).<br /><br />Zoroaster’s teachings centered on Ahura Mazda, who is the highest god and alone is worthy of worship. He is, according to the Gathas, the creator of heaven and earth; i.e., of the material and the spiritual world. He is the source of the alternation of light and darkness, the sovereign lawgiver, and the very center of nature, as well as the originator of the moral order and judge of the entire world. The kind of polytheism found in the Indian Vedas (Hindu scriptures having the same religious background as the Gathas) is totally absent; the Gathas, for example, mention no female deity sharing Ahura Mazda’s rule. He is surrounded by six or seven beings, or entities, which the later Avesta calls <i>amesha spentas</i>, “beneficent immortals.” The names of the <i>amesha spentas </i>frequently recur throughout the Gathas and may be said to characterize Zoroaster’s thought and his concept of God. In the words of the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is the father of Spenta Mainyu (Holy Spirit), of Asha Vahishta (Justice, Truth), of Vohu Manah (Righteous Thinking), and of Armaiti (Spenta Armaiti, Devotion). The other three beings (entities) of this group are said to personify qualities attributed to Ahura Mazda: they are Khshathra Vairya (Desirable Dominion), Haurvatat (Wholeness), and Ameretat (Immortality). This does not exclude the possibility that they, too, are creatures of Ahura Mazda. The good qualities represented by these beings are also to be earned and possessed by Ahura Mazda’s followers. This means that the gods and mankind are both bound to observe the same ethical principles. If the <i>amesha spentas </i>show the working of the deity, while at the same time constituting the order binding the adherents of the Wise Lord, then the world of Ahura Mazda and the world of his followers (the <i>ashavan</i>) come close to each other. The very significant eschatological aspect of Zoroastrianism is well demonstrated by the concept of Khshathra (Dominion), which is repeatedly accompanied by the adjective Desirable. It is a kingdom yet to come.<br /><br />The conspicuous monotheism of Zoroaster’s teaching is apparently disturbed by a pronounced dualism: the Wise Lord has an opponent, Ahriman, who embodies the principle of evil, and whose followers, having freely chosen him, also are evil. This ethical dualism is rooted in the Zoroastrian cosmology. He taught that in the beginning there was a meeting of the two spirits, who were free to choose—in the words of the Gathas—“life or not life.” This original choice gave birth to a good and an evil principle. Corresponding to the former is a Kingdom of Justice and Truth; to the latter, the Kingdom of the Lie (Druj), populated by the daevas, the evil spirits (originally prominent old Indo-Iranian gods). Monotheism, however, prevails over the cosmogonic and ethical dualism because Ahura Mazda is father of both spirits, who were divided into the two opposed principles only through their choice and decision.<br /><br />The Wise Lord, together with the <i>amesha spentas</i>, will at last vanquish the spirit of evil: this message, implying the end of the cosmic and ethical dualism, seems to constitute Zoroaster’s main religious reform. His monotheistic solution resolves the old strict dualism. The dualist principle, however, reappears in an acute form in a later period, after Zoroaster. It is achieved only at the expense of Ahura Mazda, by then called Ohrmazd, who is brought down to the level of his opponent, Ahriman. At the beginning of time, the world was divided into the dominion of the good and of the evil. Between these, each man is bound to decide. He is free and must choose either the Wise Lord and his rule or Ahriman, the Lie. The same is true of the spiritual beings, who are good or bad according to their choices. From man’s freedom of decision, it follows that he is finally responsible for his fate. Through his good deeds, the righteous person (<i>ashavan</i>) earns an everlasting reward, namely integrity and immortality. He who opts for the lie is condemned by his own conscience as well as by the judgment of the Wise Lord and must expect to continue in the most miserable form of existence, one more or less corresponding to the Christian concept of hell. According to Avestan belief, there is no reversal and no deviation possible once a man has made his decision. Thus, the world is divided into two hostile blocks, whose members represent two warring dominions. On the side of the Wise Lord are the settled herdsmen or farmers, caring for their cattle and living in a definite social order. The follower of the Lie (Druj) is a thieving nomad, an enemy of orderly agriculture and animal husbandry.<br /><br />The Gathas, the early hymns, many of which may have been written by Zoroaster, are permeated by eschatological thinking. Almost every passage contains some reference to the fate awaiting men in the afterlife. Each act, speech, and thought is viewed as being related to an existence after death. The earthly state is connected with a state beyond, in which the Wise Lord will reward the good act, speech, and thought and punish the bad. This motive for doing good seems to be the strongest available to Zoroaster in his message. After death, the soul of man must pass over the Bridge of the Requiter (Cinvat), which everyone looks upon with fear and anxiety. After judgment is passed by Ahura Mazda, the good enter the kingdom of everlasting joy and light, and the bad are consigned to the regions of horror and darkness. Zoroaster, however, goes beyond this, announcing an end phase for the visible world, “the last turn of creation.” In this last phase, Ahriman will be destroyed, and the world will be wonderfully renewed and be inhabited by the good, who will live in heavenly joy. Later forms of Zoroastrianism teach a resurrection of the dead, a teaching for which some basis may be found in the Gathas. Through the resurrection of the dead, the renewal of the world bestows a last fulfillment on the followers of the Wise Lord.<br /><br />Zoroaster forbade all sacrifices in honor of Ahriman or of his adherents, the daevas, who from pre-Zoroastrian times had degenerated into hostile deities. In the prevailing religious tradition, Zoroaster probably found that the practice of sacrificing cattle, combined with the consumption of intoxicating drinks (haoma), led to orgiastic excess. In his reform, Zoroaster did not, as some scholars would have it, abolish all animal sacrifice but</span><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">simply the orgiastic and intoxicating rites that accompanied it. The haoma sacrifice, too, was to be thought of as a symbolic offering; it may have consisted of unfermented drink or an intoxicating beverage or plant. Zoroaster retained the ancient cult of fire. This cult and its various rites were later extended and given a definite order by the priestly class of the Magi. Its center, the eternal flame in the Temple of Fire, was constantly linked with the priestly service and with the haoma sacrifice.<br /><br />After the conversion of Vishtaspa to such teachings, Zoroaster remained at the court of the king. Other officials were converted, and a daughter of Zoroaster apparently married Jamasp, a minister of the king. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years, thus indicating that he died about 551 B.C.T. After his death, many legends arose about him. According to these legends, nature rejoiced at his birth, and he preached to many nations, founded sacred fires, and fought in a sacred war. He was viewed as a model for priests, warriors, and agriculturalists, as well as a skilled craftsman and healer. The Greeks regarded him as a philosopher, mathematician, astrologer, or magician. Jews and Christians regarded him as an astrologer, magician, prophet, or arch heretic. Not until the 18th century did a more scholarly assessment of Zoroaster’s career and influence emerge.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zoroaster</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarathustra</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zartosht</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarathustra</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Avestan</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarathustra</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Din</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">az-Zarnuji</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Zarnuji</i>) (d. 1223).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab philosopher of the thirteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He composed a vademecum -- a handbook -- for students to teach them the ethical outlook of the man of learning, which became very popular.<br /><br />Al-Zarnuji was a Muslim scholar and the author of <i>Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum </i>(Instruction of the Student: The Method of Learning).<br /><br />Al-Zarnuji was born and lived in Zarnuj, a well-known town beyond the river Oxus in the present Turkistan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />He studied with many shaykhs including: Shaykh 'Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Marghiyani al-Rushdani (the author of <i>al-Hidayah</i>); Shaykh Abu al-Muhamid Qawaduddin Hammad ibn Ibrahim al-Saffar; the great Shaykh Hasan ibn Mansur Qadiykhani; and others.<br /><br />The works include:<br /><br />Al-Zarnuji's treatise, <i>Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum</i>, is a short introduction to the secrets of attaining knowledge. Acknowledged by many as a book in which even the most advanced and experienced teachers find advice they have yet to apply in their teaching, this book serves to create the proper framework for the Sharia program and its students and teachers alike.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Din</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">az-Zarnuji</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Zarnuji</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Arzachel</i>) (1028/1029-1087).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Spanish Arab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was the foremost astronomer of his time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zarqali carried out a series of astronomical observations at Toledo (in Arabic, al-Tulaytalah) and compiled them in what is known as his famous<i> Toledan Tables</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zarqali corrected Ptolemy’s estimate of the length of the Mediterranean Sea from 62 degrees to approximately correct value of 42 degrees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i>Toledo Tables</i> were translated into Latin in the twelfth century.<br /><br />Al-Zarqali was the first to prove conclusively the motion of the Aphelion relative to the stars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He measured its rate of motion as 12.04 seconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.8 seconds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zarqali invented a flat astrolabe which is known as Safihah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its details were published in Latin, Hebrew and several European languages.<br /><br />Copernicus in his famous book <i>De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium</i> expresses his indebtedness to al-Battani (Albategnius) and al-Zarqali (Arzachel) and quotes their work several times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Beer and Madler in their famous work <i>Der Mond</i> named a surface feature of the Moon after al-Zarqali (Arzachel).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is a plain more than sixty miles in diameter and is surrounded by rows of mountains rising like terraces to heights of 13,000 feet above the interior region.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It also includes several hills and craters and a prominent cleft by the side of the base of the western mountainous wall.<br /><br />Abu Isḥaq Ibrahim ibn Yaḥya al-Naqqash al-Zarqali was an instrument maker and one of the leading theoretical and practical astronomers of his time. Although his name is conventionally given as al-Zarqali, it is probable that the correct form was al-Zarqalluh. He lived in Toledo in Castile, Al-Andalus (now Spain), moving to Córdoba later in his life. His works inspired a generation of Islamic astronomers in Andalusia.<br /><br />The crater Arzachel on the Moon is named after him.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Arzachel</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><i style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-weight: 700;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></i></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><i style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-weight: 700;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></i></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><i style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-weight: 700;"><span style="font-size: large;">Zawahiri, Ayman al-</span></i></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"><i>Ayman al-Zawahiri</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">, also spelled </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"><i>Ayman al-</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"><i>Zawahiri</i>, also called </span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"><i>ʿAbd al-Muʿizz</i></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">, (b. June 19, 1951, Giza, Kingdom of Egypt — d. July 31, 2022, Kabul, Afghanistan), was an Egyptian physician and militant who became one of the major ideologues of al-Qaeda. Zawahiri led al-Qaeda from 2011 until his death in 2022.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">Zawahiri was raised in Maʿadi, Egypt, several miles south of Cairo.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">Although his parents were from prominent families, Zawahiri and his siblings were raised in a relatively humble environment.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">Zawahiri was a pious youth. As a student, he was greatly influenced by the work of Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian writer who was one of the foremost figures in modern Sunni Islamic revivalism. By the age of 15, Zawahiri had established a group dedicated to the overthrow of the Egyptian government in favor of Islamic rule.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">Zawahiri then studied at Cairo University’s medical school, where he specialized in surgery. There he also continued his clandestine </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">activities. He graduated in 1974 and then served for three years as an army surgeon. In 1980–81 he traveled as a relief worker with the Red Crescent to Peshawar, Pakistan, where he treated refugees</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> affected by the Afghan War.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">During that time he made several cross-border trips into Afghanistan, where he witnessed the warfare firsthand.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">After returning to Egypt, Zawahiri was one of several hundred militants arrested in the wake of the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">in October 1981. Zawahiri was convicted of illegal arms possession and imprisoned for three years. During that time he was subjected to torture by intelligence officers interested in information about his contacts, an experience that intensified his militancy. In 1984, Zawahiri was released from prison. The following year he left for Saudi Arabia. From Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, he returned to Peshawar and then moved on to Afghanistan. During this period, Zawahiri became acquainted with Osama bin Laden, a wealthy Saudi who had joined the Afghan resistance to the Soviets. In 1988, Zawahiri was present at the founding of al-Qaeda.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;">In the early 1990s, Zawahiri assumed leadership of the militant group Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ). Bin Laden had departed for Sudan in 1992, and Zawahiri ultimately joined him there. Sudan served as a base for the training of militants and for attacks on Egyptian targets, including attacks on government officials and on the Egyptian embassy in Pakistan. In June 1995, an unsuccessful attempt was made to assassinate Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Under international pressure, the Sudanese eventually expelled Zawahiri and bin Laden, along with their followers.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zawahiri’s next movements are unclear. he appears to have traveled to European countries that included Switzerland, Bulgaria, and the Netherlands. In late 1996, he was arrested by Russian officials while illegally crossing the border en route to Chechnya, where he planned to launch a new base for EIJ. Although he was jailed for six months, Russian agents were apparently unaware of his identity until after his release.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">In 1998, Zawahiri and bin Laden forged a formal alliance, and in June 2001 EIJ and al-Qaeda were merged. Zawahiri was closely affiliated with both the bombing of the USS</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">Cole</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> in October 2000 and the attacks of September 11, 2001. Zawahiri gradually became al-Qaeda’s chief spokesman, issuing commentary on issues such as the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">and the 2006 warfare between Hezbollah and Israel. In 2009, the United States Department of State determined that Zawahiri appeared to be al-Qaeda’s leading decision maker, while bin Laden reportedly occupied a figurehead status.</span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;">Zawahiri assumed formal leadership of al-Qaeda in June 2011, following bin Laden’s death during an American commando raid in Abbottabad, Pakistan, the previous month. The group struggled to reclaim its relevance and maintain its organizational integrity after Zawahiri took the reins. Al-Qaeda's affiliate in Iraq, the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL); also called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria [ISIS]), bucked Zawahiri’s management in 2013. The Nusrah Front, al-Qaeda’s most prominent affiliate in the Syrian Civil War, rejected Zawahiri’s command in 2016. Both groups ultimately severed ties with al-Qaeda.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times;">After the Taliban gained control of Afghanistan in 2021, and after the United States withdrew its remaining troops, Zawahiri took up residence in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. The United States, after learning his whereabouts, killed Ayman al-Zawahiri with a drone strike on July 31, 2022.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: times; text-align: center;"> </span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaydan, Jirji</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydan, Jirji</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jirji Zaydan</i>) (1861-1914).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christian Arab scholar, journalist and man of letters from Egypt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote many novels, the majority of which deal with the history of Islam from the Arab conquest to the beginning of the Mameluke dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were translated into several languages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their main value lies in the popularizing of history. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His best known works are the History of Muslim Civilization and the History of the Arabic Literature.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jirji Zaydan</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydan, Jirji</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn 'Ali</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaid ibn 'Ali</i>) (695-740) was a Shi‘a leader of a rebellion against the Umayyads of the eighth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was a grandson of al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali and placed himself at the disposal of the people of Kufa as Imam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was mortally wounded during street fighting against the troops of the governor Yusuf ibn ‘Umar al-Thaqafi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zaydiyya, to which he gave his name, revere him as a political and religious martyr. He is deemed to be the fifth Shi‘a imam.<br /><br />Zayd ibn ‘Ali was the grandson of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad. Zayd was born in Medina in 695. His father was the Shi‘ah Imam ‘Ali ibn Husayn "Zayn al-Abidin". Zayd’s mother was of Sindhi origin and was named Jayda, who is said to have been presented to his father by the Shi'i rebel leader al-Mukhtar.<br /><br />Historians of both Shi'is and Sunnis recorded that when Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik became the caliph, he committed many atrocities. With regard to the Bani Hashim, he was particularly cruel. At last, Zayd ibn ‘Ali, well known as a great scholar and a pious theologian, went to see the caliph to seek redress for the grievances of the Bani Hashim. As soon as Zayd arrived, the caliph, instead of greeting him as a direct descendant of the prophet, abused him with such abominable language that it can not be repeated. Because of this disgraceful treatment, Zayd left Syria for Kufa, where he raised an army against the Bani Umayyad. The governor of Kufa, Yusuf ibn 'Umar al-Thaqafi came out with a huge army to face him. Zayd recited the following war poem: "Disgraceful life and honorable death: both are bitter morsels, but if one of them must be chosen, my choice is honorable death."<br /><br />Although he fought bravely, Zayd was killed in battle on the 2nd of Safar in 740 at the age of forty-two by Yusuf ibn 'Amr ath-Thaqafi (the Umayyad governor). His son, Yahya, took his body from the field and buried him away from the city near the river bank, causing the water to flow over it. However, the grave was discovered and, under Yusuf's orders, the body was exhumed, Zayd's head was cut off and sent to Hisham in Syria. Hisham had the sacred body of this descendant of the Prophet placed on the gallows entirely naked. For four years the sacred body remained on the gallows. Thereafter, when Walid ibn Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became caliph, he ordered that the skeleton be taken down from the gallows, burned, and the ashes scattered to the wind.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn 'Ali</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaid ibn 'Ali</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zayd ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl</i>. Member of the Quraysh at Mecca, and a seeker of the original and true monotheistic religion (in Arabic, hanif).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He died before the beginning of the Prophet’s mission, but tradition considers him a true believer.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zayd ibn Haritha</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Haritha</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Harithah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd mawla Muhammad</i>) (c. 588-629).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Slave from Syria whom Khadija presented to the Prophet as a gift before his mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Prophet freed and adopted him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was one of the very first converts to Islam, perhaps the first.<br /><br />Zayd ibn Harithah was a prominent figure in the early Islamic community and the only one of the sahaba whose name is spelled directly in the Qur'an. As an adopted son of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, he was an early convert to Islam and later, a military leader. He died in 629 at the Battle of Mu'tah.<br /><br />Zayd was the natural son of a man named Harithah and was adopted by Muhammad. Many years later Harithah found Zayd and asked if his son wanted to go home with him. Zayd said no and that he would stay due to the great love that Muhammad had shown him. Little is known of Zayd's natural father. Some sources say that Harithah was descended from the Arab poet Imru' al-Qais. One or more of his ancestors may have been of African descent, as he is said to have had very dark skin.<br /><br />Zayd is said to have been captured in an inter-tribal war and sold as a slave. He was given as a present to Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. The couple freed him and treated him as a son; he was then known as Zayd ibn Muhammad, Zayd son of Muhammad. He lived with Muhammad and Khadijah in their household in the city of Mecca in the Hejaz region of western Arabia. Zayd's father and uncle came to take him back home from Muhammad, but he preferred living with his adoptive family.<br /><br />When Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation from the angel Gabriel, his wife Khadijah believed and thus became the first convert to Islam. While the identity of the first male convert is disputed, Zayd is a strong possibility, as are Ali and Abu Bakr. Regardless, Zayd was clearly among the first Muslims. As Muhammad's adopted son he quickly became an important figure in the small community of pre-Hijra Meccan Muslims.<br /><br />In 622, Zayd, as part of the Hijra, emigrated to the oasis of Yathrib (later called Medina) with the rest of the small Muslim community.<br /><br />Zaynab bint Jahsh was his wife. He later divorced her and Muhammad married her.<br /><br />Zayd took part in an expedition in 629. A Muslim force of 3,000 men set out to raid the Byzantine city of Bosra. They were intercepted at a place called Mu'tah. The Battle of Mu'tah was a rare reverse for the Muslims. Zayd was killed as he held the standard, as were two other leaders, Ja`far ibn Abi Talib and `Abd Allah ibn Rawahah. He was the first Muslim to be killed on foreign soil.<br /><br />Zayd was the father of Usama bin Zayd bin Harithah.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Harithah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Haritha</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd mawla Muhammad</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Haritha</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Thabit</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaid ibn Thabit</i>) (d. 665).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Companion of the Prophet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He became the Prophet’s secretary, and is best known for his part in the editing of the Qur’an.<br /><br />Zayd ibn Thabit was the personal scribe of Muhammad and an Ansar. When Zayd ibn Thabit was 6 years old his father died in the Battle of Bu'ath. Zayd was 13 years old when he asked permission to participate in the Battle of Badr. Since he was younger than 15 years old, Muhammad did not allow him to do so, and sent him back. He then decided to try to win favor with Muhammad by learning the Qur'an. Later on he was appointed to write letters to non-Muslims and to collect and keep record of the Qur'anic verses.<br /><br />Zayd was among those chosen by Muhammad to write down the verses of the Qur'an.<br /><br />He used to spend most of his time reciting the Qur'an, and continued to learn the Quranic verses as they were recited by Muhammad.<br /><br />Zayd later volunteered to fight when he was 19 years old. This time he was accepted in the ranks of the Muslim army. Zayd's time to fight had come nine years after the establishment of the Muslim community in Medina.<br /><br />Zayd had the role of writing down the Quranic verses that were sent to Muhammad from Allah through the Angel Gabriel.<br /><br />After the departure of Muhammad from this world the task fell on Ibn Thabit, who specialized in the Qur'an, to authenticate the first and most important reference for the ummah of Muhammad. This became an urgent task after the wars of apostasy and the Battle of Yamamah in particular in which a large number of those who had committed the Qur'an to memory perished. Umar convinced the Khalifah Abu Bakr that the Qur'an should be collected in one manuscript.<br /><br />During Abu Bakr's reign as caliph, he was given the task of collecting the Quranic verses from all over Arabia. Zayd finally accepted the task and started locating the Quranic material and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leafstalks of date palms and from the memories of men who knew it by heart.<br /><br />When Zayd had completed his task, he left the prepared suhuf (sheets) with Abu Bakr. Before he died, Abu Bakr left the suhuf with Umar who in turn left it with his daughter Hafsah. Hafsah, Umm Salamah, and Aishah were wives of Muhammad who memorized the Qur'an.<br /><br />Zayd completed the task, compiling a version of the Qur'an called Mushaf, and delivered the copy to Abu Bakr.<br /><br />Zayd ibn Thabit thus became one of the foremost authorities on the Qur'an. Umar ibn al-Khattab once addressed the Muslims and said: "O people, whoever wants to ask about the Qur'an, let him go to Zayd ibn Thabit."<br /><br />During the time of Uthman, by which time Islam had spread far and wide, differences in reading the Qur'an in different dialects of Arabic language became obvious. A group of companions, headed by Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, who was then stationed in Iraq, came to Uthman and urged him to "save the Muslim ummah before they differ about the Qur'an". Uthman obtained the manuscript of the Qur'an from Hafsah and again summoned the leading authority, Zayd ibn Thabit, and some other companions to make copies of it. Zayd was put in charge of the task. The style of Arabic dialect used was that of the Quraish tribe. Hence this style was emphasized over all others.<br /><br />Zayd and other Companions copied many copies. One of these was sent to every Muslim province with the order that all other Quranic materials, whether fragmentary or complete copies, be burned. When standard copies were made and were widely available to the Muslim community everywhere then all other material was burned voluntarily by the Muslim community themselves. This was important in order to eliminate variations or differences in the dialect from the standard text of the Qur'an. The Caliph Uthman kept a copy for himself and returned the original manuscript to Hafsah.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Thabit</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaid ibn Thabit</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaydiyya</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyah</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Zaydiyya</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydites</i>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaidiya</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaidīs</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydis</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shi‘ite group who supported the revolt of Zayd ibn Ali, al-Husayn’s grandson, in Kufa in 739 of the Christian calendar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zayd was the next Alid to be killed after the martyrs of Karbala, and as such is revered by the Zaydiyya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The Zaydiyya are distinguished from all the other Shi‘ite groups in that they did not recognize the necessity of an imam, nor did they accept the principles of nass al-jali (clear designation) and ‘isma (infallibility) as prerequisites in a person assuming the imamate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nass implied recognition of a hereditary line of imams from the descendants of Fatima, but the Zaydites accorded the office of imam to any Fatimid who openly fought against an oppressive ruler.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />From the beginning, the Zaydiyya seem to have been divided into two main factions: the compromisers (Batriyya) and the revolutionaries (Jarudiyya).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both subdivisions maintained the superiority of Ali over all Companions of the Prophet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the former, in contrast to all other Shi‘ite groups, held the doctrine of the “imamate of the inferior”, according to which, although Ali was best fitted to be the imam, it was right to acknowledge the imamate of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, since Ali had let them hold the position.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zaydiyya were, therefore, attempting to work out a compromise between the Shi‘a and the Sunni by acknowledging the Caliphates of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, while admitting their inferiority to Ali.<br /><br />The revolutionary Zaydites asserted that Muhammad had designated Ali as imam, not by name, but by describing his person, and that those who did not recognize his imamate became unbelievers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following Ali, his two sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn, were imams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thereafter any new imam had to be appointed by a small council from among the descendants of either al-Hasan or al-Husayn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new imam should issue his call to allegiance by rising in rebellion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike the Batriyya, the Jarudiyya held the radical views of the early Shi’a and rejected any attempt to compromise on the question of acknowledging the first three caliphs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From the ninth century of the Christian calendar onward, the Jarudiyya view of the imamate came to prevail among the Zaydiyya, particularly after the establishment of the Zaydi state in Yemen.<br /><br />Zaydiyya doctrines were formulated by the theologian al-Qasim al-Rassi, who based his teaching on Mu‘tazilite principles, though with some fundamental differences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His demand that the imam be qualified in Islamic law and doctrine, with sufficient political initiative to carry out armed rebellion against usurpers, excluded many Alid pretenders and rulers, who were sometimes, in the absense of truly qualified imams, termed “restricted imams.”<br /><br />The list of Zaydi imams varies, because there was always uncertainty regarding the recognition of a “restricted” or “full” imam, though there was consensus on many.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last Zaydi imam to rule Yemen was Muhammad al-Badr, whose policies ushered Yemen into the twentieth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The constitution of the Yemen Arab Republic abolished the Zaydi imamate in 1971, declaring Yemen an Islamic state in accord with the “principles of Muslim social justice.”<br /><br />Al-Zaydiyya (Zaydites) was the official name of the Fiver Shi‘ites (named after their fifth imam, Zayd ibn Ali), who established their own state structures. A Zaydite dynasty (also named the Alids after the founding father of the Shi‘ites) established by Hasan ibn Zayd (r. 864-883), ruled in Mazandaran, Tabaristan, and Dailam (Iran, to the south of the Caspian Sea) ruled from 864 to 1126.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most important Zaydite state was Yemen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 893, the well-respected commander of the Zaydites, Yahya ibn Husain (859-911), was invited to Yemen as mediator by the tribes there and established a Zaydite imamate in Sada in 901.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He and his successors brought substantial areas of Yemen (including Sanaa) under their control and ruled as Rassids (of the Banu Kasim, ruling imams since 1592, ruled in Sanaa from 1635 and was able to persuade the Ottomans to make a peaceful exit from Yemen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zaydite imams ruled with Fiver Shi‘ism as state religion until 1962.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most important imam of modern times, Yahya ibn Hammidaddin (1904-1948), concluded beneficial treaties with the European powers, modernized Yemen, and assumed the title of king in 1926.<br /><br />Al-Zaydiyya were a group of the Shi‘a which were distinguished from the “Twelvers” and the “Seveners” by the recognition of Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin as Imam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The essential demands on the Zaydi Imam are membership of the Family of the Prophet, ability to resort to the sword if required, and the necessary learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was thus no dynastic tradition, individual success being in the end the deciding factor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zaydiyya was founded as a united community in Tabaristan by al-Hasan ibn Zayd Muhammad and lasted there until 1126, after which date it became merged in the little sect of the Nuqtawis.<br /><br />In Yemen, the Zaydiyya was founded by al-Hadi ila’l-Haqq I Yahya, grandson of the al-Qasim al-Rassi, founder of the Rassids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Rassid line lasted until 1281, and their successors, the Qasimi line, founded by al-Mansur bi’llah al-Qasim, until 1962.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1962, the last Zaydite imam was ousted by Yemeni officers.<br /><br />Doctrinally, the Zaydīyya are closer to the majority Sunnites than are the other Shīʿites. Early in the 10th century the Zaydīyya became dominant in Yemen, and thereafter Zaydī imāms were the spiritual rulers of that area. From the departure of the Turks in 1917 until 1962, they were also the temporal rulers of Yemen.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyah</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Zaydiyya</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydites</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaidiya</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaidis</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydis</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaydiyya</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><br /></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-61140354427904536702023-09-22T01:20:00.009-07:002023-10-02T00:23:56.102-07:002023: Zaynab - Zayyani<p> </p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaynab bint Jash</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jash</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jahsh ibn Ri‘ab</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jahsh</i>) (c.591/593-c.643).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Married to the Prophet Muhammad from 626 until his death in 632.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad’s marriage to Zaynab was the result of Muhammad falling in love, which is different from most of his other marriages, where brothers or fathers had given sisters or daughters to Muhammad as wives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, Zaynab was married to Zaid at that time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaid was one of the first that had converted to Islam, and he divorced Zaynab so that Muhammad could marry her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab received a dowry of 400 dirhams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab had good relations with ‘A’isha and was one of Muhammad’s favorite wives. Zaynab is celebrated in the texts for her charity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Zaynab bint Jahsh was a wife of Muhammad and, therefore, a Mother of the Believers. Prior to this, she was briefly married to Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah. She was also Muhammad's first cousin. Muhammad's father Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib was a brother of Zaynab's mother Umaimah bint Abd al-Muttalib.<br /><br />Zaynab's brother, Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh, went on the migration to Abyssinia and there left Islam for Christianity. His wife, Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan, later married Muhammad. She had a sister named Hammanah bint Jahsh.<br /><br />After her migration to Medina, Zaynab became part of the newly founded Muslim community. There, Muhammad proposed to Zaynab's family the marriage of his freed slave and adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah. However, Zayd was a former slave and of lower social status. Zayd was son of Harithah ibn Shurahbil, a person of the Kalb tribe, and his mother, Su'da bint Tha'labah, was from the Bani Ma'n, a branch of the Tay tribe. When he was eight years old, Su'da took Zayd along to visit her parents. There the people of Bani Qain bin Jasr raided their camp, plundered their goods and took some men as captives, including Zayd. They later sold Zayd at the fair of 'Ukaz near Ta'if. His buyer was Hakim ibn Hizam, a nephew of Khadija. Hakim brought him to Makkah (Mecca) and presented him to his paternal aunt. When Muhammad married Khadija he found Zayd in her service.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muhammad was so impressed by Zayd's good manners and conduct that he asked Khadija to give Zayd to him.<br /><br />Zaynab had an aristocratic lineage and thus had a higher social status. On these grounds, her brothers rejected the proposal and she disapproved of it.<br /><br />Muhammad, however, was determined to eliminate such class distinctions that had their roots in pre-Islamic Arab custom. He also wanted to establish the legitimacy and right to equal treatment of the adopted.<br /><br />Additionally, there may have been other reasons for Zaynab's initial disapproval. After all, Zayd, despite his social status, was held quite high in Muhammad's esteem. Thus, one reason for Zaynab's disapproval may have been that she wanted to marry Muhammad herself.<br /><br />Whatever the reasons, Muhammad insisted on the marriage of Zayd to Zaynab. When Qur'an 33:36 was revealed, Zaynab acquiesced and married Zayd in the year 626. However, Zayd divorced Zaynab after just over a year.<br /><br />Zaynab was married to Muhammad in Dhul Qa'adah, in the fifth year of Hijra. Since Zaynab was the wife of Muhammad's adopted son, pre-Islamic practices frowned upon her marriage with the prophet. The marriage was used by Munafiqs of Medina in an attempt to discredit Muhammad on two fronts, one of double standards as she was his fifth wife (actually Muhammad's seventh wife, Khadija and Zaynab bint Khuzaima died before this marriage), while everyone else was restricted to four, and marrying his adopted son's wife. This was exactly what Muhammad feared and why he was initially hesitant in marrying her. The Qur'an, however, confirmed that this marriage was valid. Thus Muhammad, confident of his faith in the Qur'an, proceeded to reject the existing Arabic norms. When Zaynab's waiting period from her divorce was complete, Muhammad married her.<br /><br />We read in Sura Al-Ahzab 33:37:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Behold! Thou didst say to one who had received the grace of Allah and thy favour: "Retain thou (in wedlock) thy wife, and fear Allah." But thou didst hide in thy heart that which Allah was about to make manifest: thou didst fear the people, but it is more fitting that thou shouldst fear Allah. Then when Zaid had dissolved (his marriage) with her, with the necessary (formality), We joined her in marriage to thee: in order that (in future) there may be no difficulty to the Believers in (the matter of) marriage with the wives of their adopted sons, when the latter have dissolved with the necessary (formality) (their marriage) with them. And Allah's command must be fulfilled.<br /><br />In Pre Islamic Arabia, adoption was common and Zayd was given to Muhammad as a slave by his wife Khadija. Muhammad freed Zayd and took him to Kaaba in Mecca.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He declared Zayd to be his son (thus becoming one who received Muhammad's grace). However, with the coming of Islam all relations of adoption were nullified. Muhammad himself started calling Zayd, Zayd ibn Harithah instead of Zayd bin Muhammad (Zayd was known as Zayd bin Muhammad, i.e. son of Muhammad). Since Zayd's background was as a slave, and Muhammad wanted to lift the social status of freed slaves (like Zayd), Muhammad asked for Zaynab's hand in marriage for Zayd. Zaynab was Muhammad's first cousin, daughter of his aunt Umaima bint Abdul Muttalib. Zaynab had initially refused to marry Zaid because of his slave background and the same displeasure had come from her brother, 'Abdullah bin Jahsh. However, on insistence of Muhammad, Zaynab and everyone else agreed. The marriage was a failure as Zaynab found it extremely difficult to accept a freed slave as her husband. Zayd got tired of her and the bitterness left him with no desire for her, eventually leading to their divorce.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab being Muhammad's first cousin was no stranger to Muhammad, he had seen her hundreds of times in his aunt Umaima bint Abdul Muttalib's house for over thirty years before she became Zayd's wife.<br /><br />The Quranic verse set forth above starts with the time when Zayd came to seek the council of Muhammad to divorce Zaynab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Muhammad advised Zayd to 'Keep thy wife to thyself; and fear God'. Muhammad had already been informed by Gabriel that Zayd would divorce his wife and Muhammad would have to marry her. In spite of this knowledge, Muhammad asked Zayd to keep his wife. It was because of this that Muhammad was rebuked and told to fear God and not to fear men. Muhammad had two things to fear: One was that the Qur'an had restricted men to keep no more than four wives, and that if he was to marry Zaynab she would be his fifth wife, hence people would say double standards, 'four for us and five for you'. The second thing he feared was loss of reputation, Arabs had not been able to digest the fact that non-blood relations (like adoption) had no place in Islam, so an example had to be set for people to realize that the era of non-blood relations was over. The best way to do this was by marrying Zaynab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the matter was concerning a woman and Muhammad feared that the hypocrites of Medina would not leave this golden chance to start a new propaganda against Islam. It was against this background that Muhammad was rebuked and told to fear God and not to fear men. The full verse was revealed to tell the complete tale to the Muslims and the hypocrites of Medina as to what actually happened, and to put an end to the continuous gossip that was going around.<br /><br />Zaynab was the first of Muhammad's wives to die after him. She died during the caliphate of Umar bin Khattab in the 23rd year of Hijra (643/644).<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jahsh ibn Ri'ab</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jash</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jahsh</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Jash</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaynab bint Khuzaima</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzaima</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzayma</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Umm al-Masakin</i> - Mother of the Poor) (595-626).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wife of Muhammad for a period of two to eight months in 626.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab had been married twice before, the first marriage had ended with divorce, while her other husband had been killed in the battle at Badr.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab received a dowry of 400 dirhams, and she died after a few months, either two or eight, of marriage.<br /><br />Zaynab bint Khuzaima was the fifth wife of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. As a result of her early death, less is known about her than any of his other wives.<br /><br />Typically described as being in her late 20s, although occasionally said to be 48, she was described as "beautiful". She was known for her "compassion and pity" for the poor.<br /><br />Zaynab was first married to Tufail bin Harith, who either divorced her or died shortly afterward. Zaynab then married her first husband's brother, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith. In 624, her husband died of wounds received in the Battle of Badr, and she began to live in poverty. Ibn Kathir, in his 14th century Sira, referred to Zaynab's first husband as being Husayn bin al-Harith, and her second marriage to Jahsh bin Ri'ab, who was killed at the Battle of Uhud.<br /><br />There are conflicting reports as to whether she was shunned or whether she was sought after for marriage. Some even suggest she had a third husband, who also died.<br /><br />The following year shortly after his marriage to Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad approached Zaynab with a mahar of either 400 dirhams or 12 ounces of gold and offered to marry her. There was debate about how the marriage was proposed. In Ibn Kalbi's al-Isaba, he claimed that Muhammad proposed to her directly - while Ibn Hashim wrote that her uncle, Quobaisa bin Arm al-Hilali arranged the marriage proposal.<br /><br />It was said that the marriage, which took place during the month of Ramadan, was meant to assure Muhammad's followers that their deaths in battle would not mean their families would starve and be neglected. She was the first of his wives to come from outside the Quraysh tribe.<br /><br />Unlike Aisha and Hafsa, who bickered with each other, Zaynab was believed to have offered no trouble to either of them. At one point, a poor man came to her house to beg for some flour, and she gave him the last of her own, and went without food that night. Muhammad was moved by her compassion and told his other wives about it and preached that "if you have faith in Allah...he would provide for your sustenance, even as he doeth for the birds, who leave their nest hungry in the morning, but return full at night".<br /><br />Zaynab died less than two years later, some suggest as little as two months, the only one of Muhammad's wives to die before him, other than his first wife Khadijah. It has been suggested she died during the month of Rabi' al-thani, four years after the Hijra.<br /><br />Zaynab was buried in Jannat al-Baqi, carried into her grave by Muhammad.<br /><br />The wives of Muhammad were:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Khadijah bint Khuwaylid<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sawda bint Zama<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aisha bint Abi Bakr<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hafsa bint Umar<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab bint Khuzaima<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hind bint Abi Umayya<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab bint Jahsh<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Juwayriya bint al-Harith<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rayhana bint Zayd<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Safiyya bint Huyayy<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maymuna bint al-Harith<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>*<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maria al-Qibtiyya<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzayma</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzaima</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Umm al-Masakin</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzaima</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mother of the Poor</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Khuzaima</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><p><br /></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zaynab bint Muhammad</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Muhammad</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zainub bint Muhammad</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zainab bint Muhammad</i>) (?-630).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Daughter of Muhammad and Khadija.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab was perhaps the oldest of Muhammad’s daughters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the time of the hijra (the exodus to Medina in 622), she was married to a non-Muslim man so she did not follow her father to Medina.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, when her husband was taken prisoner after the battle of Badr in 626, Muhammad had him freed after Zaynab had promised to come to Medina.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her husband was taken prisoner again in 628, and once again freed by Zaynab’s intercession.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He became a Muslim the following year, and was reunited with his wife.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zaynab had two children, Ali, who died as a child, and Umama, who married Ali after Fatima died.<br /><br />While Sunnis view Zainab as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, other Muslim sects such as Shia Muslims debate her being the daughter of Muhammed (or even of Khadijah).<br /><br />Zainab was married to her maternal cousin Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabiah prior to his conversion to Islam. She became the mother of two children: Ali and Umamah.<br /><br />When Muhammad abandoned Mecca for Medina, his daughter Zainab could not bear to leave her non-Muslim husband Abu al-'Aas, and was not required to do so until years later under other circumstances. Muhammad did not automatically divorce them.<br /><br />Some sources states that at one time there were three girls living in the household of Khadija. Their names were Zainab, Ruqayya and Umm Kulthoom. Zainab, the eldest of the three, was married to one Abul-'As ibn er-Rabi' (Abu al-'Aas) of Makkah (Mecca). This man fought against the Prophet in the battle of Badr, and was captured by the Muslims. To ransom his freedom, his wife sent to the Prophet, a necklace which at one time had belonged to Khadijah that Khadijah had given to her as a present on her marriage. Abul-'As was set free. He returned to Makkah, and sent Zainab to Medina as he had promised to do. Zainab, however, died soon after her arrival in Medina. Later, Abul-'As also went to Medina, accepted Islam, and lived with the Muslims.<br /><br />The daughters attributed to Muhammad are;<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Zainab bint Muhammad, married to her maternal cousin Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee before al-Hijra<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, first married to Utbah ibn Abu Lahab and then to Uthman ibn Affan<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, first married to Utaybah bin Abu Lahab and then to Uthman ibn Affan after the death of her sister Ruqayyah<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Fatimah, married to Ali ('Ali bin Abi Talib)<br /><br />According to some Shi'a Muslim sources Khadijah only had one daughter, Fatimah. The others either belonged to her sister or were orphaned girls raised by her. Possibly all of them were Khadijah's, but only Fatimah was born to Muhammad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sunni Muslims, however, do not contest the parentage of her daughters.<br /><br />Based on narrations found even in Sunnī sources, Muhammad said that daughters of his household could only marry those who were from Banū Hāshim.<br /><br />However, if it is assumed that Zainab, Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum were daughters of Muhammed and Khadijah, this argument does not seem to be correct as:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Zainab was married to Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee who belonged to the Banu Abd Shams clan of the tribe Quraish.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Ruqayyah and after her death Umm Kulthum were married to Uthman bin Affan who belonged to the Banu Umayya clan of the tribe Quraish.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zainab bint Muhammad</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynab bint Muhammad</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div><p><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Zaynabi, Abu’l-Qasim ‘Ali al-</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynabi, Abu’l-Qasim ‘Ali al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Qasim ‘Ali al-Zaynabi</i>) (d. 1144).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Vizier under the ‘Abbasid Caliphs al-Mustarshid, al-Rashid, and al-Muqtafi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was on particularly good terms with the Great Saljuq Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad ibn Malik Shah.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu'l-Qasim 'Ali al-Zaynabi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaynabi, Abu’l-Qasim ‘Ali al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zayyani, Abu’l-Qasim al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayyani, Abu’l-Qasim al-</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Qasim al-Zayyani</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani<?I>) (Abu al-Qasim ibn Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Zayani</i>) (1734/1735-1833).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moroccan (Berber) statesman and historian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He wrote a general history of Islam and a full account of his various journeys, among which is a description of his visit to Istanbul of 1786.<br /><br />Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani was a Berber historian, geographer, poet and statesman from Morocco. He undertook diplomatic missions to the Ottoman court and engineered government attempts to bring tribes under central authority. His writings include several historical accounts of the Ottoman and Alaouite dynasties. Al-Zayyani wrote fifteen works in the field of history and geography. Some authors even consider him the greatest historian of Morocco.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Qasim al-Zayyani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayyani, Abu’l-Qasim al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayyani, Abu’l-Qasim al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu al-Qasim ibn Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Zayani</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zayyani, Abu’l-Qasim al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-51491881032116273622023-09-21T01:06:00.004-07:002023-10-02T00:26:27.832-07:002023: Zeferina - Zeroual<p> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Zeferina</span></i></b></p><p><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: x-large; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeferina</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: x-large;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: x-large; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">Yoruba slave woman, the leader of a runaway settlement formed by black Yoruba slaves outside the city of Bahia, Brazil.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">In 1826, she organized a revolt against the plantation masters.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">The uprising was put down by government troops, and Zeferina and her people were imprisoned.</span></span></p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zengi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imad ad-Din Zengi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imad ad-Din Atabeg Zengi al-Malik al-Mansur</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ʿImad al-Din Zangi ibn Aq Sonqur</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zangi</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengui</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zenki</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zanki</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">İmadeddin Zengi</i>) (b. c. 1084/1085 - d. September 14, 1146, Damascus, Syria [Mosul, Iraq]). Turkish general who founded a state in Mosul in the twelfth century.<br /><br />ʿImad al-Din Zangi ibn Aq Sonqur (Zangi or Zengi) was an Iraqi ruler who founded the Zangid dynasty and led the first important counterattacks against the Crusader kingdoms in the Middle East.<br /><br />When Zangi’s father, the governor of Aleppo, was killed in 1094, Zangi fled to Mosul. He served the Seljuq dynasty, and in 1126 the Seljuq sultan, Maḥmud II, appointed Zangi governor of Basra. When the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Mustarshid rebelled in 1127, Zangi supported the sultan, and the victorious Maḥmud II rewarded Zangi by giving him the governorship of Mosul. Next, the key city of Aleppo submitted to Zangi’s authority to secure military protection against a possible Frankish Crusader conquest.<br /><br />Zangī thus came to exercise authority over a considerable geographic area, but he wanted to create a kingdom that would also include Syria and Palestine. He was charged by the sultan with the duty of defeating the Christian Crusaders, and he saw himself as the champion of Islam. He was opposed, however, by Muslim princes who refused to accept his authority as well as by the Crusaders. To both Zangi reacted with equal harshness. By diplomacy, treachery, and warfare he steadily extended his authority, with the immediate goal of securing control of Damascus—a goal he never achieved. He did, however, capture Edessa, an important focal point of Frankish authority, in 1144 — the Crusaders’ first serious setback. But Zangi could not press his advantage. Returning to Iraq to repress a revolt there, he was killed by a servant who bore him a personal grudge.<br /><br />Though he continued his attempts to take Damascus in 1145, Zengi was assassinated by a Frankish slave named Yarankash in 1146. The Christian chronicler William of Tyre said that he was killed by a number of his retinue while he lay drunk in his bed.<br /><br />Zengi's sudden death threw his forces into a panic. His army disintegrated, the treasury was looted, and the crusader princes, made bold by Zengi's demise, plotted to attack Aleppo and Edessa. Mu'in ad-Din immediately recaptured Baalbek, Hims, and other territories lost to Zengi over the years.<br /><br />Zengi was the founder of the eponymous Zengid dynasty. In Mosul, he was succeeded by his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I and in Aleppo he was succeeded by his second son Nur ad-Din.<br /><br />Zengi was courageous, strong in leadership and a very skilled warrior according to all of the Islam chroniclers of his day. The conquest of Edessa being his greatest achievement. These same chroniclers, however, also describe Zengi as being a very violent, cruel, and brutal man. Muslims, Byzantines, and Franks all suffered at his hands.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imad ad-Din Zengi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imad ad-Din Atabeg Zengi al-Malik al-Mansur</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ʿImād al-Dīn Zangī ibn Aq Sonqur</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">İmadeddin Zengi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zangi</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zenki</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zengi</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zeroual, Liamine</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeroual, Liamine</i> (<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Liamine Zeroual) </i>(b. July 3, 1941, Batna, Algeria).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>President of Algeria (January 31, 1994 - April 27, 1999).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zeroual was appointed president by the Haut Comte de l’Etat, for a temporary period, and it was intended that he remain in this position until public elections were held.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When these elections were held on November 28, 1996, it was Zeroual who was elected.<br /><br />Zeroual’s background was with the military, and he had a position as general until his appointment as president.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was seen as a hardliner in the meeting with the Islamist groups, even though his government was in talks with the leaders of the FIS.<br /><br />Following the elections, the new constitution of Algeria received seventy-five percent of the votes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new constitution gave Zeroual a democratic mandate to keep out all political groups that defined themselves from religious and ethnic orientations.<br /><br />Zeroual resigned from power in connection with the democratic elections (if not open for all candidates) of Algeria in 1999.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was succeeded by Abdelaziz Bouteflika.<br /><br />Zeroual joined the Algerian army at age 16 and fought against France during Algeria’s War of Independence. In 1965, Zeroual went to the Soviet Union for military training, after which he was posted to Sidi Bel Abbès, Algeria, to head an artillery unit. During the 1970s and ’80s, he rose steadily through the army’s ranks, commanding three of Algeria’s key military regions before being named land forces chief in 1989. That same year Zeroual resigned from the army after a dispute with President Chadli Bendjedid. He later served (1990–91) as ambassador to Romania, and he was named Algeria’s defense minister in 1993.<br /><br />Following his appointment as president by the High Security Council in January 1994, Zeroual attempted on two occasions to broker peace negotiations with the Islamic Salvation Front (Front Islamique du Salut - FIS), Algeria’s main opposition party. Although both attempts ended in failure, Zeroual continued to express an openness to future negotiations on the condition that the FIS would renounce the use of violence.<br /><br />With his easy victory in Algeria’s first multi-candidate presidential elections on November 16, 1995, Zeroual legitimized his status as Algeria’s head of state. Stressing peace and reconciliation as the twin themes of his presidency, he declared as his goal a broad-based government in which both secular and Islamic parties would work together toward implementing democracy. Although the FIS rejected Zeroual’s blueprint for constitutional reform, most of Algeria’s legal opposition parties voted in favor of the reforms at a national conference held in September 1996. The new constitution was approved by referendum in November. As part of a pact aimed at ending Algeria’s crisis and bloodshed, Zeroual also promised legislative elections in 1997. In September 1998, he announced his intention to resign from the presidency because of health issues, and, following the election of April 1999, he was succeeded by Abdelaziz Bouteflika.<br /><br />Although some urged Zéroual to run in the 2009 presidential election, he said in a published statement on January 14, 2009, that he would not run, while also suggesting that it was not in the best interests of democracy for President Abdelaziz Bouteflika to run for a third term.<br /><br /><i>Liamine Zeroual</i></span><i> </i>see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zeroual, Liamine</i></span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-74495697473364646832023-09-21T01:04:00.005-07:002023-09-24T04:03:43.032-07:002023: Zeybek - Zheng He<p> <b style="font-size: x-large; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zeybek</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeybek</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeibek</i>). Turkish tribe in the region of Izmir, which distinguished itself by a peculiar dress. They were subdued under the Ottoman Sultan Murad II.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mustafa Kemal Ataturk endeavored to make the dance peculiar to this tribe into a Turkish national dance.<br /><br />Zeybeks or sometimes Zeibeks were irregular militia and guerilla fighters living in the Aegean Region of the Ottoman Empire from late 17th to early 20th centuries, generally of Turkmen and Yörük origins.<br /><br />Before the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, large concentrations of Zeibeks could be found in western Anatolia, particularly in Isparta, Burdur, Afyon, Kütahya, Uşak, Denizli, Aydın, İzmir, Manisa, Muğla, Antalya, and the Balıkesir area.<br /><br />The Zeibek acted as protectors of village people against landlords, bandits and tax collectors. A leader of a Zeibek gang was called Efe and his soldiers were known as either Zeibeks or Kızan. Kızan was generally used for newly recruited or inexperienced Zeibeks. There was generally a tribe democracy. Decisions were taken in a democratic way. The Zeibek followed definite rituals for all actions; for example, the promotion of a kızan to zeybek was very similar to Ahi rituals.<br /><br />Zeybeks had a special dance in which performers simulated hawks. Romantic songs about their bravery are still popular in Turkish folk music. The yatagan sword was their primary weapon, but most of them carried firearms as well.<br /><br />The Zeibeks fought against the Greek invasion of Western Anatolia during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922. Their guerrilla warfare gave time for Turkish resistance to form a defense. After the formation of a Turkish national army, most of them joined and continued their resistance.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; font-size: x-large; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zheng He</span></i></b></i></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-style: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zheng He</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cheng Ho</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ma He</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mǎ Sānbǎo</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hajji Mahmud Shams</i>) (1371–1433/1435), was a Hui Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean" or "Zheng He to the Western Ocean", from 1405 to 1433.<br /><br />Zheng He was a Chinese eunuch who commanded a series of maritime expeditions through Southeast Asia to India and the east coast of Africa for the Yongle emperor (r.1402-1424) of the Ming dynasty in the first decades of the fifteenth century.<br /><br />Zheng He was born and raised in a Muslim family in central Yunnan Province in southwestern China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both his father and his grandfather were known by the title hajji, which was conferred upon Muslims who made the pilgrimage to Mecca.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At least during his early years, he was raised as a Muslim and may have acquired some knowledge of Arabic.<br /><br />In 1381, when his locality was brought under the control of the Ming dynasty, the general in charge of the occupying armies selected Zheng He and a number of other boys for palace service.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was castrated when he was about ten years old, taken to North China, and assigned to serve on the staff of Zhu Di (who later became the Yongle emperor).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During this time, he gained considerable military experience because, for the most part, his duties entailed following Zhu Di on campaign.<br /><br />Zheng He is described as being very tall and stout (seven feet tall with a girth of five feet by one account) and as having a loud voice and a commanding stare.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was thus physically suited for the rigors of warfare and proved himself capable in battle, first during campaigns against the Mongols between 1393 and 1397 and later during Zhu Di’s rebellion of 1399, when he played a key role in the defense of Beijing.<br /><br />After Zhu Di ascended the throne in 1402, Zheng He became one of his most trusted aides.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the first years of the reign, he held important military commissions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1405, however, he was put in charge of a large-scale maritime expedition to Southeast Asia, and he continued to supervise such expeditions until his death in 1433.<br /><br />It is not clear why the Yongle emperor decided to mount these costly maritime expeditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several reasons are usually put forth: that he was afraid the Jianwen emperor, whose throne he had usurped, might have escaped to Southeast Asia, and he wanted to find him; that he wanted to suppress piracy in Southeast Asian waters; and that he wanted to extend the hegemony of the Ming Empire to the shores of India and Arabia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While there is some truth in each of these reasons, it is likely that it was the last one, the desire to extend the limits of his empire, that kept the expeditions alive for more than two decades.<br /><br />The Yongle emperor sought to re-establish a universal world empire on the model of the preceding Yuan dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whereas the Mongols had only had a land-based empire, the Yongle emperor wanted to establish a maritime empire as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zheng He’s expeditions were intended to extend the hegemony of the Ming empire throughout Southeast Asia and beyond by demonstrating that the Ming navy was formidable and not easily defeated and that the Ming emperor protected maritime trade and was not hostile toward Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is important to note that Zheng He’s expeditions all carried Arabic speakers conscripted from mosques in China who served as translators, for Islamic merchants had by this time come to control most of the trade routes between China and Arabia.<br /><br />The first expedition, in 1405, carried a crew of 27,000 and comprised a fleet of more than 60 large vessels (440 feet long) and 255 smaller ships.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The principal goal of this and the next few expeditions was to make the sea routes between China and India safe for maritime trade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a major battle near Sumatra, Zheng He destroyed the fleet of a powerful Chinese pirate who had been harassing ships in the Straits of Melaka.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the expedition of 1409 to 1411, which reached the Malabar coast of India, Chinese luxury goods were displayed in Ceylon and other commercial centers to promote trade with China.<br /><br />The expedition of 1413 to 1415, however, which reached the Arabian Peninsula, had a distinctly diplomatic cast. From this point on the expeditions revolved around carrying tribute missions to and from China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The expedition of 1417 to 1419 returned the envoys who had arrived in 1415.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The expedition of 1421 to 1422, which reached the east coast of Africa, returned with even greater numbers of envoys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> However,</span> almost immediately after the Yongle emperor’s death in 1424, influential officials at court began to protest that such voyages were too costly to continue, and the expeditions were suspended until 1431.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zheng He, already in his sixties, was unable to visit every country in person during the last expedition, in 1431 to 1433.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He may in fact have died en route at Calicut early in 1433, but the details of his death remain obscure.<br /><br />Although the naval expeditions were discontinued after Zheng He’s death, the hegemony of the Ming emperor throughout Southeast Asia, at least as an arbiter of disputes and successions, remained unchallenged until the Portuguese arrived in the first years of the sixteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In that respect at least, Zheng He did realize the Yongle emperor’s ambitions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, the expeditions constituted the greatest feat of navigation undertaken in the world until that time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the first several expeditions all of the major sea routes between China and the Islamic countries of the West were systematically explored and mapped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A vast amount of knowledge was added to the corpus of Chinese geography.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ma Huan, a Muslim interpreter who went on several of the expeditions, kept a record of about twenty places that he had visited.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At least two other accounts were written by other members of the expeditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Together these works comprise the only major accounts of travel in Asia from the fifteenth century and offer the most accurate and vivid picture of the region prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cheng Ho</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zheng He</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ma He</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zheng He</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ma Sanbao</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zheng He</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hajji Mahmud Shams</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zheng He</i></span></i></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-78827997650325289172023-09-20T04:17:00.009-07:002023-10-02T00:29:08.096-07:002023: Zia - Zindiq<p> <b style="font-size: x-large; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zia-ul Haq</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zia-ul </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Haq </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(<i>Mohammad Zia-ul Haq</i></span>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq</i>) (b. August 12, 1924, Jullundur, Punjab [now in India] - d. August 17, 1988, near Bahāwalpur, Pakistan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Military leader who became president of Pakistan in 1978.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zia-ul Haq was born in the present Punjab Province of India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He received his army commission from the military academy, Dehra Dun, in 1945.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During World War II, he saw action in Southeast Asia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1947, he joined the Pakistan Army and received additional military training in the United States. Between 1969 and 1971, on loan to Jordan, Zia directed action against Palestinian guerrillas and was decorated by King Hussain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prime Minister Bhutto made him a full general and chief of staff of the Pakistan Army in 1976.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1977, during the agitation of opposition parties against Bhutto’s handling of national elections, Zia proclaimed martial law, removed Bhutto from office, and promised to hold fresh elections.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These elections were later cancelled and Zia declared the “islamization of Pakistan” as his first priority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1978, Zia became president of Pakistan but continued to govern under martial law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Without a popular mandate to rule, he has relied heavily on the external support of his regime by the United States and its Arab allies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In August 1983, the Movement for Restoration of Democracy, an alliance of banned political parties, launched a mass resistance to Zia’s regime that was crushed by military action.<br /><br />Zia was commissioned in 1945 from the Royal Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun and served with the British armored forces in Southeast Asia at the end of World War II. After 19 years spent in various staff and command appointments he was made an instructor at the Command and Staff College in Quetta. He successively commanded a regiment, brigade, division, and a corps during the period 1966–72. A major general from 1972, he was president of the military courts that tried several Army and Air Force officers alleged to have plotted against the government of Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1972. Bhutto promoted him to lieutenant general in 1975 and made him Army chief of staff in 1976.<br /><br />Zia seized power from Bhutto in a bloodless coup on July 5, 1977, and became chief martial-law administrator while retaining his position as Army chief of staff. He assumed the presidency after Fazal Elahi Chaudhry resigned. Zia tightened his hold on the government after having the charismatic and still-popular Bhutto executed on charges of attempted murder in 1979. Zia suspended political parties in that year, banned labor strikes, imposed strict censorship on the press, and declared martial law in the country (nominally lifted in 1985). He responded to the Soviet Union’s invasion of neighboring Afghanistan in 1979 by embarking on a United States-financed military buildup. He also tried to broaden his base of support and worked for the Islamization of Pakistan’s political and cultural life. He died in an airplane crash.<br /><br />Zia-ul-Haq died in a plane crash on August 17, 1988. After witnessing a United States M1 Abrams tank demonstration in Bahawalpur, Zia had left the small town in the Punjab province by C-130 Hercules aircraft. Shortly after a smooth take-off, the control tower lost contact with the aircraft. Witnesses who saw the plane in the air afterward claim it was flying erratically, then nosedived and exploded on impact. In addition to Zia, 31 others died in the plane crash, including Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee General Akhtar Abdur Rehman; a close associate of General Zia, Brigadier General Siddique Salik; the American Ambassador to Pakistan Arnold Raphael; and General Herbert M. Wassom, the head of the United States Military aid mission to Pakistan. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, the Senate Chairman announced Zia's death on radio and TV. The manner of his death gave rise to many conspiracy theories. There was speculation that the United States, India, the Soviet Union (in retaliation for United States-Pakistani supported attacks in Afghanistan) or an alliance of them and internal groups were behind the attack.<br /><br />A board of inquiry was set up to investigate the crash. It concluded the most probable cause of the crash was a criminal act of sabotage perpetrated on the aircraft. It is also suggested that poisonous gases were released which incapacitated the passengers and crew, which would explain why no Mayday signal was given.<br /><br />Zia's funeral was held on August 19, 1988, in Islamabad. Zia's body was buried in a small tomb outside the Faisal Mosque.<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mohammad Zia-ul Haq</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zia-ul Haq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zia-ul Haq</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zikrawayh ibn Mihrawayh</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zikrawayh ibn Mihrawayh</i> (d. 907).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Carmathian missionary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having disposed of ‘Abdan, Zikrawayh conquered Kufa in 906 but had to return to the district of al-Qadisiyya. In the same year he fell upon the great pilgrim caravan returning from Mecca. In the next year, he was defeated by an ‘Abbasid commander.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zindiq</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zendiq</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zendik</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Muslim heretic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zindiq also refers to Manichaean or supporter of any other pre-Islamic Persian religion.<br /><br />Zindīq is taken from Persian word Zendik which means free interpreter, free thinker, atheist or heretic. The word Zindiq is applied by Muslims to individuals whom are considered to hold views or follow practices that are contrary to central Islamic dogmas. Starting in medieval times, Muslims began to refer to Manichaeans, apostates, pagans, heretics, and those who antagonized Islam as Zindiqs, the charge being punishable by death. As of the late 8th century the Abbasid caliphs began to hunt down and exterminate freethinkers in large numbers, putting to death anyone on mere suspicion of being a Zindiq. In modern times, it is occasionally used to denote members of religions, sects or cults that originated in a Muslim society but are considered heretical or independent faiths by mainstream Muslims.<br /><br />The word Zendiq is now known to have derived from Middle Persian Pahlavi word of zandik or zendik, consisting of zand plus îk (attribution suffix in Pahlavi language) referring to those who resorted to interpretation in their understanding of Zoroastrian faith.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zand is derived from Avestan zanda found in two instances in Avesta whose root is unknown today. However, it has seemingly implied sinners such as bandits, thieves, enchanters, renegades and liars. A different, common view on the etymology of the term is that it alluded to "free interpretation" or "commentary" on the sacred texts, with the same root that occurs in the word Zand, referring to the commentary on the Avesta. The first recorded use of the word zandik is probably on the inscription in Naqsh-e Rajab attributed to Kartir, high-priest and advisor of Sassanid emperors Hormizd I, Bahram I and Bahram II, in which it explicitly denotes Manichaeans as "the ones with corrupted faith".<br /><br />Some of the famous and alleged Zendiqs in Islamic history are:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Nawas<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Rhazes<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mansour Al-Hallaj<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Shakir<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Tammar Muttabib<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Isa al-Warraq<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Ibn al-Rawandi<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abul Ala'a al-Ma'ari<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Yazdan ibn Badhan<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Bashar ibn Burd<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Yazdanbakht<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abdulkarim ibn abi Al-Ouja'<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Ali ibn Ubaydah Rihani<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Aban Abdulhamid Lahiqi<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zendiq</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zendik</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zandik</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Atheist</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Free Thinker</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Heretic</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zindiq</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><br />skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-5093665399275512262023-09-20T04:16:00.006-07:002023-10-02T00:52:16.144-07:002023: Zionists - Ziya ud-Din<p> <b style="font-size: x-large; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zionists</span></i></b></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zionists</i>. Adherents of a Jewish ideology that has focused on establishing a Jewish homeland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The name of “Zionism” comes from the hill Zion, the hill on which the Temple of Jerusalem was situated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zionism wanted to establish this homeland in Palestine, but there were many discussions on alternatives, where the use of land in Africa was perceived as a faster route to the final establishment of a Jewish state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The main organization of Zionism has always been The World Zionist organization.<br /><br />Inside Zionism there have been several orientations: spiritual and cultural; work ethical; Marxist; and Orthodox Judaism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The central motivation of Zionism was the Diaspora, which started with the exile to Babylon in the sixth century B.C.T.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By focusing on the Diaspora, the Jews living around the world in many different countries, shared a feeling of being in exile from their true homeland in Palestine, with Jerusalem as its real capital.<br /><br />In addition to being in exile, the Jews had also been waiting for the return of the Messiah, the savior that would be sent by God to come and re-establish Israel and justice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But over time, more and more Jews started to become motivated for a human action in preparation for the coming of the Messiah. Zionism was an expression of man’s will to act in order to fulfill the central promise of the Messianic idea.<br /><br />Socialism had great impact on Zionism, and in early stages of Jewish immigration to Palestine, a large part of the immigrants were Marxists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The system of kibbutzes was formed after Socialist ideas. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The kibbutzes were frequently used when Jews came to Palestine and settled.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The kibbutzes served as a mini-state, where people could live, work, go to school and have health services.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The kibbutzes were central in Jewish immigration right up until the formation of the State of Israel.<br /><br />Zionism, following the establishment of the state of Israel, was based on two principles: Upholding the State of Israel, and the right of any Jew to go to Israel, if he or she wants.<br /><br />A brief history of the Zionist movement reads as follows:<br /><br />Around the eighteenth century, the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn initiated a Jewish secularism which focused on Jewish national identity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1862, the German Jew Moses Hess published the book Rome and Jerusalem where he called for a return of Jews to Palestine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also said that Jews would never succeed by assimilating into European societies.<br /><br />In 1881, pogroms in Russia resulted in heavy emigration to the United States.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some Russian Jews also emigrated to Palestine, as they were motivated by religious ideas of Palestine as a Jewish homeland.<br /><br />In 1893, Nathan Birnbaum introduced the term Zionism.<br /><br />In 1896, the Austrian Jew Theodor Herzl published the book The Jewish State, in which he declared that the cure for anti-Semitism was the establishment of a Jewish state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As he saw it, the best place to establish this state was in Palestine, but the precise geographical location of the proposed Jewish state was not set in stone.<br /><br />In 1897, the First Zionist Congress was held in Basel in Switzerland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>200 delegates attended.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Basel Program was formulated which called for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, where Jews could live safely under public law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The World Zionist organization was also established, and established its headquarters in Vienna, Austria.<br /><br />In 1903, Great Britain offered an area of 15,500 square kilometers in Uganda in Africa, an area of virgin land to the Jews of the world, where a Jewish homeland could be established.<br /><br />In 1905, the Seventh Zionist Congress refused Britain’s Uganda proposal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Israel Zangwill formed the Jewish Territorial organization, which sought to find territory for a Jewish state, no matter where this would be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His organization got only few supporters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1905, after the Russian revolution was defeated, many young Jews emigrated from Russia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1917, the Balfour Declaration, issued by the British foreign secretary, gave official British support to the work on establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine.<br /><br />In 1922, Great Britain gave the World Zionist organization the mandate to administer Jewish immigration and settlement in Palestine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This immigration and settlement was funded by American Jews.<br /><br />In 1939, the British “White Paper” gave the Arabs of Palestine de facto control over Jewish immigration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1942, a call was issued from Zionist leaders for the establishment of a Jewish state in all of western Palestine, when World War II ended.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was founded.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The World Zionist organization continued to back Jewish immigration to Israel.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In the 1970s, the World Zionist organization used its influence to help Jews in the Soviet Union to immigrate to Israel.<br /><br />On November 10, 1975, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 3379, in which Zionism was declared “racist”, with 72 votes to 35 (32 abstentions).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />On December 16, 1991, the United Nations General Assembly revoked Resolution 3379, with 111 votes to 25 (with 13 abstentions).<br /><br />Zionism is a Jewish nationalist movement that has had as its goal the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the ancient homeland of the Jews (Hebrew: Eretz Yisraʾel, “the Land of Israel”). Though Zionism originated in eastern and central Europe in the latter part of the 19th century, it is in many ways a continuation of the ancient nationalist attachment of the Jews and of the Jewish religion to the historical region of Palestine, where one of the hills of ancient Jerusalem was called Zion.<br /><br />In the 16th and 17th centuries a number of “messiahs” came forward trying to persuade Jews to “return” to Palestine. The Haskala (“Enlightenment”) movement of the late 18th century, however, urged Jews to assimilate into Western secular culture. In the early 19th century interest in a return of the Jews to Palestine was kept alive mostly by Christian millenarians. Despite the Haskala, eastern European Jews did not assimilate and in reaction to tsarist pogroms formed the Ḥovevei Ẕiyyon (“Lovers of Zion”) to promote the settlement of Jewish farmers and artisans in Palestine.<br /><br />A political turn was given to Zionism by Theodor Herzl, an Austrian journalist who regarded assimilation as most desirable but, in view of anti-Semitism, impossible to realize. Thus, he argued, if Jews were forced by external pressure to form a nation, they could lead a normal existence only through concentration in one territory. In 1897 Herzl convened the first Zionist Congress at Basel, Switzerland, which drew up the Basel program of the movement, stating that “Zionism strives to create for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law.”<br /><br />The center of the movement was established in Vienna, where Herzl published the official weekly Die Welt (“The World”). Zionist congresses met yearly until 1901 and then every two years. When the Ottoman government refused Herzl’s request for Palestinian autonomy, he found support in Great Britain. In 1903, the British government offered 6,000 square miles (15,500 square km) of uninhabited Uganda for settlement, but the Zionists held out for Palestine.<br /><br />At the death of Herzl in 1904, the leadership moved from Vienna to Cologne, then to Berlin. Prior to World War I, Zionism represented only a minority of Jews, mostly from Russia but led by Austrians and Germans. It developed propaganda through orators and pamphlets, created its own newspapers, and gave an impetus to what was called a “Jewish renaissance” in letters and arts. The development of the Modern Hebrew language largely took place during this period.<br /><br />The failure of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the wave of pogroms and repressions that followed caused growing numbers of Russian Jewish youth to emigrate to Palestine as pioneer settlers. By 1914 there were about 90,000 Jews in Palestine; 13,000 settlers lived in 43 Jewish agricultural settlements, many of them supported by the French Jewish philanthropist Baron Edmond de Rothschild.<br /><br />Upon the outbreak of World War I, political Zionism reasserted itself, and its leadership passed to Russian Jews living in England. Two such Zionists, Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow, were instrumental in obtaining the Balfour Declaration from Great Britain (November 2, 1917), which promised British support for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine. The declaration was included in Britain’s League of Nations mandate over Palestine (1922).<br /><br />In the following years the Zionists built up the Jewish urban and rural settlements in Palestine, perfecting autonomous organizations and solidifying Jewish cultural life and Hebrew education. In March 1925 the Jewish population in Palestine was officially estimated at 108,000, and it had risen to about 238,000 (20 percent of the population) by 1933. Jewish immigration remained relatively slow, however, until the rise of Hitlerism in Europe. Nevertheless, the Arab population feared Palestine eventually would become a Jewish state and bitterly resisted Zionism and the British policy supporting it. Several Arab revolts, especially in 1929 and 1936–39, caused the British to devise schemes to reconcile the Arab and Zionist demands.<br /><br />Hitlerism and the large-scale extermination of European Jews led many Jews to seek refuge in Palestine and many others, especially in the United States, to embrace Zionism. As tensions grew among Arabs and Zionists, Britain submitted the Palestine problem first to Anglo-United States discussion for solution and later to the United Nations, which on November 29, 1947, proposed partition of the country into separate Arab and Jewish states and the internationalization of Jerusalem. The creation of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, brought about the Arab-Israeli war of 1948–49, in the course of which Israel obtained more land than had been provided by the United Nations resolution, and drove out 800,000 Arabs who became displaced persons known as Palestinians. Thus, 50 years after the first Zionist congress and 30 years after the Balfour Declaration, Zionism achieved its aim of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine, but at the same time it became an armed camp surrounded by hostile Arab nations and Palestinian “liberation” organizations engaged in terrorism in and outside of Israel.<br /><br />During the next two decades Zionist organizations in many countries continued to raise financial support for Israel and to encourage Jews to immigrate there. Most Jews, however, reject the view propagated by many very Orthodox Jews in Israel that the Jews outside Israel were living in “exile” and could live a full life only in Israel.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zirids</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zirids</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Ziri</i>). Name of two medieval dynasties in the Muslim west:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The Zirids of North Africa were a Berber dynasty in Tunisia and northern Algeria which ruled from 971 to 1152.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Zirids of Ifriqiya (r. 971-1152) were Berbers of the Sanhaja confederation. Their main capitals were al-Mansuriyya in 971, Kairouan in 1048, and Mahdiya from 1057.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Banu Ziri, clients of the Fatimids, from 935 they were resident in the stronghold of Ashir near Algiers under Ziri ibn Manad, who fell in the service of the Fatimids in 971. Ziri ibn Manad had founded Ashir about 940 as a bulwark against the Zanata Maghrawa, allies of the Umayyads of Cordoba.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He thus rendered service to the Fatimids, especially by relieving al-Mahdiyya when it was besieged by the Khariji Abu Yazid.<br /><br />When the Fatimid al-Mu‘izz li-Din Allah left for Egypt, he appointed Yusuf Buluggin I ibn Ziri (Ziri ibn Manad’s son) governor of Ifriqiya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Buluggin (971-984) became the founder of the Zirid dynasty. Buluggin became the largely independent governor of Tunisia and northern Algeria (Constantine region) and conquered territories in the west stretching as far as Ceuta.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under his successors, there followed violent battles against rival Berber tribes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 995, what were later to be the Zirids of Granada, and in 1007 the Hammadids, broke away.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under Badis (r. 996-1016) an amicable division of the Zirids into two kingdoms took place, one in the west, which went to the Hammadids who lived on the Qal‘a, and the other in the east to the Zirids with Qayrawan as capital.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Mu‘izz (r. 1016-1062) threw off Fatimid suzerainty, but he was defeated by the Arab nomad tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym, sent by the Fatimid Caliph in Cairo al-Mustansir bi-‘llah. Al-Muizz (1016-1062) became subject to the caliph of Baghdad in 1045, whereupon the Fatimids started the Banu Hilal invasion of North Africa in 1057.<br /><br />Under Tamim (1062-1108), Zirid rule became restricted to the coastal towns of Tunisia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His successors made repeated attempts to retake command of the sea from the Normans of Sicily, who, in 1148, took al-Mahdiyya. Under the sovereignty of Roger II of Sicily from 1148, the last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan (r. 1121-1152), finally surrendered Algiers, their last city, to the Almohads in 1152.<br /><br />The Zirids of Granada (r. 1012-1090) were a secondary branch of the Zirids of Ifriqiya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They founded an independent principality with Granada as capital at the time of the dismemberment of the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The founder of this dynasty was Zawi ibn Ziri.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His nephew and successor Habbus ibn Maksan (r. 1025-1038) appointed the Jew Samuel ibn Naghzala as vizier, an unprecedented occurrence in Muslim Spain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The latter’s son Joseph ibn Naghzala endeavored to establish a Jewish principality in Granada but was killed in 1066, together with several thousand Granada Jews.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The citadel of the town was built by Habbus and enlarged by the latter’s son Badis (r. 1038-1073).<br /><br />The Zirids of Granada were the rulers of the taifa kingdoms of Granada which ruled from 1012 to 1090 and Malaga from 1058 to 1090.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their leader, Zawi ibn Ziri (Zavi ibn Ziri) (1012-1019), from 995 hostile pretender to the Zirids of North Africa and leader of the Berber contingents in southern Spain, seized power in Granada following the collapse of the caliphate of Cordoba in 1012.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under his successors, Habbus (r. 1019-1038), Badis (r.1038-1073), and Abdallah (r. 1073-1090), Granada became the most important cultural center of southern Spain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1058, the Zirids also acquired authority over Malaga but were finally ousted by the Almoravids in 1090.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Almoravid governors were installed at Granada and Malaga in 1090.<br /><br />The Zirid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Ṣanhajah Berbers whose various branches ruled in Ifriqiyah (Tunisia and eastern Algeria) and Granada (972–1152). Rising to prominence in the mountains of Kabylie, Algeria, where they established their first capital, Ashir, the Zirids became allies of the Faṭimids of al-Qayrawan. Their loyal support prompted the Faṭimid caliph al-Muʿizz, when moving to his new capital of Cairo (972), to appoint Yusuf Buluggin I ibn Ziri governor of al-Qayrawan and any other territory the Zirids might reclaim from their enemies, the Zanatah tribesmen. The Zirid state under Buluggin accordingly expanded its boundaries westward as far as Sabtah (now Ceuta, a Spanish enclave in Morocco) on the Strait of Gibraltar. In the reign of Badis ibn al-Manṣur (995–1016) it was divided between the Zīrids at al-Qayrawān in the east and their kinsmen, the Ḥammadids, at Qalʿah (in Algeria). In 1048, encouraged by economic prosperity, the Zirids under al-Muʿizz (1016–62) declared themselves independent of the Faṭimids and their Shiʿi doctrine. The Faṭimids responded (1052) by sending the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Bedouins into the Maghrib. Cut off from traditional routes to the east, North Africa fell into a state of anarchy—the countryside was devastated, the peasant economy was ruined, and many settled communities reverted to nomadism. The Zirids, forced to abandon al-Qayrawan, retreated to Mahdiyah, but their shattered state was not long able to survive coastal attacks by Sicilian Normans and finally fell in 1148. In 1067, the Ḥammadids managed to relocate in Bejaia (Bougie), where they carried on a lively trade until conquered by the Almohads in 1152.<br /><br />Another group of Zirids, who had gone to Spain to serve in the Berber army of the Umayyad al-Muẓaffar (1002–08), established themselves as an independent dynasty (1012–90) in Granada under Zawi ibn Ziri. At the beginning of the 11th century the Zirids were given the province of Ilbira by the Spanish Umayyad caliph Sulayman al-Mustaʿin and by 1038 had extended this kingdom to include Jaen and Cabra. Malaga was taken from the Ḥammudids c. 1058 by Badis ibn Ḥabbus and became the second center of Zirid rule in Spain. Despite their support of the Almohad Yusuf ibn Tashufīn at the Battle of Zallaqah in 1086, these Zirids were overthrown by the Almohads in 1090.<br /><br />A list of Zirid rulers includes:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abul-Futuh Sayf ad-Dawla Buluggin ibn Ziri (973-983)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abul-Fat'h al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (983-995)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Qatada Nasir ad-Dawla Badis ibn Mansur (995-1016)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Sharaf ad-Dawla al-Muizz ibn Badis (1016–1062) declared independence from the Fatimids 1048, changed capital to Mahdia in 1057 after Kairouan was lost to the Banu Hilal.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abu Tahir Tamim ibn al-Muizz (1062–1108); changed the khutba to refer to the Abbasid Caliph in 1087, marking a final break with the Fatimids.<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Yahya ibn Tamim (1108–1131)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Ali ibn Yahya (1115–1121)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Abul-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali (1121–1152)<br /><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Banu Ziri</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zirids</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><p><span style="font-size: large;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</span></i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali Ziryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) (</span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zorab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">) ("The Blackbird of Cordoba") (c.789-857).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">The greatest musician of Muslim Spain.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">He lived during the ninth century.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">He was first at the court of the ‘Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, then entered the service of the Aghlabid Ziyadat Allah I (r. 817-838), afterwards went to the court of the Spanish Umayyad al-Hakam I and was on intimate terms with the latter’s successor ‘Abd al-Rahman II.</span></span></p><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><br />Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi', nicknamed Ziryab, was a Persian or Kurdish polymath: a poet, musician, singer, cosmetologist, fashion designer, celebrity, trendsetter, strategist, astronomer, botanist and geographer. He was active at the Umayyad court of Córdoba in Islamic Iberia. The name "Ziryab" (Blackbird) was given to him for his dark complexion, eloquence, and melodious voice. He first achieved notoriety at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, Iraq, his birthplace, as a performer and student of the great musician and composer, Ishaq al-Mawsili.<br /><br />Ziryab was a gifted pupil of Ishaq al-Mawsili. He had to leave Baghdad when his skills as a musician surpassed those of his teacher. He moved to Córdoba in the southern Iberian Peninsula and was accepted as court musician in the court of Abd al-Rahman II of the Umayyad Dynasty (822-52).<br /><br />By the 8th century Muslims occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula. While Muslims dominated the Iberia territorially, Christians and Jews were very prominent throughout al-Andalus. Before the Islamic occupation of Iberia several cultures such as Christians, Iberians, Berbers, and Jews created many unique musical styles in Iberia. Christians or Muslims were most likely the key contributors to the music of the early decades during the Muslim occupation of Spain. After the occupation of Persia by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century, Arabs were greatly influenced by the richness of Persian culture and way of life. As the Islamic armies conquered more ground during their wars in the centuries that followed, this culture was spread from western China to the Iberian Peninsula and music was no exception. During the 8th and 9th centuries, a wealth of musicians and artists flocked toward Iberia. While many talented artists immigrated to Iberia, Ziryab surpassed all of them with his extraordinary musical talent.<br /><br />There are conflicting tales of the early years of Ziryab. Ziryab was most likely born in Baghdad and was trained in the art of music from a young age. During that time Baghdad was the center of music and culture in the East. According to many sources the accomplished and talented musician Ishaq al-Mawsili was Ziryab’s teacher. The debate continues about how he arrived in al-Andalus, but it is clear he offended his patron or a powerful figure with his musical talent.<br /><br />One account recorded by al-Maqqari says that Ziryab outperformed his mentor Ishaq al-Mawsili at a concert. Out of jealousy, Ziryab was told to leave the city or face the penalty of death.<br /><br />Ziryab left Baghdad during the reign of Harun al-Rashid in the year 820. He then traveled first to Damascus in (Syria), then to Ifriqiyya (Tunisia), where he lived at the Aghlabid court of Ziyadat Allah (ruled 816-837). Ziryab fell out with Ziyadat Allah but was invited to Al-Andalus by the Umayyad prince, Al-Hakam I. He found on arrival in 822 that the prince had died, but the prince's son, Abd ar-Rahman II, renewed his father's invitation. Ziryab settled in Córdoba where he was honored with a monthly salary of 200 gold dinars, he soon became even more celebrated as the court's aficionado of food, fashion, singing and music. He introduced standards of excellence in all these fields as well as setting new norms for elegant and noble manners. Ziryab became such a prominent cultural figure, and was given a huge salary from Abd al Rahman II. He was an intimate companion of the prince and established a school of music that trained singers and musicians which influenced musical performance for at least two generations after him. In the 9th century he introduced the New Year celebration based on the Iranian holiday Nowruz to the courts of Andalusia in Iberia and thence to Europe.</span><div><span style="font-size: large;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Al-Maqqari states in his <i>Nafh al-Tib</i> (Fragrant Breeze): "There never was, either before or after him (Ziryab), a man of his profession who was more generally beloved and admired".</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab is said to have improved the Oud by adding a fifth pair of strings and using an eagle's beak or quill instead of a wooden pick. Ziryab also dyed the four strings a color to symbolize the Aristotelian humors, and the fifth string to represent the soul. He is said to have created a unique and influential style of musical performance, and written songs that were performed in Iberia for generations. He was a great influence on Spanish music and is considered the founder of the Andalusian music traditions of North Africa. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab's Baghdadi musical style became very popular in the court of Abd al-Rahman II. Ziryab also became the example of how a courtier, a person who attended aristocratic courts, should act. According to Ibn Hayyan, in common with erudite men of his time, Ziryab was well versed in many areas of classical study such as astronomy, history, and geography.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to al-Tifashi, Ziryab appears to have popularized an early song-sequence, which may have been a precursor to the <i>nawba</i> (originally simply a performer's "turn" to perform for the prince), or <i>nuba,</i> which is known today as the classical Arabic music of North Africa, though the connections are tenuous at best.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Abd al-Rahman II was a great patron of the arts and Ziryab was given a great deal of freedom. He established one of the first schools of music in Cordoba. This school incorporated both male and female students, who were very popular amongst the aristocracy of the time. According to Ibn Hayyan, Ziryab developed various tests for them. If a student didn't have a large vocal capacity, for instance, he would put pieces of wood in their jaw to force them to hold their mouth open. Or he would tie a sash tightly around the waist to make them breathe in a particular way, and he would test incoming students by having them sing as loudly and as long a note as they possibly could to see whether they had lung capacity.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to the main source, Ibn Hayyan, Ziryab had eight sons and two daughters. Five of the sons and both daughters became musicians of some prominence.<span style="text-wrap: nowrap;"> </span> These children kept their father's music school alive, but the female slave singers he trained also were regarded as reliable sources for his repertoire in the following generation.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab started a vogue by changing clothes according to the weather and season. He suggested different clothing for mornings, afternoons and evenings. The existence of separate winter and summer clothing styles is attributed to Ziryab along with the luxurious dress style still found in Morocco today. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"></sup></span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab created a new type of deodorant to get rid of bad odors and also promoted morning and evening baths and emphasized the maintenance of personal hygiene. Ziryab is thought to have invented an early toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Iberia. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are not currently known, but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste".</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">According to Al-Maqqari before the arrival of Ziryab, all the people of al-Andalus, in the Cordoban court, wore their long hair parted in the middle and hung down loose down to the shoulders, men and women both. The cultural innovator, Ziryab had his hair cut with bangs down to his eyebrows and straight across his forehead, new short hairstyles leaving the neck, ears and eyebrows free. He popularized shaving among men and set new haircut trends. Royalty used to wash their hair with rose water, but Ziryab introduced the use of salt and fragrant oils to improve the hair's condition.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab was a major trendsetter of his time creating trends in fashion, hairstyles, and hygiene. His students took these trends with them throughout Europe and North Africa.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziuryab was an arbiter of culinary fashion and taste, who also revolutionized the local cuisine by introducing new fruit and vegetables such as asparagus, and by introducing the three-course meal served on leathern tablecloths, insisting that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of soup, the main course, and dessert. He also introduced the use of crystal as a container for drinks, which was more effective than metal. This claim is supported by accounts of him cutting large crystal goblets. Prior to his time, food was served plainly on platters on bare tables, as was the case with the Romans. </span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ziryab revolutionized the court at Cordoba and made it the stylistic capital of its time. Whether introducing new clothes, styles, foods, hygiene products, or music, Ziryab changed Andalusian culture forever. The musical contributions of Ziryab alone are staggering, laying the early groundwork for classic Spanish music. Ziryab transcended music and style and became a revolutionary cultural figure in 8th and 9th century Iberia. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="line-height: 1; text-wrap: nowrap; unicode-bidi: isolate;"></sup></span></p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali Ziryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><br /><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi' </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";">see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><br /><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><br /><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zaryab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><br /><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zorab</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><br /><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Blackbird</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif";"> see </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziryab, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali</i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", "serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziyad ibn Abihi</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyad ibn Abihi</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan</i>) (d. 673). Viceroy of Iraq under Caliph Mu‘awiya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His name, “Ziyad, son of his father” indicates that the name of his father was not known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was a member of the Banu Thaqafi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having at first served ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, he caught the eye of the Umayyad Caliph Mu‘awiya I and when Ziyad rejected the first advances, Mu‘awiya recognized him as a son of Abu Sufyan, thus making him his half-brother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was given the governorship of Basra, and in his famous inaugural speech announced a strict program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This having led to order in town and province, Mu‘awiya entrusted him also with Kufa, where he restored order as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To checkmate, the ‘Alid opposition and that of the Arab tribes settled in Iraq, he moved 50,000 Bedouins to Khurasan.<br /><br />Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan was a Muslim general and administrator and a member of the clan of the Umayyads.<br /><br />Ziyad was born in Taif (a city in modern day Saudi Arabia) to a member of the Banu Fuqaim, of unknown parentage.<br /><br />The Umayyad Mu`awiyah Sufyan, governor at Damascus, opposed Ali's rule and repeatedly tried to lure his kinsman Ziyad to his camp.<br /><br />In 661, Ali was assassinated and Mu`awiyah succeeded as Caliph. In 662, he sent Mughira, his governor at Kufa, to Istakhr to recall Ziyad to Damascus and Ziyad obeyed.<br /><br />In 664, Muawiya and Ziyad reached an agreement and the Caliph recognized Ziyad as a brother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ziyad then adopted the name ibn Abi Sufyan and Muawiya appointed him governor at Basra, replacing the Umayyad `Abd Allah, who had proved a great general but a poor administrator. This act was then and later considered a scandal in Islam, criticized in contemporary satire and by the 13th century historian Ibn al-Athir:<br /><br />Critics wrote that Muawiya's decision to declare Ziyad as his brother, and thus allowing Ziyad to receive inheritance from Abu Sufyan, to be against the Sharia.<br /><br />In 670, Mughira governor of Kufa died of plague, and the caliph Mu'awiya handed the administration of that city to Ziyad as well. Ziyad altered the city's plan from seven districts to quarters. Hujr ibn Adi soon agitated against Ziyad, and Ziyad placed him in irons and shipped him to Damascus.<br /><br />Ziyad also planned great mosques where he ruled, as a symbol of his supremacy and that of his religion.<br /><br />In 671, Ziyad sent 50,000 Arab troops to the Iranian oasis of Merv as a colony. This colony retained its native Kufan sympathies and became the nucleus of Khurasan.<br /><br />Ziyad died in 673, and Mu`awiyah appointed his son Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad as successor.<br /><br />In Shia traditions, Ziyad's notoriety as a brutal master outlived him. By tradition, Hasan ibn Ali used to say that the testimony of four companions will not be accepted and those four are Mu'awiya, Amr bin Aas, Mugheera (bin Shuba) and Ziyad (bin Abi Sufyan).<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyad ibn Abihi</i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziyadids</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyadids</i>. Yemeni dynasty which ruled from 819 to 1018 with its capital at Zabid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dynasty was founded by Muhammad ibn Ziyad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His grandson Abu’l-Jaysh Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ruled for an extremely long period (r.904-981).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 989, ‘Abd Allah ibn Qahtan, who restored the power of the Ya‘furids for a short time by taking and burning Zabid, put an end to the dynasty of the Ziyadids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The actual ruler by that time was the Abyssinian slave vizier al-Husayn ibn Salama who, by making pilgrim roads with mosques and wells, secured a long-lasting fame.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was followed by his slave Marjan as independent vizier, who in turn divided the government between his two slaves Najah, who founded the dynasty of the Najahids who were to rule in the northern provinces, and Nafis (or Anis) who was to rule in the southern provinces, including the capital.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The Ziyadid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty that ruled western Yemen from 819 until 1018 from the capital city of Zabid. The dynasty was formed by the Abbasid Caliph, al-Ma'mun, to manage 'Alid Shi'a influence. The first ruler was Muhammad ibn Ziyad, the Ziyad family quickly declared independence.<br /><br />In 1018, the city of Zabid fell to the Najahid dynasty under Najah after the Ziyadi ruler was murdered.<br /><br />The ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Maʾmūn transferred the rule of Yemen to the Ziyād family to offset the intrigues of the ʿAlids—the Shīʿite opponents of the ʿAbbāsids—who had made southern Arabia their headquarters. The first Ziyādid, Muḥammad ibn Ziyād, firmly established himself along the Yemeni coast (Tihāmah) with the support of a Khorāsānian army and cavalry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was also recognized by the tribal chiefs along the edges of the highlands. Ṣanʿāʾ in the interior, however, remained under ʿAbbāsid control, and, when the Banū Yaʿfur—the pre-Islāmic nobility—set up an independent dynasty there in 859, they soon forced the Ziyādī ruler Ibrāhīm ibn Muḥammad (859–902) to cede territory in return for tribute. More territory, including Zabīd itself, was lost to the sectarian Qarmaṭians after Ibrāhīm’s death, and records of his successor were obscured. Abū al-Jaysh Isḥāq, however, restored Ziyādid power and territory in a celebrated reign (904–981).<br /><br />In 989 the Ziyādid capital was seized and burned by the Banū Yaʿfur, and effective power passed from the Ziyādids to their Ethiopian slave-viziers. The Mamelūke (slave) al-Ḥusayn ibn Salāmah, who had preserved the kingdom from collapse after the Yaʿfurid attack, was succeeded by his slave Marjān, who divided the government of the kingdom between two other Mamelūkes, the northern provinces falling to Najah, the capital and southern regions coming under the rule of Nafīs. In 1018 the last Ziyādid ruler was murdered by Nafīs. Control of Zabīd finally fell to Najāḥ, however, and in 1022 the Najāḥids began their rule in Yemen.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziyaniyya</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyaniyya</i>. Branch of the Shadhili order, with its headquarters at Qenadha to the southwest of Figuig in Morocco.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abi Ziyan (d. 1733).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the end of the nineteenth century, their specialty was the guiding and protection of caravans through the Sahara.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziyarid</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyarid</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeyarids</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dynasty of vassals of the Samanids, founded by Mardawij ibn Ziyar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They reigned over Tabaristan and Gurgan from 927 to 1090.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their adherence to Sunni and not Shi‘a Islam distinguished them from almost all the other Daylami dynasties.<br /><br />The Ziyarids were one of the many semi-autonomous petty dynasties that flourished in northern Iran during the tenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The family claimed descent from the pre-Islamic local ruler of Gilan, a small province near the southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea and was definitely related to the dominant “noble” clan in the Dakhil district near the mouth of the Safid Rud River.<br /><br />The region from which the Ziyarids came was famous for the military qualities of its inhabitants: the anonymous Persian geographical treatise Hudud al-alam noted that in Dakhil and adjacent districts agriculture was left to the women and “the men have no other business but warfare.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their aggressive energy was usually dissipated in constant tribal conflict.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, during the ninth and tenth centuries, these warriors tended to enter the armed forces of various Muslim powers and occasionally to succeed in establishing principalities of their own.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was the pattern followed by the founder of the Ziyarid “dynasty,” Mardavij ibn Ziyar.<br /><br />Mardavij first appeared in the service of another Dailamite general, Asfar, who was himself acting as a vassal of the Samanid dynasty of eastern Iran.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the result of some rather murky intrigues, Mardavij was able in 930 to massacre the chiefs of the tribe to which Asfar belonged and then to persuade most of Asfar’s remaining troops to defect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Asfar then fled, and Mardavij went on to conquer a sizable territory stretching from Gorgan in northeastern Iran to Hamadan and Dinawar in the west and Ahwaz in the south.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After these successes, Mardavij apparently began plans for an assault on Baghdad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Supposedly he was scheming to destroy the Abbasid caliphate, to restore the Iranian empire, or even to conquer the whole world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These grandiose plans were abruptly ended in 935 when Mardavij was assassinated by some of his four thousand Turkish slave-troops (mamluks), who were outraged by his abuse of them (and perhaps alarmed by the extent of his ambitions).<br /><br />Most of Mardavij’s conquests were seized after his death by rivals, notably the Buyids, another family of Dailamite soldiers of fortune.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the Dailamite/Gilani tribal contingents in his army remained loyal to his brother Vushmgir (935-967), who was thus able to salvage control of the Caspian provinces with his principal base of power in Gorgan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Vushmgir and his successors retained some measure of autonomy over this area by voluntarily acting as the vassals of their more powerful neighbors, who included the Buyids but more typically the rulers of eastern Iran: the Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Seljuks, in succession.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of the later Ziyarid rulers, only one, Shams al-Ma’ali Qabus (978-1012), enjoyed relative independence and was recognized as a legitimate ruler by the Abbasid caliphate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Ziyarid dependence on the protection of the eastern Iranian dynasties and the recognition of the caliphs may explain why they, unlike many of the other dynasties of northwestern Iran, were careful to adhere to Sunni Islam in their religious policy.<br /><br />The Seljuks took direct control of the Caspian provinces toward the middle of the eleventh century, but some petty Ziyarid rulers survived this takeover.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The last known member of the dynasty was Gilan Shah (fl. 1080s?).<br /><br />Politically, the Ziyarids were of little significance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They did make some important contributions to the cultural history of their period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Qabus extended the hospitality of his court in Gorgan to many scholars, notably the scientist and antiquarian Biruni, who dedicated his Al-athar al-baqiyya (Surviving Monuments or Chronology) to Qabus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Qabus’s grandson, Kay Ka’us, is especially noteworthy as the author of the Qabusnama, one of the finest examples of the Persian andarz (“mirror for princes”) genre of literature.<br /><br />An interesting feature Ziyarid dynasty<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is the tower Gonbad e Ghaboos built during this era. The tomb is one of the earliest architectural monuments with a dated inscription surviving in post-Islamic Iran. The inscription reads:<br /><br />"In the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful; this Tower was built by the Amir Shams ol-Moali, son of the Amir, Qabus son of Voshmgir, who ordered it built during his lifetime in the lunar year 397 and the solar year 375" (1007AD).<br /><br />The tomb, built of fired brick, is an enormous cylinder capped by a conical roof. The circular plan, broken by 10 flanges, is 56 feet in diameter, and the walls are 17 feet thick. The height from base to tip is 160 feet.<br /><br />There were 6 rulers (amirs) in the Ziyarid dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They ruled as follows:<br /><br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Mardavij 928-934<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Voshmgeer Ziyar 934-967<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Zahirodoleh Behsotoon 967-976<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Shamsol-Mo'ali Abolhassan Ghaboos Wushmgir 976-1012 (the aforementioned tower is his tomb)<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Falakol-Mo'ali Manuchehr Ghabus 1012-1031<br /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>* Anushiravan Manouchehr 1031-1043<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zeyarids</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziyarid</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ziya ud-Din Tabatabai, Sayyid</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziya ud-Din Tabatabai, Sayyid</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Ziya ud-Din Tabatabai</i>). Civilian leader of the Iranian nationalist revolt of 1921 which brought Reza Pahlavi to power.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sayyid Ziya ud-Din Tabatabai</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ziya ud-Din Tabatabai, Sayyid</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-55918941408296958202023-09-19T06:19:00.008-07:002023-10-02T00:53:27.590-07:002023: Zoroastrians - Zubayr<p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zoroastrians</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zoroastrians</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Practitioners of Zoroastrianism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zoroastrianism is the religion of pre-Islamic Iran founded by the prophet Zoroaster.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zoroastrianism became the official creed of the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanid empires.<br /><br />The fundamental tenets of the Zoroastrian faith are set forth in the Avesta (meaning something like “authoritative utterance”), a collection of theological and ritual texts in the Old Iranian language of Zoroaster’s own hymns, the Gathas (which form the core of the Avesta, only a small part of which survives), and in a later dialect called Younger Avestan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Part of the Middle Persian Zand, a translation and commentary on the Avestan text, also survives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A number of theological works that reflect ancient traditions survive in Pahlavi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other sources include the works of Greek and Latin authors, the inscriptions of the Achaemenids and Sasanids, and the writings of later Arab historians.<br /><br />Zoroaster’s tribe practiced a polytheistic religion akin to Vedic Hinduism, in which offerings were made through fire to powerful gods, the daevas (Sanskrit, deva); a drink made of the intoxicant haoma (Sanskrit, soma) was prepared ritually (Avestan, yasna; Sanskrit, yajna); and sacred verses (Avestan, manthra; Sanskrit, mantra) were composed by priests.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In pagan Iran, as in Vedic India, the gods were seen to personify both human characteristics and natural phenomena and to uphold cosmic order (Sanskrit, rta; Avestan, asha; Old Persian, arta; Greek, arete).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zoroaster, himself a priest learned in ritual and trained in the composition of religious poetry, was troubled by the often-amoral behavior ascribed to the daevas and by the violence practiced in their cult and seen in the human and natural world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The answer to his questions came in the revelation of a cosmic dualism proclaimed in all its essentials in the Gathas and amplified, though never altered in its ethical character, in all later Zoroastrian literature, notably the Pahlavi Bundahishn (Creation).<br /><br />According to the Gathas and other texts, Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, and Angra Mainyu, the Destructive Spirit (Pahlavi, Ohrmazd, Ahriman) existed from eternity as wholly separate entities, the first entirely good and all-knowing but not all-powerful, the second evil and implacably hostile.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ahura Mazda, whose desire is increase and beneficence, created the world and invited Angra Mainyu to forsake evil and to partake of the goodness of material being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Angra Mainyu refused, promising instead to corrupt the world, but Ahura Mazda in his omniscience knew that his adversary should be trapped, defeated, and cast from existence in time, lest he invade the material creation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The creator had formed the world through seven lesser divinities, evocations of himself, called the Amesha Spentas (“bounteous immortals”), who guard and personify various of the good creations, while embodying divine attributes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, Asha Vahishta (“best righteousness”) protects the creation of fire, which with its warmth, light and energy is said to pervade all the other creations. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It remains the living icon of Zoroastrians, who are often mistakenly called fire worshipers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The cosmic order or rightness Asha Vahishta represents should likewise pervade the moral, spiritual, and temporal worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Amesha Spentas in their turn emanated lesser divinities, the yazatas (“beings worthy to be worshipped”), among whom are gods of the pagan pantheon whose moral qualities are consonant with Zoroastrianism, such as Mithra (Sanskrit, Mitra), the lord of covenants.<br /><br />The fravashis, or incorruptible spirits of men, are said to have made a primordial covenant with their creator to assume physical form and to aid Ahura Mazda in the cosmic struggle against evil, but in the present, “mixed” state of the world (Pahlavi, gumezishn), in which the good creations have been polluted through the invasion of Ahriman, the souls of men (Pahlavi, ruwan) possess free will.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are positively enjoined to procreate, to enjoy in moderation the good things of life, and to further the Good Religion, as Zoroastrianism is called by its adherents, through good thoughts, words, and deeds. Ultimately a savior (Avestan, Saoshyant) will be born of the preserved seed of Zoroaster, the dead will be resurrected and judged, the damned will be annihilated, and the righteous will enjoy eternal earthly bliss.<br /><br />At about the age of seven (fifteen in ancient times), the Zoroastrian becomes a full member of the community and assumes moral responsibility for his or her actions with the ceremony of binding the sacred girdle (New Persian, kusti; the ceremony is called Navjote, “newborn,” among the Parsis).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Particular stress is laid upon observance of the laws of purity, as death and disease are regarded as demonic assaults upon the good creation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Accordingly, corpses are exposed in so-called towers of silence to be picked clean by birds rather than being allowed to pollute earth or fire by interment or cremation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After death, the soul rises to heaven to be judged and is sent to await the resurrection, or the renovation of the world (Pahlavi, frashegird), and final judgment, in paradise, hell, or limbo (Pahlavi, hammistagan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zoroastrian concepts of heaven, hell, salvation by a good shepherd, resurrection, and the last judgment antedate the appearance of these ideas in Judaism and Christianity, and Islam owes to Zoroastrianism, in addition, to the foregoing, the five daily times of prayer, the bridge (Arabic, sirat) of judgment, and the idea of the pre-eternal covenant between God and man (Sura 7:172).<br /><br />All obligatory Zoroastrian rites may be solemnized by priests (the magi, later called mobads) before the ritually pure hearth fire, but around the mid-Achaemenid period a temple cult of fire was instituted, probably in response to the establishment of shrines with images of the yazatas on the Babylonian model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The holiest grade of temple fire, the atakhsh i warahran (Pahlavi, apparently meaning “victorious fire”) is elaborately consecrated and must be kept permanently ablaze.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Three such fires, Adur Burzen Mihr in Parthia, Adur Gushnasp in Media, and Adur Farnbag in Persia, were particularly famed under the Sasanids. Adur Farnbag still burns in a temple outside Yazd, Iran.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />The main feast of the Zoroastrian year is Now Ruz, the vernal new year, which honors fire and anticipates the eternal spring of the renovation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Six other seasonal feasts (Pahlavi, gahambar) commemorate the creation of the sky, water, earth, plants, animals, and man.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In ancient times, the feasts of Mithra and Tiri (Mihragan and Tiragan) were also celebrated in royal splendor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The endowments established by individuals for the regular public celebration of feasts are believed to have provided the model for the Islamic waqf.<br /><br />During the Achaemenid period, Zoroastrians came into contact with Mesopotamian civilization; several alien divinties were adapted to Iranian yazatas; the myth of the deluge was worked into the Indo-Iranian legend of the primal king, Yima (Sanskrit, Yama; New Persian, Jamshid); and the twelve thousand year Babylonian world cycle was fitted to the cosmic drama, with the onslaught of Angra Mainyu dated to the six-thousandth year after creation, and frashegird to the twelve-thousandth year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most significantly, a god of time, Zurvan, was established in priestly doctrine as the single progenitor of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This heretical doctrine, expunged from Zoroastrianism after the Sasanid period and never pervasive in the faith, may have evolved as a response to Western monist doctrines.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Although Zurvanism, established in Persia, was the official doctrine of the Sasanids, the ethical dualism of the religion was never altered, and the Zoroastrians retained their unique and separate character among the great religions as adherents of cosmic dualism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was little proselytism, although the faith had been embraced by various Iranian peoples and by a few other nations with close cultural and dynastic ties to Iran, notably the Armenians, and although Zoroastrian influence on the religions of Iran’s neighbors was strong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The stringent requirements of the faith, and the national traditions intertwined with its teachings, may have combined to repel outsiders and to persuade Iranians that their religion was meant for them alone, for the three great dynasties suffered large foreign communities to flourish in Iran and ruled other lands tolerantly, persecuting infidels only when they proselytized among influential Iranians or were seen to favor an external enemy, such as Christian Byzantium.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the authoritative Pahlavi Denkard (Acts of the Religion) states uncompromisingly that the Zoroastrianism is meant for all men, of all races. Zoroaster’s own Gathas likewise envisage a world faith.<br /><br />Within Iran, two major religions and social movements were born out of Zoroastrianism -- Manichaeism and Mazdakism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were violently suppressed in Iran and left no lasting influence on the faith, although the first became a great and influential religion, from China to Europe, while the second survived the Sasanids to play a role in altered form in early Islam.<br /><br />Zoroastrianism waned gradually in the three centuries following the Arab conquest of Iran in 651 of the Christian calendar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the tenth century, a small group of the faithful from the forcibly islamicized province of Khurasan fled to Gujarat in India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the end of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand Zoroastrians, called Parsis (i.e., Persians), lived in India, mainly in the Bombay area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another twenty thousand remained in Iran, in Tehran, Yazd, and Kerman, survivors of a millennium of systematic persecution and massacre by Islam. Five thousand or more live in other parts of the world, particularly Great Britain and America.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The community, which accepts no converts, is dwindling rapidly through intermarriage and a low birthrate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It adheres conservatively to ancient rituals, but theological learning has suffered greatly from the introduction of theosophical, monist, and other doctrines adopted as a defensive response to British Christian proselytism among the Parsis in the nineteenth century.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zubayda bint Ja‘far</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayda bint Ja‘far</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur) </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(762-832). Wife of the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She is famous for her love of splendor, her liberality to poets and scholars, and for the public works she carried out.<br /><br />Zubayda bint Ja`far ibn Mansur was granddaughter of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur, through his son Ja'far, and cousin (through mothers) of Harun al-Rashid (r.766-809), whom she later married (781).<br /><br />Zubayda went on to become the best known of the Abbasid princesses. She and her husband's exploits are the subjects of The Thousand and One Nights. It is said that her palace 'sounded like a beehive' because she employed one hundred women maids who had memorized the Qur'an.<br /><br />Zubayda is particularly remembered for the contributions she made to the ulema and the poor, and for the series of wells, reservoirs and artificial pools that provided water for Muslim pilgrims along the route from Baghdad to Mecca and Medina. The route was re-named Darb Zubayda (“Zubayda’s Way”) in her honor.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /><i>Zubayda bint Ja'far ibn Mansur</i></span> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayda bint Ja‘far</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubair ibn al-'Awwam</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Hawari</i> - “the Apostle”) (594-656). Cousin of the Prophet and nephew of Khadija.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was one of the earliest converts to Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With his wife, Asthma bint Abi Bakr, he had three sons who also became known in early Islam: ‘Abd Allah, ‘Urwa, and Mus‘ab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He took part in all the battles and campaigns of the Prophet and was renowned for his gallantry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His epithet “the Apostle” was given him by the Prophet on account of his services as a spy in the conflict with the Banu Qurayza.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the conflict between ‘A’isha and ‘Ali, he was on the side of the Prophet’s widow, but withdrew from the Battle of the Camel and was treacherously killed in 656 in Basra (Iraq).<br /><br />Zubayr (Zubair) ibn al-Awwam was a companion of Muhammad and later one of the most successful commanders of the Rashidun army.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was born in Mecca (Arabia) in 594. He first served under Prophet Muhammad in various military expeditions and was a commander of one of the four armies that entered Mecca during the Conquest of Mecca. He later served under the Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He commanded a regiment in the decisive Battle of Yarmouk, fought in 636. Later in 640, he commanded the reinforcements sent to capture Amr ibn al-As in Egypt. Zubayr was the most successful field commander during the Muslim conquest of Egypt. On his death bed, Caliph Umar selected Zubayr along with five other individuals, from whom one Caliph would be chosen to succeed him.<br /><br />Zubayr kept himself away from state politics and military affairs after the death of Caliph Umar. Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656, and when 'A'isha (Ayesha), wife of Prophet Muhammad, raised the cry for the vengeance of blood of 'Uthman, Zubayr along with another influential personality, Talha ibn Ubaidullah, joined 'A'isha and marched to Basra, where 4000 people, who had joined the rebels to besiege Caliph Uthman's house, were killed. 'Ali, marched to Basra, where the army of 'Ali and that of 'A'isha agreed upon a pact to aid the Caliphate in dealing with the rebels who killed 'Uthman. At night, however, a battle started between the two armies erupted. The battle that ensued is known as Battle of Camel. Zubayr, unwilling to fight against 'Ali, left the battlefield.<br /><br />Zubayr left the battlefield and was killed during prayers by one of the soldiers of Ali's army who had been chasing him.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hawari, al-</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Apostle</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubair ibn al-'Awwam</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-</i> (1830-1913).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arab slave trader who built his own principality in southeastern Sudan.<br /><br />A Sudanese Arab slave trader in the late 19th-century, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur (also Sebehr Rahma or Rahama Zobeir) later became a pasha and Sudanese governor. His reputation as a nemesis of General Charles Gordon meant he was bestowed a near-mythic status in England, where he was referred to as "the richest and worst", a "Slaver King" "who [had] chained lions as part of his escort".<br /><br />Born in 1830, al-Zubayr came from the Gemaab section of the Ja'Alin tribe in Northern Sudan. Al-Zubayr was raised and educated in northern Sudan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He first entered southern Sudan to trade and to raid for slaves in 1856.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He then began his large-scale business when he left Khartoum with a small army to set up a network of trading forts known as zaribas, focusing his efforts on slave trading and ivory sales.<br /><br />By the mid-1860s, al-Zubayr was the virtual master of the Bahr al-Ghazal province.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Zubayr controlled Bahr al-Ghazal through military conquests and an elaborate system of alliances with local chiefs.<br /><br />In the early 1870s, al-Zubayr’s efforts to expand his activities to the south were frustrated by the fierce resistance of the Zande chief Yambio and the increased efforts of the Egyptian-Sudanese administration to curb slaving.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Afterwards, al-Zubayr maintained an uneasy alliance with the Egyptians in a drive to conquer Darfur to the north.<br /><br />In 1871, at the height of his power, al-Zubayr was visited by Georg Schweinfurth. Two years later, he was granted the title of Governor over Bahr el Ghazal in return for an annual tribute of ivory.<br /><br />Eventually al-Zubayr controlled 30 zaribas, and earned the titles of bey and Pasha, after allying himself, and his lieutenant Rabih az-Zubayr, with the khedive Ismail Pasha briefly during the invasion of Darfur, where he led the southern forces. He was referred to as "the Black Pasha", and ultimately wished to become Governor General.<br /><br />In 1877, General Gordon arrived as the newly appointed Governor of the Sudan and sought to suppress the slavetrade. Al-Zubayr brought his grievances to Cairo, asking for the Governorship of the newly conquered Darfur, but was rejected. Egyptian authorities also prohibited his return to Sudan but allowed him to travel to Istanbul at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.<br /><br />On February 18, 1884, Gordon offered the imprisoned al-Zubayr leadership of the entire Sudan, in addition to his freedom - if he would help the British keep the forces of Muhammad Ahmad at bay. The following month Gordon astonished Europe by recommending that al-Zubayr be named his successor as Governor of Sudan.<br /><br />Eventually, Queen Victoria, Sir Evelyn Baring, William Ewart Gladstone and Nubar Pasha in Cairo, all agreed to allow al-Zubayr the title, but the order was rescinded by the British government, upset with al-Zubayr's slave-raiding practises.<br /><br />Nevertheless, al-Zubayr was put in charge of all the black African forces, as well as sharing command of Arab forces with Hussein Pasha.<br /><br />In March 1885, al-Zubayr was removed from command and imprisoned at Gibraltar, when British forces suspected that he might have negotiated fealty to Ahmad, based on alleged correspondence between them.<br /><br />In August 1887, he was allowed to return to Cairo, and after the 1899 reconquest of the Sudan was permitted to settle in his native country. He established himself on his estates at Geili, some 30 miles north of Khartoum.<br /><br />In retirement Zubayr wrote his memoirs, which were translated into English as <i>Black Ivory: Or, the Story of El Zubeir Pasha, Slaver and Sultan, as Told By Himself</i>.<br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><br /></i></span></span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sebehr Rahma</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rahama Zobeir</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-</i><br /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mansur, al-Zubayr Rahma</i> see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zubayr Rahma Mansur, al-</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><br />skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-69396512113286121772023-09-19T06:18:00.009-07:002023-09-29T01:04:28.776-07:002023: Zubeira - Zuray'ids<p><span style="font-size: large;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zubeiru</span></span></b></span></p><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zubeiru</i></span> (d. 1903).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ruler of the Fula emirate of Adamawa created by his father, Adama.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zubeiru ruled from 1890 to 1893 and during his reign he resisted British encroachment and was forced to spend his last years as a renegade.<br /><br />When Zubeiru succeeded his brother, Sanda, he was considered unstable, and probably suffered from epilepsy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He began a program of Islamic fundamentalist reform.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These reforms along with the perception of him held by his people, made Zubeiru unpopular and weakened his ability to withstand the challenge of Hayatu ibn Sa’id.<br /><br />Hayatu was a great-grandson of the Fula Islamic revolutionary ‘Uthman dan Fodio who had created the empire of which Adamawa was a part.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hayatu came to Adamawa and attracted a large following.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zubeiru felt compelled to fight him but was disastrously defeated in 1892.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hayatu was unable to follow up his victory, however, and later was killed in Bornu.<br /><br />Afterwards, Zubeiru’s chief concern was limiting the encroachment of George Goldie’s Royal Niger Company, which had assumed that its 1886 treaty with Sokoto, the seat of the empire, permitted trade with Adamawa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zubeiru refused to acknowledge the treaty, however, and signed separate agreements in 1893 and 1897.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1900, the British under Frederick Lugard took over the administration of Northern Nigeria from the Royal Niger Company, but Zubeiru refused to submit to British authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lugard considered him the worst slave trader in Africa and determined to bring Adamawa under British control.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />In 1901, British forces stormed and captured Yola, Zubeiru’s capital, but Zubeiru escaped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was replaced there by his brother.<br /><br />Zubeiru and his followers kept on the move.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He briefly attempted to ally with the French and Germans in neighboring Chad and Cameroon but ended up fighting the Germans who massacred most of his remaining troops.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Early in 1903, Zubeiru had the German resident at Marua assassinated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zubeiru began raiding again, as the British kept him on the run.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /><br />Zubeiru was killed in 1903 by Lala warriors who were hunting down slave raiders.<o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma</span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma</i></span> (b. c. 520-d. c. 609).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pre-Islamic Arab poet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Along with Imru’ al-Qays ibn Hujr and al-Nabigha al-Dhubyani, Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma is considered one of the great poets of the pre-Islamic period.<br /><br />Zuhayr, also Zuhair, full name Zuhayr ibn Abî Sûlmâ, belonged to the Muzaynah tribe. His father was a poet. His elder son, Ka'b bin Zuhayr, was also a poet and read poems to Muhammad.<br /><br />His poems can be found in Hammad Ar-Rawiya's anthology, the Mu'allaqat ("the Suspended"), a collection of pre-Islamic poetry. He was one of the Seven Hanged Poets who were reputed to have been honored by hanging copies of their work in the Kaaba at Mecca. He was Umar ibn Khattab's favorite poet.<br /><br />Zuhayr's poetry was written when two Bedouin tribes ended a longstanding hostility. His poems deal with raids and other subjects of nomadic desert life. He also wrote satirical poems and poems about the glory of his tribe, but in his verses, he was less satiric than most of his brother poets. He strove to express deep thoughts in simple words, to be clear and by his clear phrases to teach his people high and noble ideas. He was a man of rank and wealth, the foremost of a family noted for their poetic skill and religious earnestness. In brief, Zuhayr was the gentleman-philosopher among pre-Islamic Arab poets.<br /><br />Although Zuhayr was from the Muzaynah tribe, he lived among the Ghaṭafān. Zuhayr’s father was a poet, his first wife the sister of a poet, and two of his sons were poets. The elder son, Kaʿb, is famous for the poem he recited for the Prophet Muhammad, thereby signalling his acceptance of Islam. Zuhayr’s poem in Al-Muʿallaqāt praises the men who brought peace between the clans of ʿAbs and Dhubyān. In the poem, war is compared to a millstone that grinds those who set it moving, and the poet speaks as one who from a long life has learned humankind’s need for morality. Zuhayr’s extant poetry, available in several Arabic editions, includes other poems of praise and satires.<br /><br /><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zuhayr</span> </i>see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma</i></span><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhair</i></span> see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma</i></span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</i></span> (<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri</i></span>) (<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri</i></span>)(<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Abu Shihab</i></span>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(d. 741/2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Celebrated traditionist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He collected a great amount of hadith and is described as the first to fix hadith in writing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also dealt with chronology, was a critic of poetry and was one of the chief authorities for the biography of the Prophet Muhammad, written by his pupil, Ibn Ishaq.<br /><br />Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, usually called simply Ibn Shihab or al-Zuhri, was if not the founder of Islamic scholarship, then its earliest luminary.<br /><br />As a youth, al-Zuhri left his home in Madinah (Medina), went to Damascus to seek his fortune and was recruited into the administration of the Caliph, Abd al-Malik. The Caliph observed that al-Zuhri's father had supported Ibn al-Zubayr against him in the then recent civil war. However, the Caliph'a policy toward the Zubayrites was reconciliation and his father's politics were not held against him.<br /><br />Abd al-Malik died in 705 but al-Zuhri continued to serve the Umayyid court for the rest of his life. He died in AH 124 (741–2).<br /><br />Some accuse al-Zuhri of having flattered the Umayyads. He taught the son of Caliph Hisham (died AH 125/743). but this did not mean that he supported the Umayyads uncritically. His relationship with the heir to the caliphate, Walid (who ruled for one year after al-Zuhri's death) was so bad that Walid was only restrained from killing him by the Caliph's intervention.<br /><br />Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri is regarded as one of the greatest Sunni authorities on Hadith. The leading critics of Hadith such as Ibn al-Madini, Ibn Hibban, Abu Hatim, Al-Dhahabi and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani are all agreed upon his indisputable authority. He received hadith from many Sahaba (Companions) and numerous scholars among the first and second generations after the Companions narrated from him.<br /><br /><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhri</span> </i>see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</i></span><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Ubaydullah ibn Shihab al-Zuhri</i></span> see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</i></span><br /><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abu Shihab</span> </i>see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</i></span><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Ibn Shihab</i></span> see <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</i></span><br /><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><i>Zuhri, al-</i></span> see <i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Muslim al-</span><o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: JA;">Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad</span></span></b><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad </i>(<i>Nur al-Din Muhammad Zuhuri</i>) (d. 1615).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Persian poet of the school of Herat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His poetry is admired in India where he lived for a long time.</span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><i>Nur al-Din Muhammad Zuhuri</i> see <i>Zuhuri, Nur al-Din Muhammad<o:p></o:p></i></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><strong>Zuray‘ids</strong> </span></div><div class="MsoPlainText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Zuray‘ids</i> (<i>Banu’l-Karam</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dynasty from Aden, which was in power in Yemen from 1138 until the arrival of the Ayyubids in 1174.<br /><br /><i>Banu'l-Karam</i> see <i>Zuray‘ids<o:p></o:p></i></span></div><div><em><br /></em></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-2148222056267027282023-09-15T01:30:00.009-07:002023-11-06T15:30:04.672-08:002023: New Additions (09/15/2023 to Present)<p><b><span style="font-size: large;">Alphabetical Listing of New Additions</span></b></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Amini, Jina Mahsa (10/20/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Huq, Saleemul (11/06/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Kata'ib Hezbollah (09/16/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Khalifa, Khaled (10/16/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Mehrjui, Dariush (10/18/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Mohammadi, Narges (10/07/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Shamil (09/15/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Wali, Yousef (10/22/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Yousafzai, Malala (10/04/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Yusuf (Islam) (09/27/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888</span></p><p><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></p><p><b><span style="font-size: large;">Listing of New Additions by Date</span></b></p><p><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Shamil (09/15/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Kata'ib Hezbollah (09/16/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Yusuf (Islam) (09/27/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Yousafzai, Malala (10/04/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Mohammadi, Narges (10/07/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Khalifa, Khaled (10/16/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Mehrjui, Dariush (10/18/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Amini, Jina Mahsa (10/20/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Wali, Yousef (10/22/2023)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;">Huq, Saleemul (11/06/2023)</span></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-4240329018797666382023-09-15T00:59:00.000-07:002023-09-15T00:59:03.922-07:002023: About God<p><b>The main notoriety I have achieved in this life is based upon my writing. I have written six books (<i>Pan-African Chronology </i>[three volumes], <i>The Muslim Diaspora </i>[two volumes], and <i>The Creation </i>[one volume]) which achieved some notoriety and I have begun two blogs <i>Who's Who in Islam </i>and <i>The Muslim Compendium</i> which have garnered additional notoriety. However, whatever notoriety I have achieved for my writing has always seemed a bit undeserved. Truth be told, I write not for notoriety, but for God. In the coming days, I hope to be able to elaborate on why I do this. However, suffice it to say that every book I write and every blog I begin, begins with a tribute to God. I can only pray that God will continue to find what I write to be an expression of God's will.</b></p><p><b>As Salaam Alaikum,</b></p><p><b>Everett Jenkins</b></p><p><b>Fairfield, California</b></p><p><b>December 2, 2021</b></p><p><b>***********************************************************************************</b></p><p><b>It is now 2023 but I continue to say that any notoriety that I have received is attributable to God. As of September 15, 2023, I am now writing and contributing to three Islam related blogs. In addition to the <i>Who's Who in Islam </i>and <i>The Muslim Compendium </i>blogs referenced above, in 2022, I began a blog entitled <i>The 100 Greatest Muslims. </i>With all my writing projects, I continue to pray that God will continue to find what I write to be an expression of God's will.</b></p><p><b>As Salaam Alaikum,</b></p><p><b>Everett Jenkins</b></p><p><b>Fairfield, California </b></p><p><b>September 15, 2023</b></p>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4096586136737015584.post-43456441292857040972023-09-13T06:24:00.001-07:002023-09-13T06:24:40.965-07:002023: Introduction<p> </p><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><div style="text-align: center;"><em><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">To God,</span></em></div><div style="text-align: center;"><em><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">in gratitude<o:p></o:p></span></em></div><div style="text-align: center;"><em><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">for this life</span></em></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><strong><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"><br /></div><b><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"></div></b><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">*****</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">Introduction</div></strong><strong></strong><br /><b>I am not a Muslim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I am simply a man in search of truth -- the truth about myself, my people, my country, my world and God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In my search for truth, I have had to travel through many lands and to learn about many people. The following are some of the people I have met along the way.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">As Salaam Alaikum,</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">Everett Jenkins</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">August 29, 2021</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;">*****</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b>After twenty-five years, two books, over 1400 biographical posts, and over 3000 <i>The Muslim Compendium </i>and <i>Who's Who in Islam </i>entries, I have learned that the complete meaning of "Islam" is attaining a state of peace by submitting oneself to the Will of Almighty God (Allah or the One), and by definition one who does this is called a "Muslim". I have also learned that, in so many ways, a "Muslim" is what I have spent the last twenty-five years aspiring to be.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b>Peace,</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b>Everett Jenkins</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><b>September 13, 2023 </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><br /></p></div>skipjen2865http://www.blogger.com/profile/05937732998094648472noreply@blogger.com0