Mawlawiyah
Mawlawiyah (Mawlawiyya)(in Turkish, Mewlewiyye or Mevlevi) (Mawlawi Order) (Mevlevilik) (Mevleviye) (Mowlawīya). Sufi order which takes its name from the Mawlana “Our Master,” the sobriquet of Jalal al-Din Rumi.
Mawlawiyah was a Turkish Sufi order which was known to Europe as the “Whirling Dervishes” in recognition of its distinctive meditation ritual. It derives its name from Jalal al-Din Rumi, known as Mawlana (Mevlana in Turkish, meaning “Our Master”) whose life and writings had a profound influence on the development and ritual of the order.
Rumi was born in 1207 in the Central Asian city of Balkh, where his father Baha’ Walad (d. 1231) was a religious scholar and Sufi master of some renown. The uncertain religious and political situation under the Khwarazm-shahs forced them to leave for Anatolia in 1219, and Baha’ Walad and his family eventually settled in the Seljuk capital of Konya at the invitation of ‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubad. Baha’ Walad was given a prominent appointment as a legal scholar and preacher, a position that Jalal al-Din inherited after his father’s death. It was from his lengthy residence in Anatolia (Rum) that Mawlana Jalal al-Din came to be known as Rumi.
There can be little doubt that Rumi was familiar with Sufism from childhood. Nevertheless, most sources insist that his formal Sufi training began in 1232 with the arrival in Konya of Burhan al-Din al-Tirmidhi, a disciple of Baha’ Walad. Rumi remained his disciple until Burhan al-Din’s death nine years later.
The defining moment in Rumi’s life occurred in 1244 with the arrival of an enigmatic wandering mystic named Shams al-Din (commonly referred to as Shams-i Tabrizi). Until this time Rumi’s public persona had been defined by his role as a legal scholar and judge, with little mention of his participation in any mystical activities. He now began to devote himself entirely to the company of Shams-i Tabrizi, whom he identified as the ideal medium for gaining access to mystical knowledge of God.
Rumi’s infatuation with Shams-i Tabrizi was a source of jealousy (and probably also embarrassment) to his family and students, who apparently forced Shams-i Tabrizi to leave Konya after about two years. Rumi rushed after him and convinced him to return, but soon after that Shams vanished forever, in all likelihhood murdered by Rumi’s students with the connivance of both his son, Sultan Walad (d. 1312) and his principal disciple Husam al-Din Chalabi (d. 1283). Following Shams’ disappearance, Rumi withdrew from public life and devoted himself entirely to the guidance of Sufi disciples. He also began to compose exquisite and profuse poetry, the bulk of which is contained in two works -- the Masnavi-yi ma‘navi (approximately 26,000 verses) and the Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi (approximately 40,000 verses). The Masnavi, written at the request of Husam al-Din Chalabi, is a didactic work in six books that rapidly gained extreme popularity in the Persian and Turkish speaking world. It has been widely translated and commented on and has been used for prognostication, as a source of mystical inspiration, and as a religious text by countless individuals as well as by several mystical organizations such as the Iranian Khaksars. It is on the basis of this work, which is the central mystical text of the Mawlawiyah, that Rumi has become the best-known Islamic mystical poet.
It is probable that a Sufi order gathered around Rumi during his lifetime. One of his early biographers, Shams al-Din Ahmad al-Aflaki al-‘Arifi, mentions an assembly room (jama ‘at khanah) attached to Rumi’s madrasah where learned conversations and musical concerts were held. Although Rumi had already come to be known as Mawlana, it is doubtful that his followers were called the Mawlawiyah at this early date. In his account of Konya, Ibn Battutah refers to them as the Jalaliyah (after Jalal al-Din). Rumi was succeeded by Salah al-Din Zarkub, who had originally been a disciple of Burhan al-Din al-Tirmidhi and who succeeded Shams-i Tabrizi as a vessel in which Rumi contemplated God. Zarkub was followed by Rumi’s disciple Husam al-Din Chalabi and finally by Rumi’s son Sultan Walad, although for the first seven years after Husam al-Din’s death the latter was under the care of a guardian, Karim al-Din ibn Bektimur. After Sultan Walad the leadership of the Mawlawiyah was almost invariably held by a descendant of Rumi.
The two most distinctive features of the Mawlawiyah are their process of initiation through a lengthy orientation rather than the trials typical of other Sufi orders, and the importance they give to sama’ (audition) as a form of meditation. Some elements of the sama’ are traceable to Rumi, although major features continued to be added until the time of ‘Adil Chalabi (d. 1460), a great-grandson of the Sultan Walad. The only significant changes since that time concern the occasion and frequency of the sama’; these occurred under the reign of the Ottoman sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and again in the period after the Turkish religious reforms of 1925.
The sama’ of the Mawlawiyah is carried out in a wood-floored circular room called a sama’ khanah (Turkish, semahane). The room is normally surrounded by galleries for guests and a separate one for the musicians. Before the sama’ begins, the officiating Sufi (called meydanci dede) places a skin, marking the seat of the shaykh, at the opposite end of the room from the qiblah. He then gave an order for the call to prayer to be sounded, after which the shaykh entered the room followed by the participants (referred to as sama’ zan). After performing their ritual prayers the participants gathered around the seated shaykh to listen to hymnsand readings from the Masnavi, which are accompanied by music. The shaykh then recites the “prayer of the skin” (pust duasi).
Following this prayer all participants, including the shaykh and the meydanci dede, go through a complex and choreographed series of salutations. Accompanied by a simple beat from the musicians, the participants walk in a circle up to the skin with their arms folded under their cloaks (khirqah). On reaching the skin, each participant bows in salutation to the person in front of him, passes the skin while facing it and stepping over the diameter of the circle extending from the skin to the qiblah, turns around to face the person behind him, performs the identical salute, takes three steps back, turns around to face forward, and continues walking in a circle. Many outside observers appear to have been impressed by the sight of the sema zens wearing tall caps and black cloaks over white tunics, two of them facing each other across the skin and the remainder walking in a circle with their eyes lowered and heads bowed. After completing the round of salutations the shaykh sat on his skin and the sama’ itself begins, comprising several cycles or rounds (dawra), in which each sema zen extends his arms to the side with the right palm facing upward and the left downward and whirls counter-clockwise, using his left foot as a pivot.
The form of the sama’ is imbued with mystical meaning for the Mawlawiyah: the upturned right hand symbolizes the mystic’s receipt of divine grace, while the downturned left hand implies that what is received from God is passed on to humanity. Thus the sema zen represents a conduit whereby God showers blessings upon the planet. A similar representation of the relationship between the celestial and the terrestrial is accorded to the hall itself, with the right half symbolizing the descent from God to human beings in the physical realm, and the left symbolizing ascent from the physical state to mystical union with God in the spiritual realm.
The Mawlawiyah had been an order of courtly art and culture since Rumi’s day and had always encouraged and nurtured court poets and musicians. As such, it is in contrast to more popular orders such as the Bektashis, which have been more in tune with the needs and aspirations of the Anatolian populace. This distinction was exploited by the later Ottoman sultans, who favored the Sunni and courtly Mawlawiyah against the more populist and predominantly Shi‘a Bektashis favored by the Janissaries. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, it became a tradition for the head of the Mawlawiyah to gird the imperial sword on the new sultan.
The importance of the Mawlawiyah to the development of Ottoman culture cannot be overemphasized. It has had a definitive impact on the development of art and music, and luminaries such as the court poets Nef‘i (d. 1635) and Seyh Galib (d. 1799), and composers such as Iti (d. 1712) and Zeka’i (d. 1897) were all Mawlawis. In fact, the Mawlawiyah is so closely identified with Ottoman Turkish culture that it has enjoyed almost no success in non-Turkish societies. The only exceptions are certain cities in non-Turkish regions of the former Ottoman Empire, such as Damascus, Tripoli, Homs, Jerusalem, and Beirut in the Middle East, and a larger number of cities in Greece, Bosnia, and other parts of the Balkans. However, these were all towns with significant Turkish populations, and only the center in Beirut is known to have remained active into the latter half of the twentieth century. In contrast, the founder of the order still enjoys widespread fame and reverence rivaled by only one or two other Sufi figures.
Mawlawiyya see Mawlawiyah
Mewlewiyye see Mawlawiyah
Mevlevi see Mawlawiyah
Mawlawi Order see Mawlawiyah
Mevlevilik see Mawlawiyah
Mowlawiya see Mawlawiyah
Mawlawiyah (Mawlawiyya)(in Turkish, Mewlewiyye or Mevlevi) (Mawlawi Order) (Mevlevilik) (Mevleviye) (Mowlawīya). Sufi order which takes its name from the Mawlana “Our Master,” the sobriquet of Jalal al-Din Rumi.
Mawlawiyah was a Turkish Sufi order which was known to Europe as the “Whirling Dervishes” in recognition of its distinctive meditation ritual. It derives its name from Jalal al-Din Rumi, known as Mawlana (Mevlana in Turkish, meaning “Our Master”) whose life and writings had a profound influence on the development and ritual of the order.
Rumi was born in 1207 in the Central Asian city of Balkh, where his father Baha’ Walad (d. 1231) was a religious scholar and Sufi master of some renown. The uncertain religious and political situation under the Khwarazm-shahs forced them to leave for Anatolia in 1219, and Baha’ Walad and his family eventually settled in the Seljuk capital of Konya at the invitation of ‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubad. Baha’ Walad was given a prominent appointment as a legal scholar and preacher, a position that Jalal al-Din inherited after his father’s death. It was from his lengthy residence in Anatolia (Rum) that Mawlana Jalal al-Din came to be known as Rumi.
There can be little doubt that Rumi was familiar with Sufism from childhood. Nevertheless, most sources insist that his formal Sufi training began in 1232 with the arrival in Konya of Burhan al-Din al-Tirmidhi, a disciple of Baha’ Walad. Rumi remained his disciple until Burhan al-Din’s death nine years later.
The defining moment in Rumi’s life occurred in 1244 with the arrival of an enigmatic wandering mystic named Shams al-Din (commonly referred to as Shams-i Tabrizi). Until this time Rumi’s public persona had been defined by his role as a legal scholar and judge, with little mention of his participation in any mystical activities. He now began to devote himself entirely to the company of Shams-i Tabrizi, whom he identified as the ideal medium for gaining access to mystical knowledge of God.
Rumi’s infatuation with Shams-i Tabrizi was a source of jealousy (and probably also embarrassment) to his family and students, who apparently forced Shams-i Tabrizi to leave Konya after about two years. Rumi rushed after him and convinced him to return, but soon after that Shams vanished forever, in all likelihhood murdered by Rumi’s students with the connivance of both his son, Sultan Walad (d. 1312) and his principal disciple Husam al-Din Chalabi (d. 1283). Following Shams’ disappearance, Rumi withdrew from public life and devoted himself entirely to the guidance of Sufi disciples. He also began to compose exquisite and profuse poetry, the bulk of which is contained in two works -- the Masnavi-yi ma‘navi (approximately 26,000 verses) and the Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi (approximately 40,000 verses). The Masnavi, written at the request of Husam al-Din Chalabi, is a didactic work in six books that rapidly gained extreme popularity in the Persian and Turkish speaking world. It has been widely translated and commented on and has been used for prognostication, as a source of mystical inspiration, and as a religious text by countless individuals as well as by several mystical organizations such as the Iranian Khaksars. It is on the basis of this work, which is the central mystical text of the Mawlawiyah, that Rumi has become the best-known Islamic mystical poet.
It is probable that a Sufi order gathered around Rumi during his lifetime. One of his early biographers, Shams al-Din Ahmad al-Aflaki al-‘Arifi, mentions an assembly room (jama ‘at khanah) attached to Rumi’s madrasah where learned conversations and musical concerts were held. Although Rumi had already come to be known as Mawlana, it is doubtful that his followers were called the Mawlawiyah at this early date. In his account of Konya, Ibn Battutah refers to them as the Jalaliyah (after Jalal al-Din). Rumi was succeeded by Salah al-Din Zarkub, who had originally been a disciple of Burhan al-Din al-Tirmidhi and who succeeded Shams-i Tabrizi as a vessel in which Rumi contemplated God. Zarkub was followed by Rumi’s disciple Husam al-Din Chalabi and finally by Rumi’s son Sultan Walad, although for the first seven years after Husam al-Din’s death the latter was under the care of a guardian, Karim al-Din ibn Bektimur. After Sultan Walad the leadership of the Mawlawiyah was almost invariably held by a descendant of Rumi.
The two most distinctive features of the Mawlawiyah are their process of initiation through a lengthy orientation rather than the trials typical of other Sufi orders, and the importance they give to sama’ (audition) as a form of meditation. Some elements of the sama’ are traceable to Rumi, although major features continued to be added until the time of ‘Adil Chalabi (d. 1460), a great-grandson of the Sultan Walad. The only significant changes since that time concern the occasion and frequency of the sama’; these occurred under the reign of the Ottoman sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and again in the period after the Turkish religious reforms of 1925.
The sama’ of the Mawlawiyah is carried out in a wood-floored circular room called a sama’ khanah (Turkish, semahane). The room is normally surrounded by galleries for guests and a separate one for the musicians. Before the sama’ begins, the officiating Sufi (called meydanci dede) places a skin, marking the seat of the shaykh, at the opposite end of the room from the qiblah. He then gave an order for the call to prayer to be sounded, after which the shaykh entered the room followed by the participants (referred to as sama’ zan). After performing their ritual prayers the participants gathered around the seated shaykh to listen to hymnsand readings from the Masnavi, which are accompanied by music. The shaykh then recites the “prayer of the skin” (pust duasi).
Following this prayer all participants, including the shaykh and the meydanci dede, go through a complex and choreographed series of salutations. Accompanied by a simple beat from the musicians, the participants walk in a circle up to the skin with their arms folded under their cloaks (khirqah). On reaching the skin, each participant bows in salutation to the person in front of him, passes the skin while facing it and stepping over the diameter of the circle extending from the skin to the qiblah, turns around to face the person behind him, performs the identical salute, takes three steps back, turns around to face forward, and continues walking in a circle. Many outside observers appear to have been impressed by the sight of the sema zens wearing tall caps and black cloaks over white tunics, two of them facing each other across the skin and the remainder walking in a circle with their eyes lowered and heads bowed. After completing the round of salutations the shaykh sat on his skin and the sama’ itself begins, comprising several cycles or rounds (dawra), in which each sema zen extends his arms to the side with the right palm facing upward and the left downward and whirls counter-clockwise, using his left foot as a pivot.
The form of the sama’ is imbued with mystical meaning for the Mawlawiyah: the upturned right hand symbolizes the mystic’s receipt of divine grace, while the downturned left hand implies that what is received from God is passed on to humanity. Thus the sema zen represents a conduit whereby God showers blessings upon the planet. A similar representation of the relationship between the celestial and the terrestrial is accorded to the hall itself, with the right half symbolizing the descent from God to human beings in the physical realm, and the left symbolizing ascent from the physical state to mystical union with God in the spiritual realm.
The Mawlawiyah had been an order of courtly art and culture since Rumi’s day and had always encouraged and nurtured court poets and musicians. As such, it is in contrast to more popular orders such as the Bektashis, which have been more in tune with the needs and aspirations of the Anatolian populace. This distinction was exploited by the later Ottoman sultans, who favored the Sunni and courtly Mawlawiyah against the more populist and predominantly Shi‘a Bektashis favored by the Janissaries. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, it became a tradition for the head of the Mawlawiyah to gird the imperial sword on the new sultan.
The importance of the Mawlawiyah to the development of Ottoman culture cannot be overemphasized. It has had a definitive impact on the development of art and music, and luminaries such as the court poets Nef‘i (d. 1635) and Seyh Galib (d. 1799), and composers such as Iti (d. 1712) and Zeka’i (d. 1897) were all Mawlawis. In fact, the Mawlawiyah is so closely identified with Ottoman Turkish culture that it has enjoyed almost no success in non-Turkish societies. The only exceptions are certain cities in non-Turkish regions of the former Ottoman Empire, such as Damascus, Tripoli, Homs, Jerusalem, and Beirut in the Middle East, and a larger number of cities in Greece, Bosnia, and other parts of the Balkans. However, these were all towns with significant Turkish populations, and only the center in Beirut is known to have remained active into the latter half of the twentieth century. In contrast, the founder of the order still enjoys widespread fame and reverence rivaled by only one or two other Sufi figures.
Mawlawiyya see Mawlawiyah
Mewlewiyye see Mawlawiyah
Mevlevi see Mawlawiyah
Mawlawi Order see Mawlawiyah
Mevlevilik see Mawlawiyah
Mowlawiya see Mawlawiyah
Mawlay
Mawlay (Moulay) (“my lord”). Honorific title borne by those Moroccan sultans of the Sharifian dynasties, the Sa‘dids and the Filalis, who were descended from ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. Those who were called Muhammad have the title of Sayyidi/Sidi.
Mawlay is an Arabic word which means “my lord” or “my master.” In North Africa, it is frequently used in its literal sense, although the word is pronounced mulay. Various honorific titles are derived from the term mawla in combination with pronominal or adjectival suffixes. Mawla is in turn derived from the Arabic verb waliyah, “to be close to” or “to be connected with something or someone,” and by extension to be proximate in terms of power or authority. In the Qur’an, in the hadith, and in early Islamic history, mawla had several meanings. First, it was employed in the sense of “tutor,” “preceptor,” “trustee,” or “helper.” Second, it denoted “lord” or “master,” and thus God is referred to as “Mawlana” or “our lord.” Here the term is synonymous with sayyid. Finally, it can signify “client,” “affiliate,” or “freedman,” thus designating a relationship of inferiority or dependence. In the early Islamic period, mawali (the plural of mawla) referred at first to non-Arab converts to Islam who became clients of one of the Arab Muslim tribes and were regarded as socially inferior. In the ‘Abbasid period, however, the term more commonly designated freedmen, although it had passed out of general use by the tenth century.
As a title or honorific, mawlay has been and is still used in various regions of the Muslim world. In the Maghrib and Andalusia, it was applied to saints or Sufis, as well as to various ruling houses that based their legitimacy upon descent from the prophet Muhammad. The Hafsid dynasty of Tunisia (1207-1574) employed this title, as did high dignitaries both secular and religious. Originally in the Moroccan context, mawlay was a title conferred upon all those belonging to the shurafa’ (descendants of Muhammad). Since the sixteenth century, however, it has been employed as a prenominal title applied to the sultans of the two Moroccan Sharifi dynasties -- the Sa‘dis (c. 1510-1654) and the ‘Alawis (c.1660- ); both dynasties have claimed descent from Muhammad through al-Hasan ibn ‘Ali.
In the Sufi sense, mawlay is related to the terms wali and wilayah; the former is often inadequately rendered as “saint,” although a better definition would stress the holy person as being close to God or God’s protégé, while the latter signifies something approximating sanctity. In both Sufism and Shi‘ism mawla can be understood as a spiritual protector or patron as well as a client. The great thirteenth century Persian Sufi and poet Jalal al-Din Rumi is still referred to as Mawlana, “our master,” because of his immense piety and uncommon spirituality. In the Turco-Iranian world and in South Asian Islam, mawlana (or mawlawi) is a title in widespread use even in the 1990s and can denote Muslims of high religious status, such as Sufis or members of the ‘ulama’. In the Indian subcontinent it is applied to scholars of the Islamic religious sciences -- meaning once again “my tutor” or “my lord” -- or to saints, implying spiritual lordship and hence protection.
Moulay see Mawlay
My Lord see Mawlay
Mawlay (Moulay) (“my lord”). Honorific title borne by those Moroccan sultans of the Sharifian dynasties, the Sa‘dids and the Filalis, who were descended from ‘Ali’s son al-Hasan. Those who were called Muhammad have the title of Sayyidi/Sidi.
Mawlay is an Arabic word which means “my lord” or “my master.” In North Africa, it is frequently used in its literal sense, although the word is pronounced mulay. Various honorific titles are derived from the term mawla in combination with pronominal or adjectival suffixes. Mawla is in turn derived from the Arabic verb waliyah, “to be close to” or “to be connected with something or someone,” and by extension to be proximate in terms of power or authority. In the Qur’an, in the hadith, and in early Islamic history, mawla had several meanings. First, it was employed in the sense of “tutor,” “preceptor,” “trustee,” or “helper.” Second, it denoted “lord” or “master,” and thus God is referred to as “Mawlana” or “our lord.” Here the term is synonymous with sayyid. Finally, it can signify “client,” “affiliate,” or “freedman,” thus designating a relationship of inferiority or dependence. In the early Islamic period, mawali (the plural of mawla) referred at first to non-Arab converts to Islam who became clients of one of the Arab Muslim tribes and were regarded as socially inferior. In the ‘Abbasid period, however, the term more commonly designated freedmen, although it had passed out of general use by the tenth century.
As a title or honorific, mawlay has been and is still used in various regions of the Muslim world. In the Maghrib and Andalusia, it was applied to saints or Sufis, as well as to various ruling houses that based their legitimacy upon descent from the prophet Muhammad. The Hafsid dynasty of Tunisia (1207-1574) employed this title, as did high dignitaries both secular and religious. Originally in the Moroccan context, mawlay was a title conferred upon all those belonging to the shurafa’ (descendants of Muhammad). Since the sixteenth century, however, it has been employed as a prenominal title applied to the sultans of the two Moroccan Sharifi dynasties -- the Sa‘dis (c. 1510-1654) and the ‘Alawis (c.1660- ); both dynasties have claimed descent from Muhammad through al-Hasan ibn ‘Ali.
In the Sufi sense, mawlay is related to the terms wali and wilayah; the former is often inadequately rendered as “saint,” although a better definition would stress the holy person as being close to God or God’s protégé, while the latter signifies something approximating sanctity. In both Sufism and Shi‘ism mawla can be understood as a spiritual protector or patron as well as a client. The great thirteenth century Persian Sufi and poet Jalal al-Din Rumi is still referred to as Mawlana, “our master,” because of his immense piety and uncommon spirituality. In the Turco-Iranian world and in South Asian Islam, mawlana (or mawlawi) is a title in widespread use even in the 1990s and can denote Muslims of high religious status, such as Sufis or members of the ‘ulama’. In the Indian subcontinent it is applied to scholars of the Islamic religious sciences -- meaning once again “my tutor” or “my lord” -- or to saints, implying spiritual lordship and hence protection.
Moulay see Mawlay
My Lord see Mawlay
Mawlay Isma‘il ibn al-Sharif
Mawlay Isma‘il ibn al-Sharif (b. 1666). Second ruler of the Sharifian dynasty of the Filalis in Morocco (1672-1727). He vigorously repressed Berber revolts, and raised a professional army, the famous “Black Guard,” and the “volunteers of the faith,” who waged an unceasing irregular warfare against the Spaniards and the English. Mawlay Isma‘il concluded an entente with Louis XIV and the Bey of Tunis against the Turks, which secured to France great commercial benefits. He was also very active as a builder, especially at Mawlay Idris and Meknes.
Mawlay Isma‘il ibn al-Sharif (b. 1666). Second ruler of the Sharifian dynasty of the Filalis in Morocco (1672-1727). He vigorously repressed Berber revolts, and raised a professional army, the famous “Black Guard,” and the “volunteers of the faith,” who waged an unceasing irregular warfare against the Spaniards and the English. Mawlay Isma‘il concluded an entente with Louis XIV and the Bey of Tunis against the Turks, which secured to France great commercial benefits. He was also very active as a builder, especially at Mawlay Idris and Meknes.
Mawlay Muhammad al-Shaykh
Mawlay Muhammad al-Shaykh. Name of three Moroccan sultans belonging to the dynasty of the Sa‘dids, the most important of them being Abu ‘Abd Allah (al-Mahdi/al-Imam) (b. 1490) who ruled from 1517 to 1557. He put an end to the dynasty of the Marinids by capturing Fez in 1549 and thus can be considered the true founder of the Sa‘did dynasty.
Mawlay Muhammad al-Shaykh. Name of three Moroccan sultans belonging to the dynasty of the Sa‘dids, the most important of them being Abu ‘Abd Allah (al-Mahdi/al-Imam) (b. 1490) who ruled from 1517 to 1557. He put an end to the dynasty of the Marinids by capturing Fez in 1549 and thus can be considered the true founder of the Sa‘did dynasty.
Mawza‘i, Shams al-Din al-
Mawza‘i, Shams al-Din al- (Shams al-Din al-Mawsa‘i) (d. after 1621) was the author of an independent chronicle of early Ottoman Yemen to 1621, particularly of the south and of the city of Ta‘izz.
Shams al-Din al-Mawsa‘i see Mawza‘i, Shams al-Din al-
Mawza‘i, Shams al-Din al- (Shams al-Din al-Mawsa‘i) (d. after 1621) was the author of an independent chronicle of early Ottoman Yemen to 1621, particularly of the south and of the city of Ta‘izz.
Shams al-Din al-Mawsa‘i see Mawza‘i, Shams al-Din al-
Maydani, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Maydani, Abu’l-Fadl al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Maydani) (d. 1124). Arab philologist of Nishapur. He compiled the most comprehensive and most popular collection of classical Arab proverbs, the only one to be translated into a European language (Latin) under the title Arabum Proverbia. He also composed an Arabic-Persian dictionary of common terms and words, and a syntax with Persian notes.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Maydani see Maydani, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Maydani, Abu’l-Fadl al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Maydani) (d. 1124). Arab philologist of Nishapur. He compiled the most comprehensive and most popular collection of classical Arab proverbs, the only one to be translated into a European language (Latin) under the title Arabum Proverbia. He also composed an Arabic-Persian dictionary of common terms and words, and a syntax with Persian notes.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Maydani see Maydani, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Maymuna bint al-Harith
Maymuna bint al-Harith (Maimunah bint al-Harith) (Meymune Binti Hâris) (Burrah bint al-Harith) (c. 594 - 674/681). Last wife that the Prophet married (in 629).
Maymuna bint al-Harith was a wife of Muhammad and, therefore, a Mother of the Believers. Her original name was Burrah, but Muhammad changed it to Maymuna. Her half-sisters, Asma bint Umais and Salma bint Umays, later married Abu Bakr and Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib. Her full sisters were Lubaba and Izza.
Maymuna married Muhammad when he was 60 years old and she was 36, placing the marriage in 630. Zaynab bint Khuzayma, the previous wife of Muhammad who had died earlier, was her half-sister.
Maymuna dedicated herself to Muhammad and followed the Qur'an. She lived with Muhammad until his death.
Maimunah bint al-Harith see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Meymune Binti Hâris see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Burrah bint al-Harith see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Maymuna bint al-Harith (Maimunah bint al-Harith) (Meymune Binti Hâris) (Burrah bint al-Harith) (c. 594 - 674/681). Last wife that the Prophet married (in 629).
Maymuna bint al-Harith was a wife of Muhammad and, therefore, a Mother of the Believers. Her original name was Burrah, but Muhammad changed it to Maymuna. Her half-sisters, Asma bint Umais and Salma bint Umays, later married Abu Bakr and Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib. Her full sisters were Lubaba and Izza.
Maymuna married Muhammad when he was 60 years old and she was 36, placing the marriage in 630. Zaynab bint Khuzayma, the previous wife of Muhammad who had died earlier, was her half-sister.
Maymuna dedicated herself to Muhammad and followed the Qur'an. She lived with Muhammad until his death.
Maimunah bint al-Harith see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Meymune Binti Hâris see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Burrah bint al-Harith see Maymuna bint al-Harith
Maymun ibn Mihran, Abu Ayyub
Maymun ibn Mihran, Abu Ayyub (Abu Ayyub Maymun ibn Mihran) (660-735). Early Islamic jurist and Umayyad administrator. He is remembered in numerous accounts for his religious and ethical maxims.
Abu Ayyub Maymun ibn Mihran see Maymun ibn Mihran, Abu Ayyub
Maymun ibn Mihran, Abu Ayyub (Abu Ayyub Maymun ibn Mihran) (660-735). Early Islamic jurist and Umayyad administrator. He is remembered in numerous accounts for his religious and ethical maxims.
Abu Ayyub Maymun ibn Mihran see Maymun ibn Mihran, Abu Ayyub
Mayy Ziyada
Mayy Ziyada (Mari Ilyas Ziyada) (May Ziade) (Marie Ziade) (May Ziyada)) (Marie Ziyada) (<I.May Ziadeh) (Marie Ziadeh) (February 11, 1886-1941). Pioneer essayist, orator and journalist. She wrote in Arabic, French and English, translated from several European languages, and was a zealous feminist who defended the right of education and freedom for Arab women.
May Ziade was a prolific Lebanese-Palestinian poet, essayist and translator. A writer for Arab newspapers and periodicals, Ziade also wrote a number of poems and books. She was a key figure of the Nahda in the early 20th century Arab literary scene, and is known for being an "early Palestinian feminist" and "pioneer of Oriental feminism".
Ziade was born in Nazareth in Palestine to a Lebanese Maronite father (from the Chahtoul family) and a Palestinian mother. Her father, Elias Ziade, was editor of al-Mahrūsah.
Ziade attended primary school in Nazareth. As her father came to the Kesrouan region of Lebanon, at 14 years of age she was sent to Aintoura to pursue her secondary studies at a French convent school for girls. Her studies in Aintoura had exposed her to French literature, and Romantic literature, to which she took a particular liking. She attended several Roman Catholic schools in Lebanon and in 1904, returned to Nazareth to be with her parents. She is reported to have published her first articles at age 16.
In 1908, she and her family emigrated to Egypt. Her father founded "Al Mahroussah" newspaper while the family was in Egypt, to which Ziade contributed a number of articles.
Ziade was particularly interested in learning languages, studying privately at home and then at local university for a Modern Languages degree while in Egypt. As a result, Ziade had practical knowledge of Arabic, French, English, Italian, German, Spanish, Latin and Modern Greek. She graduated in 1917.
Ziade was well known in Arab literary circles, receiving many male and female writers and intellectuals at a literary salon she established in 1912. Among those that frequented the salon were Taha Hussein, Khalil Moutrane, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Antoun Gemayel, Walieddine Yakan, Abbas el-Akkad and Yacoub Sarrouf.
Though she had never married, from 1912 onward, she maintained an extensive written correspondence with Khalil Gibran. While they never met in person as he was living in New York City, the correspondence lasted 19 years until his death in 1931, and Ziade is credited with introducing his work to the Egyptian public.
Between 1928 and 1931, Ziade suffered a series of personal losses, beginning with the death of her parents, her friends, and above all Khalil Gibran. She fell into a deep depression and returned to Lebanon where her relatives tried to place her in psychiatric hospital to gain control over her estate. It has been suggested that Ziade was sent to the hospital for expressing feminist sentiments. Ziade eventually recovered her lucidity and returned to Cairo where she died on October 17, 1941.
Ziade was deeply concerned with the emancipation of Arab woman, a task to be effected first by tackling ignorance, and then anachronistic traditions. She considered women to be the basic elements of every human society and wrote that a woman enslaved could not breastfeed her children with her own milk when that milk smelled strongly of servitude.
She specified that female evolution towards equality need not be enacted at the expense of femininity, but rather that it was a parallel process. In 1921, she convened a conference under the heading, "La but de la vie" ("The goal of life"), where she called upon Arab women to aspire toward freedom, and to be open to the Occident without forgetting their Oriental identity.
Bearing a romantic streak from childhood, Ziade was successively influenced by Lamartine, Byron, Shelley, and finally Gibran. These influences are evident in the majority of her works. She often reflected on her nostalgia for Lebanon and her fertile, vibrant, sensitive imagination is as evident as her mystery, melancholy and despair.
Ziade's first published work, Fleurs de rêve (1911), was a volume of poetry, written in French, using the pen name of Isis Copia. She would occasionally write in French, English or Italian, though she increasingly found her literary voice in Arabic. She published works of criticism and biography, volumes of free-verse poetry and essays, and novels. She translated several European authors into Arabic, including Arthur Conan Doyle from English, 'Brada' (the Italian Contessa Henriette Consuelo di Puliga) from French, and Max Müller from German. She ran the most famous literary salon of the Arab world during the twenties and thirties in Cairo.
The titles of her works in Arabic (with English translation in brackets) include:
- Al Bâhithat el-Bâdiyat (Beginning Female Researchers)
- Sawâneh fatât (Platters of Crumbs)
- Zulumât wa Ichâ'ât (Humiliation and Rumors…)
- Kalimât wa Ichârât (Words and Signs)
- Al Saha'ef (The Newspapers)
- Ghayat Al-Hayât (The Meaning of Life)
- Al-Mûsawât (Equality)
- Bayna l-Jazri wa l-Madd (Between the Ebb and Flow)
In 1999, May Ziade was named by the Lebanese Minister of Culture as the personage of the year around which the annual celebration of "Beirut, cultural capital of the Arab world" would be held.
Mari Ilyas Ziyada see Mayy Ziyada
Mari Ilyas Ziyada see Mayy Ziyada
Ziyada, Mayy see Mayy Ziyada
Ziade, May see Mayy Ziyada
Ziade, Marie see Mayy Ziyada
Ziadeh, May see Mayy Ziyada
Mayy Ziyada (Mari Ilyas Ziyada) (May Ziade) (Marie Ziade) (May Ziyada)) (Marie Ziyada) (<I.May Ziadeh) (Marie Ziadeh) (February 11, 1886-1941). Pioneer essayist, orator and journalist. She wrote in Arabic, French and English, translated from several European languages, and was a zealous feminist who defended the right of education and freedom for Arab women.
May Ziade was a prolific Lebanese-Palestinian poet, essayist and translator. A writer for Arab newspapers and periodicals, Ziade also wrote a number of poems and books. She was a key figure of the Nahda in the early 20th century Arab literary scene, and is known for being an "early Palestinian feminist" and "pioneer of Oriental feminism".
Ziade was born in Nazareth in Palestine to a Lebanese Maronite father (from the Chahtoul family) and a Palestinian mother. Her father, Elias Ziade, was editor of al-Mahrūsah.
Ziade attended primary school in Nazareth. As her father came to the Kesrouan region of Lebanon, at 14 years of age she was sent to Aintoura to pursue her secondary studies at a French convent school for girls. Her studies in Aintoura had exposed her to French literature, and Romantic literature, to which she took a particular liking. She attended several Roman Catholic schools in Lebanon and in 1904, returned to Nazareth to be with her parents. She is reported to have published her first articles at age 16.
In 1908, she and her family emigrated to Egypt. Her father founded "Al Mahroussah" newspaper while the family was in Egypt, to which Ziade contributed a number of articles.
Ziade was particularly interested in learning languages, studying privately at home and then at local university for a Modern Languages degree while in Egypt. As a result, Ziade had practical knowledge of Arabic, French, English, Italian, German, Spanish, Latin and Modern Greek. She graduated in 1917.
Ziade was well known in Arab literary circles, receiving many male and female writers and intellectuals at a literary salon she established in 1912. Among those that frequented the salon were Taha Hussein, Khalil Moutrane, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Antoun Gemayel, Walieddine Yakan, Abbas el-Akkad and Yacoub Sarrouf.
Though she had never married, from 1912 onward, she maintained an extensive written correspondence with Khalil Gibran. While they never met in person as he was living in New York City, the correspondence lasted 19 years until his death in 1931, and Ziade is credited with introducing his work to the Egyptian public.
Between 1928 and 1931, Ziade suffered a series of personal losses, beginning with the death of her parents, her friends, and above all Khalil Gibran. She fell into a deep depression and returned to Lebanon where her relatives tried to place her in psychiatric hospital to gain control over her estate. It has been suggested that Ziade was sent to the hospital for expressing feminist sentiments. Ziade eventually recovered her lucidity and returned to Cairo where she died on October 17, 1941.
Ziade was deeply concerned with the emancipation of Arab woman, a task to be effected first by tackling ignorance, and then anachronistic traditions. She considered women to be the basic elements of every human society and wrote that a woman enslaved could not breastfeed her children with her own milk when that milk smelled strongly of servitude.
She specified that female evolution towards equality need not be enacted at the expense of femininity, but rather that it was a parallel process. In 1921, she convened a conference under the heading, "La but de la vie" ("The goal of life"), where she called upon Arab women to aspire toward freedom, and to be open to the Occident without forgetting their Oriental identity.
Bearing a romantic streak from childhood, Ziade was successively influenced by Lamartine, Byron, Shelley, and finally Gibran. These influences are evident in the majority of her works. She often reflected on her nostalgia for Lebanon and her fertile, vibrant, sensitive imagination is as evident as her mystery, melancholy and despair.
Ziade's first published work, Fleurs de rêve (1911), was a volume of poetry, written in French, using the pen name of Isis Copia. She would occasionally write in French, English or Italian, though she increasingly found her literary voice in Arabic. She published works of criticism and biography, volumes of free-verse poetry and essays, and novels. She translated several European authors into Arabic, including Arthur Conan Doyle from English, 'Brada' (the Italian Contessa Henriette Consuelo di Puliga) from French, and Max Müller from German. She ran the most famous literary salon of the Arab world during the twenties and thirties in Cairo.
The titles of her works in Arabic (with English translation in brackets) include:
- Al Bâhithat el-Bâdiyat (Beginning Female Researchers)
- Sawâneh fatât (Platters of Crumbs)
- Zulumât wa Ichâ'ât (Humiliation and Rumors…)
- Kalimât wa Ichârât (Words and Signs)
- Al Saha'ef (The Newspapers)
- Ghayat Al-Hayât (The Meaning of Life)
- Al-Mûsawât (Equality)
- Bayna l-Jazri wa l-Madd (Between the Ebb and Flow)
In 1999, May Ziade was named by the Lebanese Minister of Culture as the personage of the year around which the annual celebration of "Beirut, cultural capital of the Arab world" would be held.
Mari Ilyas Ziyada see Mayy Ziyada
Mari Ilyas Ziyada see Mayy Ziyada
Ziyada, Mayy see Mayy Ziyada
Ziade, May see Mayy Ziyada
Ziade, Marie see Mayy Ziyada
Ziadeh, May see Mayy Ziyada
Mazari, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Mazari, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Mazari) (1061-1141). Jurist of Ifriqiya, surnamed “al-Imam” on account of his learning and renown.
Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Mazari see Mazari, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Mazari, Abu ‘Abd Allah al- (Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Mazari) (1061-1141). Jurist of Ifriqiya, surnamed “al-Imam” on account of his learning and renown.
Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Mazari see Mazari, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-
Mazata
Mazata. Ancient and powerful Berber people which belonged to the great tribal family of the Lawata. They lived in Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Tunisia and Algeria.
Mazata. Ancient and powerful Berber people which belonged to the great tribal family of the Lawata. They lived in Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Tunisia and Algeria.
Mazati, Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-
Mazati, Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al- (Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-Mazati) (d. 1070). Ibadi historian, theologian and jurisconsult. His collection of biographies of distinguished Ibadis is of particular interest for the history of the sect in North Africa.
Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-Mazati see Mazati, Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-
Mazati, Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al- (Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-Mazati) (d. 1070). Ibadi historian, theologian and jurisconsult. His collection of biographies of distinguished Ibadis is of particular interest for the history of the sect in North Africa.
Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-Mazati see Mazati, Abu’l-Rabi’ Sulayman al-
Mazin
Mazin. Name of several Arab tribes who are represented in all the great ethnic groupings of the Arabian Peninsula.
Mazin. Name of several Arab tribes who are represented in all the great ethnic groupings of the Arabian Peninsula.
Mazini, Abu ‘Uthman al-
Mazini, Abu ‘Uthman al- (Abu ‘Uthman al-Mazini) (d. 861). Arab philologist and Qur’an “reader” from Basra. He left a very significant treatise on morphology, which has been transmitted in the form of lecture notes.
Abu ‘Uthman al-Mazini see Mazini, Abu ‘Uthman al-
Mazini, Abu ‘Uthman al- (Abu ‘Uthman al-Mazini) (d. 861). Arab philologist and Qur’an “reader” from Basra. He left a very significant treatise on morphology, which has been transmitted in the form of lecture notes.
Abu ‘Uthman al-Mazini see Mazini, Abu ‘Uthman al-
Mazini, Ibrahim ‘Abd al-Qadir al-
Mazini, Ibrahim ‘Abd al-Qadir al- (Ibrahim “Abd al-Qadir al-Mazini) (1890-1949). Egyptian writer, translator, poet and journalist. He was a remarkable storyteller with a great sense of humor.
Ibrahim “Abd al-Qadir al-Mazini see Mazini, Ibrahim ‘Abd al-Qadir al-
Mazini, Ibrahim ‘Abd al-Qadir al- (Ibrahim “Abd al-Qadir al-Mazini) (1890-1949). Egyptian writer, translator, poet and journalist. He was a remarkable storyteller with a great sense of humor.
Ibrahim “Abd al-Qadir al-Mazini see Mazini, Ibrahim ‘Abd al-Qadir al-
Mazru‘i
Mazru‘i (in plural form, Mazari’). Arab tribe found in the Gulf States and in East Africa. The most celebrated lineage, which migrated from Oman around 1698 and 1800, provided rulers of Mombasa from 1698 until 1837.
Mazari' see Mazru‘i
Mazru‘i (in plural form, Mazari’). Arab tribe found in the Gulf States and in East Africa. The most celebrated lineage, which migrated from Oman around 1698 and 1800, provided rulers of Mombasa from 1698 until 1837.
Mazari' see Mazru‘i
Mazrui, Ali
Ali al-Amin Mazrui (b. February 24, 1933, Mombasa, Kenya — d. October 12, 2014, Vestal {Binghamton}, New York, United States) was a Kenyan American political scientist who was widely regarded as one of East Africa’s foremost political scholars.
Mazrui, the son of a prominent Islamic judge, received a scholarship to study in England at Manchester University (B.A., 1960). He continued his education at Columbia University (M.A., 1961), New York City, and Nuffield College, Oxford (D.Phil., 1966). He returned to Africa to teach at Uganda’s Makerere University (1963–73), but his opposition to Ugandan President Idi Amin and his often controversial views on African development obliged him to leave the region. From 1974 to 1991 Mazrui taught political science at the University of Michigan. He then moved to the State University of New York at Binghamton (now Binghamton University, SUNY), where he founded (in 1991) and directed the Institute of Global Cultural Studies.
Mazrui also held faculty positions at other universities worldwide, was a consultant to international organizations, and wrote more than 30 books on African politics and society as well as post-colonial patterns of development and underdevelopment. Among his best-known works were Towards a Pax Africana (1967), The African Condition: A Political Diagnosis (1980), Black Reparations in the Era of Globalization (2002), and The African Predicament and the American Experience: A Tale of Two Edens (2003). He also wrote and presented the nine-hour BBC-PBS TV co-production The Africans (1986) and was featured in the documentary Motherland (2009). Mazrui’s honors included the Association of Muslim Social Scientists UK (AMSS UK) Lifetime Academic Achievement Award (2000).
Mazyadids
Mazyadids (Banu Al-Mazeedi). Arab dynasty of central Iraq, which flourished in the tenth through twelfth centuries. They were fervent Shi‘is and may thus have furthered the expansion of Shi‘ism in central Iraq.
The Banu Al-Mazeedi refers to an Arab family originating from the descendants of Adnan. Before developing into a separate entity the Al-Mazeedi's were part of the Banu Asad tribe which was present during the lifetime of Muhammad. In 998, Ali ibn Mazyad, leader of the Al-Mazeedi sub-section of the Banu Asad, established a virtually independent Mazyadid state in the Kufa area of Iraq. Backed by a powerful tribal army, the Mazyadids enjoyed great influence in the area for a century and a half. They acquired titles and subsidies from the Buyids in return for military services. Their most lasting achievement was the founding of Hilla in 1012, which became their capital. The originator of the Al Mazeedi name was a scholar, hadith narrator and chemist called Mazyed bin Mikhled al Sadaqa.
Mansour Moosa Al-Mazeedi played an important role in developing a Kuwaiti constitution issued on January 29, 1963 as part of Al Majles Al Ta'sesy or Founding Parliament.
Recently it was discovered that some Al-Mazeedi family members migrated to Yemen a few hundred years ago and settled in the region of Hadhramaut where there are still Sunni families who belong to the original Mazeedi's of Iraq. Their tribal name is Al-Mazyad.
Banu Al-Mazeedi see Mazyadids
Mazyadids (Banu Al-Mazeedi). Arab dynasty of central Iraq, which flourished in the tenth through twelfth centuries. They were fervent Shi‘is and may thus have furthered the expansion of Shi‘ism in central Iraq.
The Banu Al-Mazeedi refers to an Arab family originating from the descendants of Adnan. Before developing into a separate entity the Al-Mazeedi's were part of the Banu Asad tribe which was present during the lifetime of Muhammad. In 998, Ali ibn Mazyad, leader of the Al-Mazeedi sub-section of the Banu Asad, established a virtually independent Mazyadid state in the Kufa area of Iraq. Backed by a powerful tribal army, the Mazyadids enjoyed great influence in the area for a century and a half. They acquired titles and subsidies from the Buyids in return for military services. Their most lasting achievement was the founding of Hilla in 1012, which became their capital. The originator of the Al Mazeedi name was a scholar, hadith narrator and chemist called Mazyed bin Mikhled al Sadaqa.
Mansour Moosa Al-Mazeedi played an important role in developing a Kuwaiti constitution issued on January 29, 1963 as part of Al Majles Al Ta'sesy or Founding Parliament.
Recently it was discovered that some Al-Mazeedi family members migrated to Yemen a few hundred years ago and settled in the region of Hadhramaut where there are still Sunni families who belong to the original Mazeedi's of Iraq. Their tribal name is Al-Mazyad.
Banu Al-Mazeedi see Mazyadids
Mbaruk bin Rashid
Mbaruk bin Rashid (Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui) (c. 1820-1910). Leader of a coastal Arab community, a vigorous opponent of the Busaidi dynasty, and a key figure in a rebellion against the British (1895-1896).
Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui was the son of Rashid bin Salim, the last Mazrui governor of Mombasa. Mbaruk’s father was overthrown by Sayyid Said, the Busaidi ruler of Zanzibar, in 1837.
Under the leadership of his father’s cousin, Mbaruk and part of his family fled south to Gazi. Another branch of the family fled north. When he succeeded to leadership of the Gazi Mazrui in the mid-1860s, Mbaruk received a subsidy from the Zanzibari regime. However, Mbaruk never reconciled himself to Busaidi rule. He resisted the Zanzibari sultans at every opportunity.
During Sultan Barghash’s reign (1870-1888), Mbaruk clashed repeatedly with Busaidi forces. He distrusted Barghash’s offers of accommodation and spent most of these years as an outlaw, counting upon several thousand African slaves and freemen for military support.
In 1888, the chartered Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) established an administration over the Kenya coast. Under its aegis, Mbaruk returned peacefully to settle at Gazi. Over the next seven years, Mbaruk co-operated with the IBEAC and occasionally lent it material support against his neighbors. This arrangement ended in 1895 when the company prepared to turn over its administration to the British crown.
Around this same time, the northern Mazrui community entered into a succession dispute. The IBEAC intervened, causing the northern Mazrui to revolt. Some of the Mazrui sought refuge with Mbaruk. Through his refusal to betray his kinsmen, Mbaruk was reluctantly drawn into the rebellion.
Mbaruk conducted a successful guerrilla campaign until early 1896, when he fled across the border into German administered territory (present day Tanzania). In the German territory, Mbaruk surrendered to Governor von Wissmann and was granted asylum.
Mbaruk’s retirement to Dar es Salaam on a German pension brought Mazrui political influence in colonial East Africa to an end.
In 1907, the British government officially pardoned Mbaruk. However, Mbaruk declined the invitation to return to Kenya. He died in Dar es Salaam in 1910.
Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui< see Mbaruk bin Rashid
Mbaruk bin Rashid (Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui) (c. 1820-1910). Leader of a coastal Arab community, a vigorous opponent of the Busaidi dynasty, and a key figure in a rebellion against the British (1895-1896).
Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui was the son of Rashid bin Salim, the last Mazrui governor of Mombasa. Mbaruk’s father was overthrown by Sayyid Said, the Busaidi ruler of Zanzibar, in 1837.
Under the leadership of his father’s cousin, Mbaruk and part of his family fled south to Gazi. Another branch of the family fled north. When he succeeded to leadership of the Gazi Mazrui in the mid-1860s, Mbaruk received a subsidy from the Zanzibari regime. However, Mbaruk never reconciled himself to Busaidi rule. He resisted the Zanzibari sultans at every opportunity.
During Sultan Barghash’s reign (1870-1888), Mbaruk clashed repeatedly with Busaidi forces. He distrusted Barghash’s offers of accommodation and spent most of these years as an outlaw, counting upon several thousand African slaves and freemen for military support.
In 1888, the chartered Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) established an administration over the Kenya coast. Under its aegis, Mbaruk returned peacefully to settle at Gazi. Over the next seven years, Mbaruk co-operated with the IBEAC and occasionally lent it material support against his neighbors. This arrangement ended in 1895 when the company prepared to turn over its administration to the British crown.
Around this same time, the northern Mazrui community entered into a succession dispute. The IBEAC intervened, causing the northern Mazrui to revolt. Some of the Mazrui sought refuge with Mbaruk. Through his refusal to betray his kinsmen, Mbaruk was reluctantly drawn into the rebellion.
Mbaruk conducted a successful guerrilla campaign until early 1896, when he fled across the border into German administered territory (present day Tanzania). In the German territory, Mbaruk surrendered to Governor von Wissmann and was granted asylum.
Mbaruk’s retirement to Dar es Salaam on a German pension brought Mazrui political influence in colonial East Africa to an end.
In 1907, the British government officially pardoned Mbaruk. However, Mbaruk declined the invitation to return to Kenya. He died in Dar es Salaam in 1910.
Mbaruk bin Rashid bin Salim al-Mazrui< see Mbaruk bin Rashid
Medhi
Medhi. Pen-name used by a number of Ottoman poets, among them Mahmud Efendi of Gallipoli, known as Qara Mahmud (d. 1597), and Nuh-zade Seyyid Mustafa Celebi of Bursa (d. 1680).
Medhi. Pen-name used by a number of Ottoman poets, among them Mahmud Efendi of Gallipoli, known as Qara Mahmud (d. 1597), and Nuh-zade Seyyid Mustafa Celebi of Bursa (d. 1680).
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22 Dhu al-Hijjah, 60 AH (November 20, 680 CC) -- Meesum al-Tammar, a companion and disciple of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, was martyred.
Meesum ibn Yahya al-Tammar was born at Nihrawan, an area near Kufa (today in Iraq). He was the son of Yahya. A lady of the Banu Asad bought Meesum (as a slave). Accordingly, Meesum worked for this lady until the caliphate of 'Ali.
After the time of Prophet Muhammad and the martyrdom 'Uthman, in the year 656 CC, 'Ali succeeded 'Uthman as the fourth Sunni Rashidun Caliph. As the new caliph, 'Ali moved the Islamic capital from Medina to Kufa for two reasons: (1) to keep Mu'awiyah in check and (2) because Kufa had an illustrious history as the home of prophets. Moving to Kufa, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib would walk around the city. It is documented that if he encountered a slave he would try to free him or her. One day, 'Ali saw a lady from the Banu Asad tribe, who had a male slave of Nabataean origin. 'Ali approached the woman and began to converse with her, in order to purchase the slave, Salim. The started to negotiate a price, and the lady's initial asking price was 50 dinar. As 'Ali ibn Abi Talib gave her the 50 dinar she changed the price to 100 dinar. She kept raising the price, since she realized that 'Ali was willing to pay her a much higher price. Seeing the price soar, a companion of 'Ali then asked, "Oh Amir al-Momineen ('Ali ibn Abi Talib), who is this man? What is he? He's originally a Nabataean. He is a slave. What the point of paying this much?" Finally, she settled at 500 dinar. 'Ali handed her the 500 dinar. She then called Salim and told him that 'Ali had purchased him. After buying Salim, 'Ali set him free from the shackles of slavery for the way of Allah. It demonstrated the Islamic view of slavery. Islam establishes that slavery is immoral and that all humans are equal in the perspective of Allah. The only thing that differentiates a human is their Taqwa -- their consciousness of God. Islam called for a gradual emancipation of slaves, meaning that slaveowners should not just set slaves free, they should also help the freed slaves build a foundation financially so that the freed slaves could support themselves. Accordingly, Imam 'Ali took Meesum under his wings after he freed him.
After 'Ali set him free, 'Ali greeted Salim by the name Meesum. Meesum was the name that Meesum's mother gave to him after his birth. No one in Kufa knew that Meesum was Salim's real name. Upon hearing a stranger calling him Meesum, Meesum was shocked, baffled, and astonished that a person other than his parents knew about his real name. He questioned 'Ali as to how did he know that Meesum was his real name. 'Ali replied, "Come with me and do not worry. Allah's Apostle (the Prophet Muhammad) has told me that the Persians call you Meesum. Still shocked, Meesum willingly went with 'Ali who would later become his best friend and teacher.
As a student of 'Ali, Meesum was taught various categories of knowledge. One of these categories was ilm-e-Manaya wal Balaya (the knowledge of death and future calamities). With ilm-e-Manaya wal Balaya, Meesum prophesied specific events that would occur in the future. It seemed that Meesum possessed supernatural knowledge unmatched by ordinary people.
Meesum became one of the top scholars of his time, in part due to his desire to increase his understanding about various subjects and the teachings of 'Ali. People would come to Meesum for explanations of Quranic verses, since he possessed ilm-e-Taweel (interpretation and exegesis of the Qur'an).
Once 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, told Meesum that he would be hanged on account of the love for the imam of his time -- on account of Meesum's love for 'Ali. 'Ali also told Meesum that he (Meesum) would be hanged in a farm next to the house of Amr ibn Huraith. Meesum was also informed that his tongue would be cut out because he would not stop praising 'Ali. After being so informed, Meesum would go to the tree pointed out by Ali ibn Abi Talib, clean the place and water the tree and offer prayers saying, "O tree! You are for me and I am for you."
Months and years passed by. 'Ali was martyred (in 40 AH) and then Hasan ibn 'Ali (the Second Shi'a Imam) was martyred (in 50 AH) and Meesum kept waiting for the time when he would join them.
In 60 AH, when Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad was appointed Governor of Kufa, things started to get complicated. Meesum then went to perform the hajj and thereafter returned to Kufa. One day, Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad, summoned him and asked him to come to his Court. When Meesum arrived, Ubayd-Allah said, "O Meesum! Inform me where your Allah is?" Meesum immediately replied, "He is in quest of an opportunity to punish the transgressors." Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad then asked him about his connections with 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. Meesum replied that 'Ali was his master and that he loved him. Ubayd-Allah then asked him, "Did your master tell you anything about your end?" Meesum replied, "Yes, he informed me that I would be hanged and that my tongue would be cut." Ubayd-Allah roared with laughter and said, "I will see that your master did not tell you the truth. I will see that his prophecy is belied." Meesum said, "My master's words are true because he got that information from Allah. The Prophet Muhammad was informed by Jibril, and Jibril came with the message of Allah."
Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad ordered Meesum to be jailed and sent Meesum to al-Tamura, a fearful prison. Mukhtar al-Thaqafi was in the same prison with Meesum. Meesum and Mukhtar would hold conversations in prison but later, on the orders of Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad, Meesum was sentenced to be hanged for creating mischief. Meesum was brought to the same tree to be hanged as pointed out by 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. Meesum began singing the praises of his master 'Ali, and about a thousand people gathered to see Meesum being hanged.
Even after being hanged, the tongue of Meesum went on singing the praises of 'Ali. Ubayd-Allah was informed about this and ordered that the tongue of Meesum be cut. And thus, the prophecy of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib came true.
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Mohammadi, Seyed Ali Farid; Shi'i Hagiography: Highlights about the Lives of Five Illustrious and Emminent Shi'i Personalities; University of Michigan, 2013
Takim, Liyakatali; The Heirs of The Prophet: Charisma and Religious Authority in Shi'ite Islam; Albany State University of New York, 2007.
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Megawati Sukarnoputri
Megawati Sukarnoputri (Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri) (b. January 23, 1947). First female vice president and president of Indonesia. She was born in Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, to Sukarno (Indonesia’s first president) and his first wife, Fatmawti. A life of privilege in the presidential palace ended when Sukarno was ousted by Suharto in 1966. Megawati later became a mother and homemaker, remaining out of the public spotlight until she entered politics in 1987, when she won a seat in parliament. In 1993, she was named leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI).
Although untested as a leader, Megawati enjoyed immense popularity in the year 2000. She gained the respect of many Indonesians for her defiance of former president Suharto, when he attempted in June 1996 to have her party leadership removed from her. The incident provoked violent riots. Megawati responded by launching lawsuits against Suharto in every Indonesian court that would take her case -- 230 in all.
In 2000, Megawati became the first female vice president of Indonesia and received new duties in a power sharing arrangement announced by then President Abdurrahman Wahid in August of that year. The arrangement, termed a “dual presidency” by some observers, was expected to continue through the end of Wahid’s term in 2004. The president reserved for himself foreign affairs and humanitarian duties but delegated the day to day running of the government to Megawati.
She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in the second round. She famously refused to congratulate the new president in public.
Megawati's first husband, First Lieutenant Surendro Supjarso, was killed in a plane crash in Irian Jaya in 1970. In 1972, she married Hassan Gamal Ahmad Hassan, an Egyptian diplomat. The marriage was annulled shortly after. She married Taufiq Kiemas in 1973. They had three children, Mohammad Rizki Pramata, Mohammad Prananda and Puan Maharani.
Sukarnoputri, Megawati see Megawati Sukarnoputri
Megawati Sukarnoputri (Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri) (b. January 23, 1947). First female vice president and president of Indonesia. She was born in Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, to Sukarno (Indonesia’s first president) and his first wife, Fatmawti. A life of privilege in the presidential palace ended when Sukarno was ousted by Suharto in 1966. Megawati later became a mother and homemaker, remaining out of the public spotlight until she entered politics in 1987, when she won a seat in parliament. In 1993, she was named leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI).
Although untested as a leader, Megawati enjoyed immense popularity in the year 2000. She gained the respect of many Indonesians for her defiance of former president Suharto, when he attempted in June 1996 to have her party leadership removed from her. The incident provoked violent riots. Megawati responded by launching lawsuits against Suharto in every Indonesian court that would take her case -- 230 in all.
In 2000, Megawati became the first female vice president of Indonesia and received new duties in a power sharing arrangement announced by then President Abdurrahman Wahid in August of that year. The arrangement, termed a “dual presidency” by some observers, was expected to continue through the end of Wahid’s term in 2004. The president reserved for himself foreign affairs and humanitarian duties but delegated the day to day running of the government to Megawati.
She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in the second round. She famously refused to congratulate the new president in public.
Megawati's first husband, First Lieutenant Surendro Supjarso, was killed in a plane crash in Irian Jaya in 1970. In 1972, she married Hassan Gamal Ahmad Hassan, an Egyptian diplomat. The marriage was annulled shortly after. She married Taufiq Kiemas in 1973. They had three children, Mohammad Rizki Pramata, Mohammad Prananda and Puan Maharani.
Sukarnoputri, Megawati see Megawati Sukarnoputri
Mehemmed
Mehemmed. One of the Turkish forms of the name Muhammad which, having been borne by the Prophet of Islam, is by far the commonest used name in the Islamic world. In this publication, the name Muhammad is used to refer to the relevant Ottoman rulers.
Mehemmed. One of the Turkish forms of the name Muhammad which, having been borne by the Prophet of Islam, is by far the commonest used name in the Islamic world. In this publication, the name Muhammad is used to refer to the relevant Ottoman rulers.
Meher Baba
Meher Baba (Merwan Sheriar Irani) (February 25, 1894 - January 31, 1969). Born in Poona as Merwan Irani, to parents from Iran and of the Zoroastrian religion. Assuming the name Meher Baba (“Father of Love”), Meher Baba had disciples from among India’s religious communities, but he received his first initiation from a Muslim woman saint called Hazrat Babajan.
Today the followers of Meher Baba refer to him as a Sufi master although he is also called an avatar -- a diety who had assumed the identity of a human being.
Meher Baba traveled frequently to America and Europe, where his disciples included film stars and titled nobility. Meher Baba exercised a deep fascination for those with whom he came in contact, although the content of his behavior seemed irrational and erratic on the surface.
Meher Baba took a vow of silence in 1925 and never spoke again until his death in 1969. He communicated with his followers by hand signs and by pointing to letters on a letter board.
As an example of the divine love that was taught by Meher Baba, Meher Baba and his disciples cared for insane holy men called mast. As he traveled about India, Meher Baba would seek out such individuals, feed and bathe them, and spend time in their company. But like much else about Meher Baba the purpose behind this activity remained obscure.
Merwan Sheriar Irani see Meher Baba
Irani, Merwan Sheriar see Meher Baba
Meher Baba (Merwan Sheriar Irani) (February 25, 1894 - January 31, 1969). Born in Poona as Merwan Irani, to parents from Iran and of the Zoroastrian religion. Assuming the name Meher Baba (“Father of Love”), Meher Baba had disciples from among India’s religious communities, but he received his first initiation from a Muslim woman saint called Hazrat Babajan.
Today the followers of Meher Baba refer to him as a Sufi master although he is also called an avatar -- a diety who had assumed the identity of a human being.
Meher Baba traveled frequently to America and Europe, where his disciples included film stars and titled nobility. Meher Baba exercised a deep fascination for those with whom he came in contact, although the content of his behavior seemed irrational and erratic on the surface.
Meher Baba took a vow of silence in 1925 and never spoke again until his death in 1969. He communicated with his followers by hand signs and by pointing to letters on a letter board.
As an example of the divine love that was taught by Meher Baba, Meher Baba and his disciples cared for insane holy men called mast. As he traveled about India, Meher Baba would seek out such individuals, feed and bathe them, and spend time in their company. But like much else about Meher Baba the purpose behind this activity remained obscure.
Merwan Sheriar Irani see Meher Baba
Irani, Merwan Sheriar see Meher Baba
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