Zanata
Zanata (Banu Zanata) (Zenata). Name given by the Arab historians of the Middle Ages to one of the two great confederations of the Berbers, the other being the Banu Sanhaja.
The Zenata were an ethnic group of North Africa, who were technically an Eastern Berber group and who are found in Tunisia, Algeria and the Rif mountains.
Zenata tribes entered in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia from the east of Northern Africa in pre-Islamic times and grouped themselves with the tribes of Maghrawa, Miknasa, and Banu Ifran.
According to Ibn Khaldun, an Arabic historian of the 14th century, there were Zenata tribes dispatched in all North Africa (current Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria), and some of them may have also lived in modern Egypt as well.
According to Ibn Khaldun, the Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda. He added that these tribes, traditionally nomads, were concentrated in the Middle Maghreb (part of the current Algeria). It is why he called the Middle Maghreb home of the Zenata.
The hypothesis of Ibn Khaldun about the origin of this Berber group or ethnicity is not widely accepted by modern historians.
Banu Zanata see Zanata
Zenata see Zanata
The Zenata were an ethnic group of North Africa, who were technically an Eastern Berber group and who are found in Tunisia, Algeria and the Rif mountains.
Zenata tribes entered in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia from the east of Northern Africa in pre-Islamic times and grouped themselves with the tribes of Maghrawa, Miknasa, and Banu Ifran.
According to Ibn Khaldun, an Arabic historian of the 14th century, there were Zenata tribes dispatched in all North Africa (current Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria), and some of them may have also lived in modern Egypt as well.
According to Ibn Khaldun, the Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda. He added that these tribes, traditionally nomads, were concentrated in the Middle Maghreb (part of the current Algeria). It is why he called the Middle Maghreb home of the Zenata.
The hypothesis of Ibn Khaldun about the origin of this Berber group or ethnicity is not widely accepted by modern historians.
Banu Zanata see Zanata
Zenata see Zanata
Zand
Zand. Short-lived Iranian dynasty (r. 1750/1751-1794) founded by Karim Khan Zand “the vakil” (“regent, deputy”; r. 1751-1779). Their main capital was Shiraz. The Zand were a tribe of the southern Iranian group of Kurds known as the Lak. Exiled to Khorasan by Nadir Shah in 1731, the Zand retreated under their leader, Muhammad Karim Khan Zand, into the southwest in 1747. Muhammad Karim Khan (1750-1779) occupied the whole of southern Iran and assumed the title Wakil (“representative”). Following the conquest of Mazandaran (in 1759) and Azerbaijan (in 1762), he developed a successful regime, led the country into great economic prosperity (involving trade with India, construction of irrigation channels, a fair tax policy), and made his court a cultural center. Following his death, the state disintegrated in the power struggle waged by pretenders, until the last Zand ruler was violently eliminated by the Qajars in Kerman in 1794.
Between 1750 and 1765 Karim Khan salvaged most of western Iran between Urmia and Bandar Abbas from the wreck of Nadir Shah’s empire. With his capital at Shiraz, Karim Khan established a degree of trust and cooperation between tribal armies, urban administrators, and the peasantry, and hence a measure of internal security that encouraged and stimulated trade and agriculture.
On Karim’s death in 1779 the internecine power struggle between his relatives destroyed most of what he had achieved. Even before his funeral, his half-brother Zaki slaughtered most of his rivals in Shiraz and ruled in the name of one of Karim’s incompetent sons. Ali Murad, of a different branch of the Zand tribe, seized Isfahan, but an attack by the Qajar chief Agha Muhammad Khan delayed Ali Murad and enabled Karim’s brother Sadiq, returning from his occupation of Basra, to seize Shiraz. In 1781, Ali Murad took Shiraz but again had to turn his attention to Qajar attackes from Mazandaran. His half brother Ja’far (son of Sadiq) marched on Isfahan, and Ali Murad died on his way to defending the city in February 1785.
Zand control of the Elburz and uppre Zagros mountain ranges was now relinquished to the Qajara. Killed in a palace coup in 1789, Ja’far was succeeded (after a brief reign by Said Murad Khan, a cousin of Ali Murad) by his popular son Lutf Ali Khan, whose energetic campaigns against Qajars and defecting vassals in the south and east briefly staved off the dynasty’s impending downfall. However, Haji Ibrahim, the powerful kalantar (mayor) of Shiraz, acting out of self-preservation (Lutf Ali had revealed his distrust by taking the son of the kalantar hostage) or out of a desire to end the destructive tribal warfare, gained control of the garrison and shut the gates of Shiraz against Luft Ali’s army. Robbed of a base, the young Zand chief retreated to Kerman and finally to the fortress of Bam. Here he was captured by Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, who blinded, tortured, and finally executed him in November 1794 at Tehran.
The only material monuments of the Zand dynasty are Karim Khan’s mosque, fortress, and bazaar in Shiraz, which was sacked by the Qajar ruler before his return to the new capital of Tehran. None of Karim Khan’s successors aspired to the title of shah (which he had not assumed), or even to Karim’s title of vakil. The dynasty is remembered chiefly for its founder’s unusual humanity and unselfishness, which produced a quarter of a century of comparative peace and prosperity in the middle of Iran’s bloodiest century since the Mongol invasions.
Following the death of the Afshārid ruler Nāder Shāh (1747), Karīm Khān Zand became one of the major contenders for power. By 1750 he had sufficiently consolidated his power to proclaim himself as vakīl (regent) for the Ṣafavid Esmāʿīl III. Karīm Khān never claimed the title of shāhanshāh (“king of kings”). Instead he maintained Esmāʿīl as a figurehead. Karīm Khān, with 30 years of benevolent rule, gave southern Iran a much needed respite from continual warfare. He encouraged agriculture and entered into trade relations with Great Britain. His death in 1779 was followed by internal dissensions and disputes over successions. Between 1779 and 1789 five Zand kings ruled briefly. In 1789 Loṭf ʿAlī Khān (ruled 1789–94) proclaimed himself as the new Zand king and took energetic action to put down a rebellion led by Āghā Moḥammad Khān Qājār that had begun at Karīm Khān’s death. Outnumbered by the superior Qājār forces, Loṭf ʿAlī Khān was finally defeated and captured at Kermān in 1794. His defeat marked the final eclipse of the Zand dynasty, which was supplanted by that of the Qājārs.
Zand. Short-lived Iranian dynasty (r. 1750/1751-1794) founded by Karim Khan Zand “the vakil” (“regent, deputy”; r. 1751-1779). Their main capital was Shiraz. The Zand were a tribe of the southern Iranian group of Kurds known as the Lak. Exiled to Khorasan by Nadir Shah in 1731, the Zand retreated under their leader, Muhammad Karim Khan Zand, into the southwest in 1747. Muhammad Karim Khan (1750-1779) occupied the whole of southern Iran and assumed the title Wakil (“representative”). Following the conquest of Mazandaran (in 1759) and Azerbaijan (in 1762), he developed a successful regime, led the country into great economic prosperity (involving trade with India, construction of irrigation channels, a fair tax policy), and made his court a cultural center. Following his death, the state disintegrated in the power struggle waged by pretenders, until the last Zand ruler was violently eliminated by the Qajars in Kerman in 1794.
Between 1750 and 1765 Karim Khan salvaged most of western Iran between Urmia and Bandar Abbas from the wreck of Nadir Shah’s empire. With his capital at Shiraz, Karim Khan established a degree of trust and cooperation between tribal armies, urban administrators, and the peasantry, and hence a measure of internal security that encouraged and stimulated trade and agriculture.
On Karim’s death in 1779 the internecine power struggle between his relatives destroyed most of what he had achieved. Even before his funeral, his half-brother Zaki slaughtered most of his rivals in Shiraz and ruled in the name of one of Karim’s incompetent sons. Ali Murad, of a different branch of the Zand tribe, seized Isfahan, but an attack by the Qajar chief Agha Muhammad Khan delayed Ali Murad and enabled Karim’s brother Sadiq, returning from his occupation of Basra, to seize Shiraz. In 1781, Ali Murad took Shiraz but again had to turn his attention to Qajar attackes from Mazandaran. His half brother Ja’far (son of Sadiq) marched on Isfahan, and Ali Murad died on his way to defending the city in February 1785.
Zand control of the Elburz and uppre Zagros mountain ranges was now relinquished to the Qajara. Killed in a palace coup in 1789, Ja’far was succeeded (after a brief reign by Said Murad Khan, a cousin of Ali Murad) by his popular son Lutf Ali Khan, whose energetic campaigns against Qajars and defecting vassals in the south and east briefly staved off the dynasty’s impending downfall. However, Haji Ibrahim, the powerful kalantar (mayor) of Shiraz, acting out of self-preservation (Lutf Ali had revealed his distrust by taking the son of the kalantar hostage) or out of a desire to end the destructive tribal warfare, gained control of the garrison and shut the gates of Shiraz against Luft Ali’s army. Robbed of a base, the young Zand chief retreated to Kerman and finally to the fortress of Bam. Here he was captured by Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, who blinded, tortured, and finally executed him in November 1794 at Tehran.
The only material monuments of the Zand dynasty are Karim Khan’s mosque, fortress, and bazaar in Shiraz, which was sacked by the Qajar ruler before his return to the new capital of Tehran. None of Karim Khan’s successors aspired to the title of shah (which he had not assumed), or even to Karim’s title of vakil. The dynasty is remembered chiefly for its founder’s unusual humanity and unselfishness, which produced a quarter of a century of comparative peace and prosperity in the middle of Iran’s bloodiest century since the Mongol invasions.
Following the death of the Afshārid ruler Nāder Shāh (1747), Karīm Khān Zand became one of the major contenders for power. By 1750 he had sufficiently consolidated his power to proclaim himself as vakīl (regent) for the Ṣafavid Esmāʿīl III. Karīm Khān never claimed the title of shāhanshāh (“king of kings”). Instead he maintained Esmāʿīl as a figurehead. Karīm Khān, with 30 years of benevolent rule, gave southern Iran a much needed respite from continual warfare. He encouraged agriculture and entered into trade relations with Great Britain. His death in 1779 was followed by internal dissensions and disputes over successions. Between 1779 and 1789 five Zand kings ruled briefly. In 1789 Loṭf ʿAlī Khān (ruled 1789–94) proclaimed himself as the new Zand king and took energetic action to put down a rebellion led by Āghā Moḥammad Khān Qājār that had begun at Karīm Khān’s death. Outnumbered by the superior Qājār forces, Loṭf ʿAlī Khān was finally defeated and captured at Kermān in 1794. His defeat marked the final eclipse of the Zand dynasty, which was supplanted by that of the Qājārs.
Zand, Karim Khan
Zand, Karim Khan (Karim Khan Zand) (b. c. 1705 - d. March 1779, Shiraz, Zand, Iran). Ruler of western Iran (1751-1779). Among the tribal contingents of Nadir Shah Afshar’s army that returned to their home ranges after Nadir’s assassination in 1747 were the Bakhtiyari, under Ali Mardan Khan, and the Zand, led by Karim Khan. The latter were seminomads of the Lakk people, related to both the Lurs and the Kurds, pasturing between Hamadan and Isfahan.
On the failure of the Afsharids to hold western Iran, these two chiefs in 1750 occupied the former Safavid capital of Isfahan in the name of a minor Safavid protégé styled Isma’il III, with Ali Mardan as vakil, or regent, and Karim as commander of the army. While Karim was campaigning in Kurdistan, Ali Mardan staged a coup and plundered the province of Fars. Karim Khan captured Isfahan and defeated his rival in battle. Three other contestants for power occupied all of the Zand leader’s energies for three more years. His campaigns ranged from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian coast and the foothills of the Caucasus. The Qajar chief Muhammad Hasan Khan was defeated and killed outside his fortress of Astarabad in 1759. Azad Khan the Afghan was routed by his erstwhile ally, the Afshar leader Fath Ali Khan, in 1760. He surrendered to Karim Khan and spent the rest of his life in Shiraz as a pensioner of the Zands. Fath Ali made a last stand with a tribal coalition in Azerbaijan, but the province fell to the Zands in 1762 and was thereafter administered for them by Najaf Quli Khan Dunbuli, of an eminent local family of turkicized Kurds.
In July 1765, having subdued all the Elburz and Zagros provinces, Karim Khan entered Shiraz and was not to leave for the remaining fourteen years of his life. This strategic southern city had come to be his refuge and capital during his early struggle for power against rivals based in northern Iran, and he now embellished it with a fortress-palace (arg), a mosque, a covered bazaar, and other buildings and gardens. During the next decade, he sent expeditions led by his relatives to secure the Persian Gulf littoral and its hinterland, the provinces of Lar, Yazd, and Kerman. He attempted to keep the Qajars in check -- with only moderate success -- by appointing a son of the late Muhammad Hasan Khan as governor of Damghan and keeping the eldest son, Agha Muhammad Khan, a hostage in Shiraz. Impoverished Khurasan he left in the hands of Nadir Shah’s grandson, Shahrukh Shah, as a buffer againstthe new Afghan monarchy of Ahmad Shah Durrani. North of the Aras River Iran’s former vassals, the Georgian kingdom and the Darband khanate, began to drift into the economic and political orbit of Russia.
In the Persian Gulf, the commercial centre of gravity moved from Bandar Abbas to Bushehr, the natural port of Shiraz, where the East India Company was granted facilities. In 1766, Karim Khan regained Kharg Island from the hands of the colorful pirate Mir Muhanna, who had earlier captured it from the Dutch East India Company. However, he was unable to bring Hormuz Island under his control or to intimidate the imam of Oman, his commercial rival in the lower gulf. Repeated expeditions against the Ka’b Arabs of Khuzistan -- even with the cooperation of the East India company and the Ottoman governor of Basra -- brought no more than fitful subservience until the death of their strong leader, Shaikh Salman, in 1768. Karim Khan exchanged embassies with Haidar Ali, ruler of the Deccan, and Indian merchants frequented Shiraz and the gulf ports. Armenian and Jewish merchants who had fled during the chaotic interregnum were encouraged to return to Iran, and commerce increased. Agricultural subsidies and rebuilding programs, both in Shiraz and the provinces (e.g., in Isfahan and Kashan, hit by an earthquake in 1778), helped to restorte Iran’s threadbare economic and social fabric.
Seeking to divert Persian Gulf trade to Bushehr, Karim Khan in 1776 besieged and occupied Basra. His death -- probably as a result of tuberculosis -- which occurred on March 2, 1779, when he was was about eighty years old, prompted an Iranian withdrawal Ironically, Basra’s trade was indeed largely diverted as a result of this war, but to Kuwait, rather than Bushehr. The internecine wars of succession following his death further undermined much of the prosperity he had restored.
Karim Khan’s virtues were universally acknowledged, even by his enemies. During his rise to power, he displayed prowess in the field, tenacity in adversity, and magnanimity in victory. As ruler he dressed and lived simply (although indulging a taste for wine and women) and never assumed the title shah. Even his title vakil (“representative”) he modified from vakil al-daula, “sovereign’s regent,” to vakil al-ra’aya, “people’s deputy,” which was the designation of a traditional provincial ombudsman appointed by the crown. Apocryphal tales of his justice, kindness, humility, sense of humor, and concern for the safety and prosperity of the common man testify to his continuing place in his countrymen’s affection.
Karim Khan was the first Zand ruler of Iran. He restored peace to the kingdom after the strife following the collapse of the Ṣafavid dynasty.
Of humble tribal origin, Karīm Khān became one of the generals of his predecessor, Nāder Shāh. In the chaotic aftermath of Nāder Shāh’s assassination in 1747, Karīm Khān became a major contender for power but was challenged by several adversaries. In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karīm Khān in 1757 placed on the throne the infant Shāh Ismāʿīl III, the grandson of the last official Ṣafavid king. Ismāʿīl was a figurehead king, real power being vested in Karīm Khān, who never claimed the title of shāhānshāh (“king of kings”) but used that of vakīl (“regent”).
By 1760, Karīm Khān had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorāsān, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shāh Rokh, the blind grandson of Nāder Shāh. During Karīm Khān’s rule, Iran recovered from the devastation of 40 years of war. He made Shīrāz his capital, constructing many fine buildings. Moreover, he reorganized the fiscal system of the kingdom, removing some of the heavy burdens of taxation from the agricultural classes. An active patron of the arts, he attracted many scholars and poets to his capital.
Karīm Khān also opened Iran to foreign influence by allowing the English East India Company to establish a trading post in Bushire, the Persian Gulf port (1763). In advancing his policy of developing trade, in 1775–76 he attacked and captured Basra, the Ottoman port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, which had diverted much of the trade with India away from Iranian ports.
The civil war that followed Karīm Khān’s death ended only with the final establishment of the Qājār dynasty in 1796.
Karim Khan Zand see Zand, Karim Khan
Zand, Karim Khan (Karim Khan Zand) (b. c. 1705 - d. March 1779, Shiraz, Zand, Iran). Ruler of western Iran (1751-1779). Among the tribal contingents of Nadir Shah Afshar’s army that returned to their home ranges after Nadir’s assassination in 1747 were the Bakhtiyari, under Ali Mardan Khan, and the Zand, led by Karim Khan. The latter were seminomads of the Lakk people, related to both the Lurs and the Kurds, pasturing between Hamadan and Isfahan.
On the failure of the Afsharids to hold western Iran, these two chiefs in 1750 occupied the former Safavid capital of Isfahan in the name of a minor Safavid protégé styled Isma’il III, with Ali Mardan as vakil, or regent, and Karim as commander of the army. While Karim was campaigning in Kurdistan, Ali Mardan staged a coup and plundered the province of Fars. Karim Khan captured Isfahan and defeated his rival in battle. Three other contestants for power occupied all of the Zand leader’s energies for three more years. His campaigns ranged from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian coast and the foothills of the Caucasus. The Qajar chief Muhammad Hasan Khan was defeated and killed outside his fortress of Astarabad in 1759. Azad Khan the Afghan was routed by his erstwhile ally, the Afshar leader Fath Ali Khan, in 1760. He surrendered to Karim Khan and spent the rest of his life in Shiraz as a pensioner of the Zands. Fath Ali made a last stand with a tribal coalition in Azerbaijan, but the province fell to the Zands in 1762 and was thereafter administered for them by Najaf Quli Khan Dunbuli, of an eminent local family of turkicized Kurds.
In July 1765, having subdued all the Elburz and Zagros provinces, Karim Khan entered Shiraz and was not to leave for the remaining fourteen years of his life. This strategic southern city had come to be his refuge and capital during his early struggle for power against rivals based in northern Iran, and he now embellished it with a fortress-palace (arg), a mosque, a covered bazaar, and other buildings and gardens. During the next decade, he sent expeditions led by his relatives to secure the Persian Gulf littoral and its hinterland, the provinces of Lar, Yazd, and Kerman. He attempted to keep the Qajars in check -- with only moderate success -- by appointing a son of the late Muhammad Hasan Khan as governor of Damghan and keeping the eldest son, Agha Muhammad Khan, a hostage in Shiraz. Impoverished Khurasan he left in the hands of Nadir Shah’s grandson, Shahrukh Shah, as a buffer againstthe new Afghan monarchy of Ahmad Shah Durrani. North of the Aras River Iran’s former vassals, the Georgian kingdom and the Darband khanate, began to drift into the economic and political orbit of Russia.
In the Persian Gulf, the commercial centre of gravity moved from Bandar Abbas to Bushehr, the natural port of Shiraz, where the East India Company was granted facilities. In 1766, Karim Khan regained Kharg Island from the hands of the colorful pirate Mir Muhanna, who had earlier captured it from the Dutch East India Company. However, he was unable to bring Hormuz Island under his control or to intimidate the imam of Oman, his commercial rival in the lower gulf. Repeated expeditions against the Ka’b Arabs of Khuzistan -- even with the cooperation of the East India company and the Ottoman governor of Basra -- brought no more than fitful subservience until the death of their strong leader, Shaikh Salman, in 1768. Karim Khan exchanged embassies with Haidar Ali, ruler of the Deccan, and Indian merchants frequented Shiraz and the gulf ports. Armenian and Jewish merchants who had fled during the chaotic interregnum were encouraged to return to Iran, and commerce increased. Agricultural subsidies and rebuilding programs, both in Shiraz and the provinces (e.g., in Isfahan and Kashan, hit by an earthquake in 1778), helped to restorte Iran’s threadbare economic and social fabric.
Seeking to divert Persian Gulf trade to Bushehr, Karim Khan in 1776 besieged and occupied Basra. His death -- probably as a result of tuberculosis -- which occurred on March 2, 1779, when he was was about eighty years old, prompted an Iranian withdrawal Ironically, Basra’s trade was indeed largely diverted as a result of this war, but to Kuwait, rather than Bushehr. The internecine wars of succession following his death further undermined much of the prosperity he had restored.
Karim Khan’s virtues were universally acknowledged, even by his enemies. During his rise to power, he displayed prowess in the field, tenacity in adversity, and magnanimity in victory. As ruler he dressed and lived simply (although indulging a taste for wine and women) and never assumed the title shah. Even his title vakil (“representative”) he modified from vakil al-daula, “sovereign’s regent,” to vakil al-ra’aya, “people’s deputy,” which was the designation of a traditional provincial ombudsman appointed by the crown. Apocryphal tales of his justice, kindness, humility, sense of humor, and concern for the safety and prosperity of the common man testify to his continuing place in his countrymen’s affection.
Karim Khan was the first Zand ruler of Iran. He restored peace to the kingdom after the strife following the collapse of the Ṣafavid dynasty.
Of humble tribal origin, Karīm Khān became one of the generals of his predecessor, Nāder Shāh. In the chaotic aftermath of Nāder Shāh’s assassination in 1747, Karīm Khān became a major contender for power but was challenged by several adversaries. In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karīm Khān in 1757 placed on the throne the infant Shāh Ismāʿīl III, the grandson of the last official Ṣafavid king. Ismāʿīl was a figurehead king, real power being vested in Karīm Khān, who never claimed the title of shāhānshāh (“king of kings”) but used that of vakīl (“regent”).
By 1760, Karīm Khān had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorāsān, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shāh Rokh, the blind grandson of Nāder Shāh. During Karīm Khān’s rule, Iran recovered from the devastation of 40 years of war. He made Shīrāz his capital, constructing many fine buildings. Moreover, he reorganized the fiscal system of the kingdom, removing some of the heavy burdens of taxation from the agricultural classes. An active patron of the arts, he attracted many scholars and poets to his capital.
Karīm Khān also opened Iran to foreign influence by allowing the English East India Company to establish a trading post in Bushire, the Persian Gulf port (1763). In advancing his policy of developing trade, in 1775–76 he attacked and captured Basra, the Ottoman port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, which had diverted much of the trade with India away from Iranian ports.
The civil war that followed Karīm Khān’s death ended only with the final establishment of the Qājār dynasty in 1796.
Karim Khan Zand see Zand, Karim Khan
Zangids
Zangids (Zengids). Dynasty of Turkish origin, which ruled in Mosul and Aleppo (r.1127-1222), and in Damasacus and Aleppo (r.1146-1181). Their main capital was Aleppo and Damascus in 1154. The founder of the dynasty was Aqsunqur, a Seljuk military slave and atabeg (tutor) to the Seljuk Tutush of Aleppo. His son, Imad al-Din Zangi (r. 1127-1146), became governor of Iraq (with Baghdad) in 1127 and conquered Mosul (in 1127), Aleppo (in 1128), and other Syrian towns. Through political skill and successful battles against the crusading nations, he acquired authority over Mesopotamia and large parts of Syria. While his son, Nur al-Din (r. 1146-1174), conquered Syria and occupied Damascus in 1154, his brother, Saif al-Din (r. 1146-1149), inherited Mesopotamia and established the Mosul dynastic branch (r. 1146-1262). Nur al-Din led Zangid rule to its apogee and was able to extend his sovereignty as far as Egypt (under the Fatimids) and over all branches of the family. His son, Isma‘il, was defeated in 1174 by the Ayyubids, under Saladin, who had risen in the service of the Zangids; the secondary dynastic branches in Sinjar (r. 1170-1220) and Jazira by the Ilkhanids in 1262.
The Zengid (or Zangid) dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin, which ruled parts of Syria and northern Iraq on behalf of the Seljuk Empire.
The dynasty was founded by Imad ed-Din Zengi (or Zangi), who became the Seljuk Atabeg (governor) of Mosul in 1127. He quickly became the chief Turkish potentate in Northern Syria and Iraq, taking Aleppo from the squabbling Ortoqid emirs in 1128, and capturing the County of Edessa from the Crusaders in 1144. This latter feat made Zengi a hero in the Muslim world, but he was assassinated by a slave two years later, in 1146.
On Zengi's death, his territories were divided, with Mosul and his lands in Iraq going to his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, and Aleppo and Edessa falling to his second son, Nur ad-Din Mahmud. Nur ad-Din proved to be as competent as his father. In 1149 he defeated and killed Prince Raymond of Antioch in battle, and the next year conquered the remnants of the County of Edessa west of the Euphrates River. In 1154 he capped off these successes by his capture of Damascus from the Burid Emirs who ruled it.
Now ruling from Damascus, Nur ad-Din's success continued. Another Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon was captured, and the territories of that Principality were greatly reduced. In the 1160s, Nur ad-Din's attention was mostly held by a competition with the King of Jerusalem, Amalric I, for control of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Ultimately, Nur ed-Din's Kurdish general Shirkuh was successful in conquering Egypt in 1169, but Shirkuh's nephew and successor as Governor of Egypt, Saladin, rejected Nur ad-Din's control.
Nur ad-Din was preparing to invade Egypt to bring Saladin under control when he unexpectedly died in 1174. His son and successor As-Salih Ismail al-Malik was only a child, and was forced to flee to Aleppo, which he ruled until 1181, when he was murdered and replaced by his relation, the Atabeg of Mosul. Saladin conquered Aleppo two years later, ending Zengid rule in Syria.
Zengid princes continued to rule in Northern Iraq well into the 13th Century, ruling Mosul until 1234; their rule did not come finally to an end until 1250.
The Zengid Atabegs and Emirs of Mosul were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1127-1146
* Saif ad-Din Ghazi I 1146-1149
* Qutb ad-Din Mawdud 1149-1170
* Saif ad-Din Ghazi II 1170-1180
* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud 1180-1193
* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah I 1193-1211
* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud II 1211-1218
* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah II 1218-1219
* Nasir ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1234
The Zengid Emirs of Aleppo were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1128-1146
* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1146-1174
* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174-1181
* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1181-1183
The Zengid Emirs of Damascus were:
* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1154-1174
* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174
The Zengid Emirs of Sinjar (in Northern Iraq) were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1171-1197
* Qutb ad-Din Muhammad 1197-1219
* Imad ad-Din Shahanshah 1219-1220
* Jalal ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1220
* Fath ad-Din Umar 1219-1220
The Zengid Emirs of Jazira (in Northern Iraq) were:
* Mu'izz ad-Din Sanjar Shah 1180-1208
* Mu'izz ad-Din Mahmud 1208-1241
* Mahmud Al-Malik Al-Zahir 1241-1250
After Zangī’s death in 1146, his sons divided the state between them, Syria falling to Nureddin (Nūr ad-Dīn Maḥmūd; r. 1146–74) and al-Jazīrah to Sayf ad-Dīn Ghāzī I (r. 1146–49). Nureddin’s expansionist policy led him to annex Damascus (1154), subjugate Egypt (1168), and present a broad and competent Muslim front against the crusaders, especially under such generals as Saladin, subsequent founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty of Egypt.
The Syrian branch of the Zangids was reunited with the Iraqi line in 1181 and was eventually absorbed into Saladin’s new empire. The Zangids held on to al-Jazīrah and successfully repulsed several attempts made by Saladin to capture Mosul (1182 and 1185). They were, however, forced to accept his suzerainty. The rise to power of Badr ad-Dīn Luʾluʾ, a former slave, as regent for the last Zangid, Nāṣir ad-Dīn Maḥmūd (reigned 1219–22), marked the end of the dynasty. Luʾluʾ ruled Mosul as atabeg from 1222 to 1259. Soon afterward the city fell to the Mongols.
A third branch of the Zangids had established themselves in Sinjār, west of Mosul, in 1170 and ruled there for about 50 years. The Ayyūbids completed several architectural works begun by the Zangids. The most noteworthy is the Great Mosque in Aleppo, completed in 1190. The building, a perfect continuation of the Zangid artistic tradition, demonstrates simplicity in decorative architecture. It is built around a large, open, marble-floored court, with a polychrome mihrab (prayer niche facing Mecca) and a tall, square minaret. Large areas of wall are left undecorated in contrast to the expressive but delicately carved marble inlay ornaments.
The Zangids are famous for their patronage of the 13th-century Mosul schools of metalwork and painting. Mosul produced the finest metal inlay pieces (usually bronze with silver inlay) in the Islāmic world at that time. Their craftsmen carried the technique to Aleppo, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and Iran, influencing the metalwork of those areas for centuries following. The Mosul school of painting was rivaled in Iraq only by the Baghdad school. Stylistically, Mosul miniatures were based heavily on Seljuq traditions, but they had an iconography of their own. Of somewhat less importance were knotted carpets made by Zangid craftsmen, two-colored silks being the speciality.
Zengids see Zangids
Zangids (Zengids). Dynasty of Turkish origin, which ruled in Mosul and Aleppo (r.1127-1222), and in Damasacus and Aleppo (r.1146-1181). Their main capital was Aleppo and Damascus in 1154. The founder of the dynasty was Aqsunqur, a Seljuk military slave and atabeg (tutor) to the Seljuk Tutush of Aleppo. His son, Imad al-Din Zangi (r. 1127-1146), became governor of Iraq (with Baghdad) in 1127 and conquered Mosul (in 1127), Aleppo (in 1128), and other Syrian towns. Through political skill and successful battles against the crusading nations, he acquired authority over Mesopotamia and large parts of Syria. While his son, Nur al-Din (r. 1146-1174), conquered Syria and occupied Damascus in 1154, his brother, Saif al-Din (r. 1146-1149), inherited Mesopotamia and established the Mosul dynastic branch (r. 1146-1262). Nur al-Din led Zangid rule to its apogee and was able to extend his sovereignty as far as Egypt (under the Fatimids) and over all branches of the family. His son, Isma‘il, was defeated in 1174 by the Ayyubids, under Saladin, who had risen in the service of the Zangids; the secondary dynastic branches in Sinjar (r. 1170-1220) and Jazira by the Ilkhanids in 1262.
The Zengid (or Zangid) dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin, which ruled parts of Syria and northern Iraq on behalf of the Seljuk Empire.
The dynasty was founded by Imad ed-Din Zengi (or Zangi), who became the Seljuk Atabeg (governor) of Mosul in 1127. He quickly became the chief Turkish potentate in Northern Syria and Iraq, taking Aleppo from the squabbling Ortoqid emirs in 1128, and capturing the County of Edessa from the Crusaders in 1144. This latter feat made Zengi a hero in the Muslim world, but he was assassinated by a slave two years later, in 1146.
On Zengi's death, his territories were divided, with Mosul and his lands in Iraq going to his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, and Aleppo and Edessa falling to his second son, Nur ad-Din Mahmud. Nur ad-Din proved to be as competent as his father. In 1149 he defeated and killed Prince Raymond of Antioch in battle, and the next year conquered the remnants of the County of Edessa west of the Euphrates River. In 1154 he capped off these successes by his capture of Damascus from the Burid Emirs who ruled it.
Now ruling from Damascus, Nur ad-Din's success continued. Another Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon was captured, and the territories of that Principality were greatly reduced. In the 1160s, Nur ad-Din's attention was mostly held by a competition with the King of Jerusalem, Amalric I, for control of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Ultimately, Nur ed-Din's Kurdish general Shirkuh was successful in conquering Egypt in 1169, but Shirkuh's nephew and successor as Governor of Egypt, Saladin, rejected Nur ad-Din's control.
Nur ad-Din was preparing to invade Egypt to bring Saladin under control when he unexpectedly died in 1174. His son and successor As-Salih Ismail al-Malik was only a child, and was forced to flee to Aleppo, which he ruled until 1181, when he was murdered and replaced by his relation, the Atabeg of Mosul. Saladin conquered Aleppo two years later, ending Zengid rule in Syria.
Zengid princes continued to rule in Northern Iraq well into the 13th Century, ruling Mosul until 1234; their rule did not come finally to an end until 1250.
The Zengid Atabegs and Emirs of Mosul were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1127-1146
* Saif ad-Din Ghazi I 1146-1149
* Qutb ad-Din Mawdud 1149-1170
* Saif ad-Din Ghazi II 1170-1180
* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud 1180-1193
* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah I 1193-1211
* Izz ad-Din Mas'ud II 1211-1218
* Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah II 1218-1219
* Nasir ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1234
The Zengid Emirs of Aleppo were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi I 1128-1146
* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1146-1174
* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174-1181
* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1181-1183
The Zengid Emirs of Damascus were:
* Nur ad-Din Mahmud 1154-1174
* As-Salih Ismail al-Malik 1174
The Zengid Emirs of Sinjar (in Northern Iraq) were:
* Imad ad-Din Zengi II 1171-1197
* Qutb ad-Din Muhammad 1197-1219
* Imad ad-Din Shahanshah 1219-1220
* Jalal ad-Din Mahmud 1219-1220
* Fath ad-Din Umar 1219-1220
The Zengid Emirs of Jazira (in Northern Iraq) were:
* Mu'izz ad-Din Sanjar Shah 1180-1208
* Mu'izz ad-Din Mahmud 1208-1241
* Mahmud Al-Malik Al-Zahir 1241-1250
After Zangī’s death in 1146, his sons divided the state between them, Syria falling to Nureddin (Nūr ad-Dīn Maḥmūd; r. 1146–74) and al-Jazīrah to Sayf ad-Dīn Ghāzī I (r. 1146–49). Nureddin’s expansionist policy led him to annex Damascus (1154), subjugate Egypt (1168), and present a broad and competent Muslim front against the crusaders, especially under such generals as Saladin, subsequent founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty of Egypt.
The Syrian branch of the Zangids was reunited with the Iraqi line in 1181 and was eventually absorbed into Saladin’s new empire. The Zangids held on to al-Jazīrah and successfully repulsed several attempts made by Saladin to capture Mosul (1182 and 1185). They were, however, forced to accept his suzerainty. The rise to power of Badr ad-Dīn Luʾluʾ, a former slave, as regent for the last Zangid, Nāṣir ad-Dīn Maḥmūd (reigned 1219–22), marked the end of the dynasty. Luʾluʾ ruled Mosul as atabeg from 1222 to 1259. Soon afterward the city fell to the Mongols.
A third branch of the Zangids had established themselves in Sinjār, west of Mosul, in 1170 and ruled there for about 50 years. The Ayyūbids completed several architectural works begun by the Zangids. The most noteworthy is the Great Mosque in Aleppo, completed in 1190. The building, a perfect continuation of the Zangid artistic tradition, demonstrates simplicity in decorative architecture. It is built around a large, open, marble-floored court, with a polychrome mihrab (prayer niche facing Mecca) and a tall, square minaret. Large areas of wall are left undecorated in contrast to the expressive but delicately carved marble inlay ornaments.
The Zangids are famous for their patronage of the 13th-century Mosul schools of metalwork and painting. Mosul produced the finest metal inlay pieces (usually bronze with silver inlay) in the Islāmic world at that time. Their craftsmen carried the technique to Aleppo, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and Iran, influencing the metalwork of those areas for centuries following. The Mosul school of painting was rivaled in Iraq only by the Baghdad school. Stylistically, Mosul miniatures were based heavily on Seljuq traditions, but they had an iconography of their own. Of somewhat less importance were knotted carpets made by Zangid craftsmen, two-colored silks being the speciality.
Zengids see Zangids
Zanj
Zanj (in plural form, Zunuj) (Zeng) (Zinj). Name of the black (African) tribes of the east coast of Africa. It was given by the Arab historians to the rebel slaves who, having previously rebelled in 694, for fifteen years (868-883) terrorized Lower Mesopotamia. They were led by a man called “the veiled”. They took al-Ubulla, now part of Basra; Abadan; Ahvaz, now the capital of Khuzistan; and finally Basra itself. They were in the end defeated by the ‘Abbasid regent al-Muwaffaq.
Zanj ("Land of the Blacks") was a name used by medieval Arab geographers to refer to both a certain portion of the coast of East Africa and its inhabitants. It is the origin of the place name Zanzibar.
The geographers divided the coast of East Africa at large into several regions based on each region's respective inhabitants. In northern Somalia was Barbara (around modern-day Berbera), which was the land of the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi (Berbers), as Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively. In modern-day Ethiopia was al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forbears of the Habesha.
Beyond the Abyssinian highlands and the Berber coast lay to the south Zanj (also transliterated as Zenj or Zinj), a land inhabited by Bantu-speaking peoples called the Zanj, which stretched from the area far south of present-day Mogadishu, to Pemba Island in Tanzania. South of Zanj lay the Land of Sofala in Mozambique, the northern limit of which may have been Pangani, opposite Pemba Island. And beyond Sofala was the obscure realm of Waq-Waq, also in Mozambique. The tenth century Arab historian and geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī describes Sofala as the furthest limit of the Zanj settlement and mentions its king's title as Mfalme (a Bantu word).
Arab writers used the term Zanj to refer to "Bantu-speaking Negroes" on the coast of East Africa and south of Barbara and Abyssinia. The Zanj traded extensively with Arabs, Persians and Indians, but only locally since they possessed no ocean-going ships. Through this trade, some Arabs intermarried with local Bantu women, which eventually gave rise to the Swahili culture and language -- both Bantu in origin but significantly influenced by foreign elements (e.g. clothing, loan words, etc.).
Prominent settlements of the Zanj coast included Shungwaya (Bur Gao), as well as Malindi, Gedi, and Mombasa. By the late medieval period, the area included at least 37 substantial Swahili trading towns, many of them quite wealthy. However, these communities never consolidated into a single political entity (the "Zanj Empire" being a late nineteenth century fiction).
The urban ruling and commercial classes of these Swahili settlements was occupied by Arab and Persian immigrants. The Bantu peoples inhabited the coastal regions, and were organized only as family groups. The term 'shenzi' used on the East African coast and derived from Swahili 'zanji' referred in a derogatory way to anything associated with rural blacks. An example of this would be the colonial term a 'shenzi' dog, referring to a native dog.
The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab masters in Iraq. Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanji) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Java.
The term "Zanj" apparently fell out of use in the tenth century. However, after 1861, when the area controlled by the Arab Sultan of Zanzibar was forced by the British to split with the parent country of Oman, it was often referred to as Zanj. The sea off the south-eastern coast of Africa was known as the "Sea of Zanj" and included the Mascarene islands and Madagascar. During the anti-apartheid struggle it was proposed that South Africa should assume the name 'Azania' to reflect ancient Zanj.
The Zanj Rebellion (869–883) was a black-slave revolt against the ʿAbbāsid caliphal empire. A number of Basran landowners had brought several thousand East African blacks (Zanj) into southern Iraq to drain the salt marshes east of Basra. The landowners subjected the Zanj, who generally spoke no Arabic, to heavy slave labor and provided them with only minimal subsistence. In September 869, ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad, a Persian claiming descent from ʿAlī, the fourth caliph, and Fāṭimah, Muḥammad’s daughter, gained the support of several slave-work crews—which could number from 500 to 5,000 men—by pointing out the injustice of their social position and promising them freedom and wealth. ʿAlī’s offers became even more attractive with his subsequent adoption of a Khārijite religious stance: anyone, even a black slave, could be elected caliph, and all non-Khārijites were infidels threatened by a holy war.
Zanj forces grew rapidly in size and power, absorbing the well-trained black contingents that defected from the defeated caliphal armies, along with some disaffected local peasantry. In October 869 they defeated a Basran force, and soon afterward a Zanj capital, al-Mukhtārah (Arabic: the Chosen), was built on an inaccessible dry spot in the salt flats, surrounded by canals. The rebels gained control of southern Iraq by capturing al-Ubullah (June 870), a seaport on the Persian Gulf, and cutting communications to Basra, then seized Ahvāz in southwestern Iran. The caliphal armies, now entrusted to al-Muwaffaq, a brother of the new caliph, al-Muʿtamid (r. 870–892), still could not cope with the rebels. The Zanj sacked Basra in September 871, and subsequently defeated al-Muwaffaq himself in April 872.
Between 872 and 879, while al-Muwaffaq was occupied in eastern Iran with the expansion of the Ṣaffārids, an independent Persian dynasty, the Zanj seized Wāsiṭ (878) and established themselves in Khuzistan, Iran. In 879, however, al-Muwaffaq organized a major offensive against the black slaves. Within a year, the second Zanj city, al-Manīʿah (The Impregnable), was taken. The rebels were next expelled from Khuzistan, and, in the spring of 881, al-Muwaffaq laid siege to al-Mukhtārah from a special city built on the other side of the Tigris River. Two years later, in August 883, reinforced by Egyptian troops, al-Muwaffaq finally crushed the rebellion, conquering the city and returning to Baghdad with ʿAlī’s head.
Zunuj see Zanj
Zeng see Zanj
Zinj see Zanj
Zanj (in plural form, Zunuj) (Zeng) (Zinj). Name of the black (African) tribes of the east coast of Africa. It was given by the Arab historians to the rebel slaves who, having previously rebelled in 694, for fifteen years (868-883) terrorized Lower Mesopotamia. They were led by a man called “the veiled”. They took al-Ubulla, now part of Basra; Abadan; Ahvaz, now the capital of Khuzistan; and finally Basra itself. They were in the end defeated by the ‘Abbasid regent al-Muwaffaq.
Zanj ("Land of the Blacks") was a name used by medieval Arab geographers to refer to both a certain portion of the coast of East Africa and its inhabitants. It is the origin of the place name Zanzibar.
The geographers divided the coast of East Africa at large into several regions based on each region's respective inhabitants. In northern Somalia was Barbara (around modern-day Berbera), which was the land of the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi (Berbers), as Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively. In modern-day Ethiopia was al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were the forbears of the Habesha.
Beyond the Abyssinian highlands and the Berber coast lay to the south Zanj (also transliterated as Zenj or Zinj), a land inhabited by Bantu-speaking peoples called the Zanj, which stretched from the area far south of present-day Mogadishu, to Pemba Island in Tanzania. South of Zanj lay the Land of Sofala in Mozambique, the northern limit of which may have been Pangani, opposite Pemba Island. And beyond Sofala was the obscure realm of Waq-Waq, also in Mozambique. The tenth century Arab historian and geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī describes Sofala as the furthest limit of the Zanj settlement and mentions its king's title as Mfalme (a Bantu word).
Arab writers used the term Zanj to refer to "Bantu-speaking Negroes" on the coast of East Africa and south of Barbara and Abyssinia. The Zanj traded extensively with Arabs, Persians and Indians, but only locally since they possessed no ocean-going ships. Through this trade, some Arabs intermarried with local Bantu women, which eventually gave rise to the Swahili culture and language -- both Bantu in origin but significantly influenced by foreign elements (e.g. clothing, loan words, etc.).
Prominent settlements of the Zanj coast included Shungwaya (Bur Gao), as well as Malindi, Gedi, and Mombasa. By the late medieval period, the area included at least 37 substantial Swahili trading towns, many of them quite wealthy. However, these communities never consolidated into a single political entity (the "Zanj Empire" being a late nineteenth century fiction).
The urban ruling and commercial classes of these Swahili settlements was occupied by Arab and Persian immigrants. The Bantu peoples inhabited the coastal regions, and were organized only as family groups. The term 'shenzi' used on the East African coast and derived from Swahili 'zanji' referred in a derogatory way to anything associated with rural blacks. An example of this would be the colonial term a 'shenzi' dog, referring to a native dog.
The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab masters in Iraq. Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanji) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Java.
The term "Zanj" apparently fell out of use in the tenth century. However, after 1861, when the area controlled by the Arab Sultan of Zanzibar was forced by the British to split with the parent country of Oman, it was often referred to as Zanj. The sea off the south-eastern coast of Africa was known as the "Sea of Zanj" and included the Mascarene islands and Madagascar. During the anti-apartheid struggle it was proposed that South Africa should assume the name 'Azania' to reflect ancient Zanj.
The Zanj Rebellion (869–883) was a black-slave revolt against the ʿAbbāsid caliphal empire. A number of Basran landowners had brought several thousand East African blacks (Zanj) into southern Iraq to drain the salt marshes east of Basra. The landowners subjected the Zanj, who generally spoke no Arabic, to heavy slave labor and provided them with only minimal subsistence. In September 869, ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad, a Persian claiming descent from ʿAlī, the fourth caliph, and Fāṭimah, Muḥammad’s daughter, gained the support of several slave-work crews—which could number from 500 to 5,000 men—by pointing out the injustice of their social position and promising them freedom and wealth. ʿAlī’s offers became even more attractive with his subsequent adoption of a Khārijite religious stance: anyone, even a black slave, could be elected caliph, and all non-Khārijites were infidels threatened by a holy war.
Zanj forces grew rapidly in size and power, absorbing the well-trained black contingents that defected from the defeated caliphal armies, along with some disaffected local peasantry. In October 869 they defeated a Basran force, and soon afterward a Zanj capital, al-Mukhtārah (Arabic: the Chosen), was built on an inaccessible dry spot in the salt flats, surrounded by canals. The rebels gained control of southern Iraq by capturing al-Ubullah (June 870), a seaport on the Persian Gulf, and cutting communications to Basra, then seized Ahvāz in southwestern Iran. The caliphal armies, now entrusted to al-Muwaffaq, a brother of the new caliph, al-Muʿtamid (r. 870–892), still could not cope with the rebels. The Zanj sacked Basra in September 871, and subsequently defeated al-Muwaffaq himself in April 872.
Between 872 and 879, while al-Muwaffaq was occupied in eastern Iran with the expansion of the Ṣaffārids, an independent Persian dynasty, the Zanj seized Wāsiṭ (878) and established themselves in Khuzistan, Iran. In 879, however, al-Muwaffaq organized a major offensive against the black slaves. Within a year, the second Zanj city, al-Manīʿah (The Impregnable), was taken. The rebels were next expelled from Khuzistan, and, in the spring of 881, al-Muwaffaq laid siege to al-Mukhtārah from a special city built on the other side of the Tigris River. Two years later, in August 883, reinforced by Egyptian troops, al-Muwaffaq finally crushed the rebellion, conquering the city and returning to Baghdad with ʿAlī’s head.
Zunuj see Zanj
Zeng see Zanj
Zinj see Zanj
Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-
Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al- (‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al- Zanjani) (al-‘Izzi). Arab grammarian of thirteenth century. Besides grammatical works, he wrote on the use of the astrolabe and made a collection of Arabic poems.
'Izz al-Din 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Zanjani see Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-
'Izzi, al- see Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-
Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al- (‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al- Zanjani) (al-‘Izzi). Arab grammarian of thirteenth century. Besides grammatical works, he wrote on the use of the astrolabe and made a collection of Arabic poems.
'Izz al-Din 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Zanjani see Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-
'Izzi, al- see Zanjani, ‘Izz al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-
Zarathustra
Zarathustra (Zoroaster) (Zartosht) (Avestan) (b. c. 628 B.C.T., probably Rhages, Iran - died c. 551). Iranian prophet and the founder ot the Zoroastrian religion. He is in many contexts called Zoroaster. There are several conflicting stories about Zarathustra, and many of these are too young to be historically acceptable. In short, there is much that is unknown about who Zarathustra was, as well as when and where he lived.
What is also not known fully is how much of the teachings and theology of Zoroastrianism comes from Zarathustra himself. There is good reason to believe that Zarathustra lived and worked in eastern Iran, considering the language used in the gathas, religious texts. It is said that Zarathustra was of the lineage of Spitama and that he worked as a sacrifice priest but held a low social status.
Zarathustra’s teachings can be seen in connection with the old Iranian cult of sacrifice, where he fought the ancient sacrifice of murder, where life comes from the repetition of the cosmogonic murder. Zarathustra did not go against the institution in itself, but he spent his time with opposing the taditional intentions with the sacrifice.
Zarathustra is in the Baha’i religion considered a true manifestation of God. Indeed, the Baha’i appear to accept Zarathustra in much the same way that Zoroastrians perceive him.
Zarathustra (Zoroaster) was an Iranian religious reformer and founder of Zoroastrianism, or Parsiism, as it is known in India.
A major personality in the history of the religions of the world, Zoroaster has been the object of much attention for two reasons. On the one hand, he became a legendary figure believed to be connected with occult knowledge and magical practices in the Near Eastern and Mediterranean world in the Hellenistic Age (c. 300 B.C.T. – c. 300 C.C.). On the other hand, his monotheistic concept of God has attracted the attention of modern historians of religion, who have speculated on the connections between his teaching and Judaism and Christianity. Though extreme claims of pan-Iranianism (i.e., that Zoroastrian or Iranian ideas influenced Greek, Roman, and Jewish thought) may be disregarded, the pervasive influence of Zoroaster’s religious thought must nevertheless be recognized.
The student of Zoroastrianism is confronted by several problems concerning the religion’s founder. One question is what part of Zoroastrianism derives from Zoroaster’s tribal religion and what part was new as a result of his visions and creative religious genius. Another question is the extent to which the later Zoroastrian religion (Mazdaism) of the Sāsānian period (224–651) genuinely reflected the teachings of Zoroaster. A third question is the extent to which the sources—the Avesta (the Zoroastrian scriptures) with the Gāthās (older hymns), the Middle Persian Pahlavi Books, and reports of various Greek authors—offer an authentic guide to Zoroaster’s ideas.
A biographical account of Zoroaster is tenuous at best or speculative at the other extreme. The date of Zoroaster’s life cannot be ascertained with any degree of certainty. According to Zoroastrian tradition, he flourished “258 years before Alexander.” Alexander the Great conquered Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenids, a dynasty that ruled Persia from 559 to 330 B.C.T., in 330 B.C.T. Following this dating, Zoroaster converted Vishtāspa, most likely a king of Chorasmia (an area south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia), in 588 B.C.T. According to tradition, he was 40 years old when this event occurred, thus indicating that his birthdate was 628 B.C.T. Zoroaster was born into a modestly situated family of knights, the Spitama, probably at Rhages (now Rayy, a suburb of Tehrān), a town in Media. The area in which he lived was not yet urban, its economy being based on animal husbandry and pastoral occupations. Nomads, who frequently raided those engaged in such occupations, were viewed by Zoroaster as aggressive violators of order, and he called them followers of the Lie.
According to the sources, Zoroaster probably was a priest. Having received a vision from Ahura Mazdā, the Wise Lord, who appointed him to preach the truth, Zoroaster apparently was opposed in his teachings by the civil and religious authorities in the area in which he preached. It is not clear whether these authorities were from his native region or from Chorasmia prior to the conversion of Vishtāspa. Confident in the truth revealed to him by Ahura Mazdā, Zoroaster apparently did not try to overthrow belief in the older Iranian religion, which was polytheistic; he did, however, place Ahura Mazdā at the center of a kingdom of justice that promised immortality and bliss. Though he attempted to reform ancient Iranian religion on the basis of the existing social and economic values, Zoroaster’s teachings at first aroused opposition from those whom he called the followers of the Lie (dregvant).
Zoroaster’s teachings centered on Ahura Mazdā, who is the highest god and alone is worthy of worship. He is, according to the Gāthās, the creator of heaven and earth; i.e., of the material and the spiritual world. He is the source of the alternation of light and darkness, the sovereign lawgiver, and the very center of nature, as well as the originator of the moral order and judge of the entire world. The kind of polytheism found in the Indian Vedas (Hindu scriptures having the same religious background as the Gāthās) is totally absent; the Gāthās, for example, mention no female deity sharing Ahura Mazdā’s rule. He is surrounded by six or seven beings, or entities, which the later Avesta calls amesha spentas, “beneficent immortals.” The names of the amesha spentas frequently recur throughout the Gāthās and may be said to characterize Zoroaster’s thought and his concept of god. In the words of the Gāthās, Ahura Mazdā is the father of Spenta Mainyu (Holy Spirit), of Asha Vahishta (Justice, Truth), of Vohu Manah (Righteous Thinking), and of Armaiti (Spenta Armaiti, Devotion). The other three beings (entities) of this group are said to personify qualities attributed to Ahura Mazdā: they are Khshathra Vairya (Desirable Dominion), Haurvatāt (Wholeness), and Ameretāt (Immortality). This does not exclude the possibility that they, too, are creatures of Ahura Mazdā. The good qualities represented by these beings are also to be earned and possessed by Ahura Mazdā’s followers. This means that the gods and mankind are both bound to observe the same ethical principles. If the amesha spentas show the working of the deity, while at the same time constituting the order binding the adherents of the Wise Lord, then the world of Ahura Mazdā and the world of his followers (the ashavan) come close to each other. The very significant eschatological aspect of Zoroastrianism is well demonstrated by the concept of Khshathra (Dominion), which is repeatedly accompanied by the adjective Desirable. It is a kingdom yet to come.
The conspicuous monotheism of Zoroaster’s teaching is apparently disturbed by a pronounced dualism: the Wise Lord has an opponent, Ahriman, who embodies the principle of evil, and whose followers, having freely chosen him, also are evil. This ethical dualism is rooted in the Zoroastrian cosmology. He taught that in the beginning there was a meeting of the two spirits, who were free to choose—in the words of the Gāthās—“life or not life.” This original choice gave birth to a good and an evil principle. Corresponding to the former is a Kingdom of Justice and Truth; to the latter, the Kingdom of the Lie (Druj), populated by the daevas, the evil spirits (originally prominent old Indo-Iranian gods). Monotheism, however, prevails over the cosmogonic and ethical dualism because Ahura Mazdā is father of both spirits, who were divided into the two opposed principles only through their choice and decision.
The Wise Lord, together with the amesha spentas, will at last vanquish the spirit of evil: this message, implying the end of the cosmic and ethical dualism, seems to constitute Zoroaster’s main religious reform. His monotheistic solution resolves the old strict dualism. The dualist principle, however, reappears in an acute form in a later period, after Zoroaster. It is achieved only at the expense of Ahura Mazdā, by then called Ohrmazd, who is brought down to the level of his opponent, Ahriman. At the beginning of time, the world was divided into the dominion of the good and of the evil. Between these, each man is bound to decide. He is free and must choose either the Wise Lord and his rule or Ahriman, the Lie. The same is true of the spiritual beings, who are good or bad according to their choices. From man’s freedom of decision it follows that he is finally responsible for his fate. Through his good deeds, the righteous person (ashavan) earns an everlasting reward, namely integrity and immortality. He who opts for the lie is condemned by his own conscience as well as by the judgment of the Wise Lord and must expect to continue in the most miserable form of existence, one more or less corresponding to the Christian concept of hell. According to Avestan belief, there is no reversal and no deviation possible once a man has made his decision. Thus, the world is divided into two hostile blocks, whose members represent two warring dominions. On the side of the Wise Lord are the settled herdsmen or farmers, caring for their cattle and living in a definite social order. The follower of the Lie (Druj) is a thieving nomad, an enemy of orderly agriculture and animal husbandry.
The Gāthās, the early hymns, many of which may have been written by Zoroaster, are permeated by eschatological thinking. Almost every passage contains some reference to the fate awaiting men in the afterlife. Each act, speech, and thought is viewed as being related to an existence after death. The earthly state is connected with a state beyond, in which the Wise Lord will reward the good act, speech, and thought and punish the bad. This motive for doing good seems to be the strongest available to Zoroaster in his message. After death, the soul of man must pass over the Bridge of the Requiter (Činvat), which everyone looks upon with fear and anxiety. After judgment is passed by Ahura Mazdā, the good enter the kingdom of everlasting joy and light, and the bad are consigned to the regions of horror and darkness. Zoroaster, however, goes beyond this, announcing an end phase for the visible world, “the last turn of creation.” In this last phase, Ahriman will be destroyed, and the world will be wonderfully renewed and be inhabited by the good, who will live in heavenly joy. Later forms of Zoroastrianism teach a resurrection of the dead, a teaching for which some basis may be found in the Gāthās. Through the resurrection of the dead, the renewal of the world bestows a last fulfillment on the followers of the Wise Lord.
Zoroaster forbade all sacrifices in honor of Ahriman or of his adherents, the daevas, who from pre-Zoroastrian times had degenerated into hostile deities. In the prevailing religious tradition, Zoroaster probably found that the practice of sacrificing cattle, combined with the consumption of intoxicating drinks (haoma), led to orgiastic excess. In his reform, Zoroaster did not, as some scholars would have it, abolish all animal sacrifice but
simply the orgiastic and intoxicating rites that accompanied it. The haoma sacrifice, too, was to be thought of as a symbolic offering; it may have consisted of unfermented drink or an intoxicating beverage or plant. Zoroaster retained the ancient cult of fire. This cult and its various rites were later extended and given a definite order by the priestly class of the Magi. Its center, the eternal flame in the Temple of Fire, was constantly linked with the priestly service and with the haoma sacrifice.
After the conversion of Vishtāspa to such teachings, Zoroaster remained at the court of the king. Other officials were converted, and a daughter of Zoroaster apparently married Jāmāsp, a minister of the king. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years, thus indicating that he died about 551 B.C.T. After his death, many legends arose about him. According to these legends, nature rejoiced at his birth, and he preached to many nations, founded sacred fires, and fought in a sacred war. He was viewed as a model for priests, warriors, and agriculturalists, as well as a skilled craftsman and healer. The Greeks regarded him as a philosopher, mathematician, astrologer, or magician. Jews and Christians regarded him as an astrologer, magician, prophet, or arch heretic. Not until the 18th century did a more scholarly assessment of Zoroaster’s career and influence emerge.
Zoroaster see Zarathustra
Zartosht see Zarathustra
Avestan see Zarathustra
After the conversion of Vishtāspa to such teachings, Zoroaster remained at the court of the king. Other officials were converted, and a daughter of Zoroaster apparently married Jāmāsp, a minister of the king. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years, thus indicating that he died about 551 B.C.T. After his death, many legends arose about him. According to these legends, nature rejoiced at his birth, and he preached to many nations, founded sacred fires, and fought in a sacred war. He was viewed as a model for priests, warriors, and agriculturalists, as well as a skilled craftsman and healer. The Greeks regarded him as a philosopher, mathematician, astrologer, or magician. Jews and Christians regarded him as an astrologer, magician, prophet, or arch heretic. Not until the 18th century did a more scholarly assessment of Zoroaster’s career and influence emerge.
Zoroaster see Zarathustra
Zartosht see Zarathustra
Avestan see Zarathustra
Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji) (Burhan al-Din) (Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji) (az-Zarnuji) (Al-Zarnuji) (d. 1223). Arab philosopher of the thirteenth century. He composed a vademecum for students to teach them the ethical outlook of the man of learning, which became very popular.
Al-Zarnuji was a Muslim scholar and the author of Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum (Instruction of the Student: The Method of Learning).
Al-Zarnuji was born and lived in Zarnuj, a well-known town beyond the river Oxus in the present Turkistan.
He studied with many shaykhs including: Shaykh 'Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Marghiyani al-Rushdani (the author of al-Hidayah); Shaykh Abu al-Muhamid Qawaduddin Hammad ibn Ibrahim al-Saffar; the great Shaykh Hasan ibn Mansur Qadiykhani; and others.
The works include:
Al-Zarnuji's treatise, Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum, is a short introduction to the secrets of attaining knowledge. Acknowledged by many as a book in which even the most advanced and experienced teachers find advice they have yet to apply in their teaching, this book serves to create the proper framework for the Sharia program and its students and teachers alike.
Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Burhan al-Din see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
az-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji) (Burhan al-Din) (Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji) (az-Zarnuji) (Al-Zarnuji) (d. 1223). Arab philosopher of the thirteenth century. He composed a vademecum for students to teach them the ethical outlook of the man of learning, which became very popular.
Al-Zarnuji was a Muslim scholar and the author of Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum (Instruction of the Student: The Method of Learning).
Al-Zarnuji was born and lived in Zarnuj, a well-known town beyond the river Oxus in the present Turkistan.
He studied with many shaykhs including: Shaykh 'Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Marghiyani al-Rushdani (the author of al-Hidayah); Shaykh Abu al-Muhamid Qawaduddin Hammad ibn Ibrahim al-Saffar; the great Shaykh Hasan ibn Mansur Qadiykhani; and others.
The works include:
Al-Zarnuji's treatise, Ta'lim al-Muta'allim-Tariq at-Ta'-allum, is a short introduction to the secrets of attaining knowledge. Acknowledged by many as a book in which even the most advanced and experienced teachers find advice they have yet to apply in their teaching, this book serves to create the proper framework for the Sharia program and its students and teachers alike.
Burhan al-Din al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Burhan al-Din see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Burhan al-Islam al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
az-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Al-Zarnuji see Zarnuji, Burhan al-Din al-
Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al- (Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali) (Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī) (Arzachel) (1028/1029-1087). Spanish Arab. He was the foremost astronomer of his time. Al-Zarqali carried out a series of astronomical observations at Toledo (in Arabic, al-Tulaytalah) and compiled them in what is known as his famous Toledan Tables. Al-Zarqali corrected Ptolemy’s estimate of the length of the Mediterranean Sea from 62 degrees to approximately correct value of 42 degrees. The Toledo Tables were translated into Latin in the twelfth century.
Al-Zarqali was the first to prove conclusively the motion of the Aphelion relative to the stars. He measured its rate of motion as 12.04 seconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.8 seconds. Al-Zarqali invented a flat astrolabe which is known as Safihah. Its details were published in Latin, Hebrew and several European languages.
Copernicus in his famous book De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium expresses his indebtedness to al-Battani (Albategnius) and al-Zarqali (Arzachel) and quotes their work several times. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond named a surface feature of the Moon after al-Zarqali (Arzachel). It is a plain more than sixty miles in diameter and is surrounded by rows of mountains rising like terraces to heights of 13,000 feet above the interior region. It also includes several hills and craters and a prominent cleft by the side of the base of the western mountainous wall.
Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī was an instrument maker and one of the leading theoretical and practical astronomers of his time. Although his name is conventionally given as al-Zarqālī, it is probable that the correct form was al-Zarqālluh. He lived in Toledo in Castile, Al-Andalus (now Spain), moving to Córdoba later in his life. His works inspired a generation of Islamic astronomers in Andalusia.
The crater Arzachel on the Moon is named after him.
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Arzachel see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al- (Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali) (Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī) (Arzachel) (1028/1029-1087). Spanish Arab. He was the foremost astronomer of his time. Al-Zarqali carried out a series of astronomical observations at Toledo (in Arabic, al-Tulaytalah) and compiled them in what is known as his famous Toledan Tables. Al-Zarqali corrected Ptolemy’s estimate of the length of the Mediterranean Sea from 62 degrees to approximately correct value of 42 degrees. The Toledo Tables were translated into Latin in the twelfth century.
Al-Zarqali was the first to prove conclusively the motion of the Aphelion relative to the stars. He measured its rate of motion as 12.04 seconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.8 seconds. Al-Zarqali invented a flat astrolabe which is known as Safihah. Its details were published in Latin, Hebrew and several European languages.
Copernicus in his famous book De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium expresses his indebtedness to al-Battani (Albategnius) and al-Zarqali (Arzachel) and quotes their work several times. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond named a surface feature of the Moon after al-Zarqali (Arzachel). It is a plain more than sixty miles in diameter and is surrounded by rows of mountains rising like terraces to heights of 13,000 feet above the interior region. It also includes several hills and craters and a prominent cleft by the side of the base of the western mountainous wall.
Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī was an instrument maker and one of the leading theoretical and practical astronomers of his time. Although his name is conventionally given as al-Zarqālī, it is probable that the correct form was al-Zarqālluh. He lived in Toledo in Castile, Al-Andalus (now Spain), moving to Córdoba later in his life. His works inspired a generation of Islamic astronomers in Andalusia.
The crater Arzachel on the Moon is named after him.
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Zarqali see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Arzachel see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī see Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-
Zawahiri, Ayman al-
Ayman al-Zawahiri, also spelled Ayman al-Ẓawāhirī, also called ʿAbd al-Muʿizz, (b. June 19, 1951, Giza, Kingdom of Egypt — d. July 31, 2022, Kabul, Afghanistan), was an Egyptian physician and militant who became one of the major ideologues of al-Qaeda. Zawahiri led al-Qaeda from 2011 until his death in 2022.
Zawahiri was raised in Maʿādī, Egypt, several miles south of Cairo. Although his parents were from prominent families, Zawahiri and his siblings were raised in a relatively humble environment. Zawahiri was a pious youth. As a student, he was greatly influenced by the work of Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian writer who was one of the foremost figures in modern Sunni Islamic revivalism. By the age of 15, Zawahiri had established a group dedicated to the overthrow of the Egyptian government in favor of Islamic rule.
Zawahiri then studied at Cairo University’s medical school, where he specialized in surgery. There he also continued his clandestine cactivities. He graduated in 1974 and then served for three years as an army surgeon. In 1980–81 he traveled as a relief worker with the Red Crescent to Peshawar, Pakistan, where he treated refugees affected by the Afghan War. During that time he made several cross-border trips into Afghanistan, where he witnessed the warfare firsthand.
After returning to Egypt, Zawahiri was one of several hundred militants arrested in the wake of the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in October 1981. Zawahiri was convicted of illegal arms possession and imprisoned for three years. During that time he was subjected to torture by intelligence officers interested in information about his contacts, an experience that intensified his militancy. In 1984, Zawahiri was released from prison. The following year he left for Saudi Arabia. From Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, he returned to Peshawar and then moved on to Afghanistan. During this period, Zawahiri became acquainted with Osama bin Laden, a wealthy Saudi who had joined the Afghan resistance to the Soviets. In 1988, Zawahiri was present at the founding of al-Qaeda.
In the early 1990s, Zawahiri assumed leadership of the militant group Egyptain Islamic Jihad (EIJ). Bin Laden had departed for Sudan in 1992, and Zawahiri ultimately joined him there. Sudan served as a base for the training of militants and for attacks on Egyptian targets, including attacks on government officials and on the Egyptian embassy in Pakistan. In June 1995, an unsuccessful attempt was made to assassinate Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Under international pressure, the Sudanese eventually expelled Zawahiri and bin Laden, along with their followers.
Zawahiri’s next movements are unclear. he appears to have traveled to European countries that included Switzerland, Bulgaria, and the Netherlands. In late 1996 he was arrested by Russian officials while illegally crossing the border en route to Chechnya, where he planned to launch a new base for EIJ. Although he was jailed for six months, Russian agents were apparently unaware of his identity until after his release.
In 1998, Zawahiri and bin Laden forged a formal alliance, and in June 2001 EIJ and al-Qaeda were merged. Zawahiri was closely affiliated with both the bombing of the USS Cole in October 2000 and the attacks of September 11, 2001. Zawahiri gradually became al-Qaeda’s chief spokesman, issuing commentary on issues such as the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the 2006 warfare between Hezbollah and Israel. In 2009, the United States Department of State determined that Zawahiri appeared to be al-Qaeda’s leading decision maker, while bin Laden reportedly occupied a figurehead status.
Zawahiri assumed formal leadership of al-Qaeda in June 2011, following bin Laden’s death during an American commando raid in Abbottabad, Pakistan, the previous month. The group struggled to reclaim its relevance and maintain its organizational integrity after Zawahiri took the reins. Al-Qaeda's affiliate in Iraq, the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL); also called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria [ISIS]), bucked Zawahiri’s management in 2013. The Nusrah Front, al-Qaeda’s most prominent affiliate in the Syrian Civil War, rejected Zawahiri’s command in 2016. Both groups ultimately severed ties with al-Qaeda.
After the Taliban gained control of Afghanistan in 2021, and after the United States withdrew its remaining troops, Zawahiri took up residence in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. The United States, after learning his whereabouts, killed Ayman al-Zawahiri with a drone strike on July 31, 2022.
Zaydan, Jirji
Zaydan, Jirji (Jirji Zaydan) (1861-1914). Christian Arab scholar, journalist and man of letters from Egypt. He wrote many novels, the majority of which deal with the history of Islam from the Arab conquest to the beginning of the Mameluke dynasty. They were translated into several languages. Their main value lies in the popularizing of history. His best known works are the History of Muslim Civilization and the History of the Arabic Literature.
Jirji Zaydan see Zaydan, Jirji
Zaydan, Jirji (Jirji Zaydan) (1861-1914). Christian Arab scholar, journalist and man of letters from Egypt. He wrote many novels, the majority of which deal with the history of Islam from the Arab conquest to the beginning of the Mameluke dynasty. They were translated into several languages. Their main value lies in the popularizing of history. His best known works are the History of Muslim Civilization and the History of the Arabic Literature.
Jirji Zaydan see Zaydan, Jirji
Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin
Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin (Zayd ibn 'Ali) (Zaid ibn 'Ali) (695-740) was a Shi‘a leader of a rebellion against the Umayyads of the eighth century. He was a grandson of al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali and placed himself at the disposal of the people of Kufa as Imam. He was mortally wounded during street fighting against the troops of the governor Yusuf ibn ‘Umar al-Thaqafi. The Zaydiyya, to which he gave his name, revere him as a political and religious martyr. He is deemed to be the fifth Shi‘a imam.
Zayd ibn ‘Alī was the grandson of Husayn ibn Alī, the grandson of Muhammad. Zayd was born in Medina in 695. His father was the Shī‘ah Imam ‘Alī ibn Husayn "Zayn al-Abidīn". Zayd’s mother was of Sindhi origin and was named Jaydā, who is said to have been presented to his father by the Shī'ī rebel leader al-Mukhtār.
Historians of both Shi'is and Sunnis recorded that when Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik became the caliph, he committed many atrocities. With regard to the Bani Hashim, he was particularly cruel. At last, Zayd ibn ‘Ali, well known as a great scholar and a pious theologian, went to see the caliph to seek redress for the grievances of the Bani Hashim. As soon as Zayd arrived, the caliph, instead of greeting him as a direct descendant of the prophet, abused him with such abominable language that it can not be repeated. Because of this disgraceful treatment, Zayd left Syria for Kufa, where he raised an army against the Bani Umayyad. The governor of Kufa, Yusuf ibn 'Umar al-Thaqafi came out with a huge army to face him. Zayd recited the following war poem: "Disgraceful life and honorable death: both are bitter morsels, but if one of them must be chosen, my choice is honorable death."
Although he fought bravely, Zayd was killed in battle on the 2nd of Safar in 740 at the age of forty-two by Yusuf ibn 'Amr ath-Thaqafi (the Umayyad governor). His son, Yahya, took his body from the field and buried him away from the city near the river bank, causing the water to flow over it. However, the grave was discovered and, under Yusuf's orders, the body was exhumed, Zayd's head was cut off and sent to Hisham in Syria. Hisham had the sacred body of this descendant of the Prophet placed on the gallows entirely naked. For four years the sacred body remained on the gallows. Thereafter, when Walid ibn Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became caliph, he ordered that the skeleton be taken down from the gallows, burned, and the ashes scattered to the wind.
Zayd ibn 'Ali see Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin
Zaid ibn 'Ali see Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin
Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin (Zayd ibn 'Ali) (Zaid ibn 'Ali) (695-740) was a Shi‘a leader of a rebellion against the Umayyads of the eighth century. He was a grandson of al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali and placed himself at the disposal of the people of Kufa as Imam. He was mortally wounded during street fighting against the troops of the governor Yusuf ibn ‘Umar al-Thaqafi. The Zaydiyya, to which he gave his name, revere him as a political and religious martyr. He is deemed to be the fifth Shi‘a imam.
Zayd ibn ‘Alī was the grandson of Husayn ibn Alī, the grandson of Muhammad. Zayd was born in Medina in 695. His father was the Shī‘ah Imam ‘Alī ibn Husayn "Zayn al-Abidīn". Zayd’s mother was of Sindhi origin and was named Jaydā, who is said to have been presented to his father by the Shī'ī rebel leader al-Mukhtār.
Historians of both Shi'is and Sunnis recorded that when Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik became the caliph, he committed many atrocities. With regard to the Bani Hashim, he was particularly cruel. At last, Zayd ibn ‘Ali, well known as a great scholar and a pious theologian, went to see the caliph to seek redress for the grievances of the Bani Hashim. As soon as Zayd arrived, the caliph, instead of greeting him as a direct descendant of the prophet, abused him with such abominable language that it can not be repeated. Because of this disgraceful treatment, Zayd left Syria for Kufa, where he raised an army against the Bani Umayyad. The governor of Kufa, Yusuf ibn 'Umar al-Thaqafi came out with a huge army to face him. Zayd recited the following war poem: "Disgraceful life and honorable death: both are bitter morsels, but if one of them must be chosen, my choice is honorable death."
Although he fought bravely, Zayd was killed in battle on the 2nd of Safar in 740 at the age of forty-two by Yusuf ibn 'Amr ath-Thaqafi (the Umayyad governor). His son, Yahya, took his body from the field and buried him away from the city near the river bank, causing the water to flow over it. However, the grave was discovered and, under Yusuf's orders, the body was exhumed, Zayd's head was cut off and sent to Hisham in Syria. Hisham had the sacred body of this descendant of the Prophet placed on the gallows entirely naked. For four years the sacred body remained on the gallows. Thereafter, when Walid ibn Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became caliph, he ordered that the skeleton be taken down from the gallows, burned, and the ashes scattered to the wind.
Zayd ibn 'Ali see Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin
Zaid ibn 'Ali see Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin
Zayd ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl
Zayd ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl. Member of the Quraysh at Mecca, and a seeker of the original and true monotheistic religion (in Arabic, hanif). He died before the beginning of the Prophet’s mission, but tradition considers him a true believer.
Zayd ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl. Member of the Quraysh at Mecca, and a seeker of the original and true monotheistic religion (in Arabic, hanif). He died before the beginning of the Prophet’s mission, but tradition considers him a true believer.
Zayd ibn Haritha
Zayd ibn Haritha (Zayd ibn Harithah) (Zayd mawla Muhammad) (c. 588-629). Slave from Syria whom Khadija presented to the Prophet as a gift before his mission. The Prophet freed and adopted him. He was one of the very first converts to Islam, perhaps the first.
Zayd ibn Harithah was a prominent figure in the early Islamic community and the only one of the sahaba whose name is spelled directly in the Qur'an. As an adopted son of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, he was an early convert to Islam and later, a military leader. He died in 629 at the Battle of Mu'tah.
Zayd was the natural son of a man named Harithah and was adopted by Muhammad. Many years later Harithah found Zayd and asked if his son wanted to go home with him. Zayd said no and that he would stay due to the great love that Muhammad had shown him. Little is known of Zayd's natural father. Some sources say that Harithah was descended from the Arab poet Imru' al-Qais. One or more of his ancestors may have been of African descent, as he is said to have had very dark skin.
Zayd is said to have been captured in an inter-tribal war and sold as a slave. He was given as a present to Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. The couple freed him and treated him as a son; he was then known as Zayd ibn Muhammad, Zayd son of Muhammad. He lived with Muhammad and Khadijah in their household in the city of Mecca in the Hejaz region of western Arabia. Zayd's father and uncle came to take him back home from Muhammad, but he preferred living with his adoptive family.
When Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation from the angel Gabriel, his wife Khadijah believed and thus became the first convert to Islam. While the identity of the first male convert is disputed, Zayd is a strong possibility, as are Ali and Abu Bakr. Regardless, Zayd was clearly among the first Muslims. As Muhammad's adopted son he quickly became an important figure in the small community of pre-Hijra Meccan Muslims.
In 622, Zayd, as part of the Hijra, emigrated to the oasis of Yathrib (later called Medina) with the rest of the small Muslim community.
Zaynab bint Jahsh was his wife. He later divorced her and Muhammad married her.
Zayd took part in an expedition in 629. A Muslim force of 3,000 men set out to raid the Byzantine city of Bosra. They were intercepted at a place called Mu'tah. The Battle of Mu'tah was a rare reverse for the Muslims. Zayd was killed as he held the standard, as were two other leaders, Ja`far ibn Abī Tālib and `Abd Allah ibn Rawahah. He was the first Muslim to be killed on foreign soil.
Zayd was the father of Usama bin Zayd bin Harithah.
Zayd ibn Harithah see Zayd ibn Haritha
Zayd mawla Muhammad see Zayd ibn Haritha
Zayd ibn Haritha (Zayd ibn Harithah) (Zayd mawla Muhammad) (c. 588-629). Slave from Syria whom Khadija presented to the Prophet as a gift before his mission. The Prophet freed and adopted him. He was one of the very first converts to Islam, perhaps the first.
Zayd ibn Harithah was a prominent figure in the early Islamic community and the only one of the sahaba whose name is spelled directly in the Qur'an. As an adopted son of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, he was an early convert to Islam and later, a military leader. He died in 629 at the Battle of Mu'tah.
Zayd was the natural son of a man named Harithah and was adopted by Muhammad. Many years later Harithah found Zayd and asked if his son wanted to go home with him. Zayd said no and that he would stay due to the great love that Muhammad had shown him. Little is known of Zayd's natural father. Some sources say that Harithah was descended from the Arab poet Imru' al-Qais. One or more of his ancestors may have been of African descent, as he is said to have had very dark skin.
Zayd is said to have been captured in an inter-tribal war and sold as a slave. He was given as a present to Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. The couple freed him and treated him as a son; he was then known as Zayd ibn Muhammad, Zayd son of Muhammad. He lived with Muhammad and Khadijah in their household in the city of Mecca in the Hejaz region of western Arabia. Zayd's father and uncle came to take him back home from Muhammad, but he preferred living with his adoptive family.
When Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation from the angel Gabriel, his wife Khadijah believed and thus became the first convert to Islam. While the identity of the first male convert is disputed, Zayd is a strong possibility, as are Ali and Abu Bakr. Regardless, Zayd was clearly among the first Muslims. As Muhammad's adopted son he quickly became an important figure in the small community of pre-Hijra Meccan Muslims.
In 622, Zayd, as part of the Hijra, emigrated to the oasis of Yathrib (later called Medina) with the rest of the small Muslim community.
Zaynab bint Jahsh was his wife. He later divorced her and Muhammad married her.
Zayd took part in an expedition in 629. A Muslim force of 3,000 men set out to raid the Byzantine city of Bosra. They were intercepted at a place called Mu'tah. The Battle of Mu'tah was a rare reverse for the Muslims. Zayd was killed as he held the standard, as were two other leaders, Ja`far ibn Abī Tālib and `Abd Allah ibn Rawahah. He was the first Muslim to be killed on foreign soil.
Zayd was the father of Usama bin Zayd bin Harithah.
Zayd ibn Harithah see Zayd ibn Haritha
Zayd mawla Muhammad see Zayd ibn Haritha
Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak
Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak (Zayd ibn Thabit) (Zaid ibn Thabit) (d. 665). Companion of the Prophet. He became the Prophet’s secretary, and is best known for his part in the editing of the Qur’an.
Zayd ibn Thabit was the personal scribe of Muhammad and an Ansar. When Zayd ibn Thabit was 6 years old his father died in the Battle of Bu'ath. Zayd was 13 years old when he asked permission to participate in the Battle of Badr. Since he was younger than 15 years old, Muhammad did not allow him to do so, and sent him back. He then decided to try to win favor with Muhammad by learning the Qur'an. Later on he was appointed to write letters to non-Muslims and to collect and keep record of the Qur'anic verses.
Zayd was among those chosen by Muhammad to write down the verses of the Qur'an.
He used to spend most of his time reciting the Qur'an, and continued to learn the Quranic verses as they were recited by Muhammad.
Zayd later volunteered to fight when he was 19 years old. This time he was accepted in the ranks of the Muslim army. Zayd's time to fight had come nine years after the establishment of the Muslim community in Medina.
Zayd had the role of writing down the Quranic verses that were sent to Muhammad from Allah through the Angel Gabriel.
After the departure of Muhammad from this world the task fell on Ibn Thabit, who specialized in the Qur'an, to authenticate the first and most important reference for the ummah of Muhammad. This became an urgent task after the wars of apostasy and the Battle of Yamamah in particular in which a large number of those who had committed the Qur'an to memory perished. Umar convinced the Khalifah Abu Bakr that the Qur'an should be collected in one manuscript.
During Abu Bakr's reign as caliph, he was given the task of collecting the Quranic verses from all over Arabia. Zayd finally accepted the task and started locating the Quranic material and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leafstalks of date palms and from the memories of men who knew it by heart.
When Zayd had completed his task, he left the prepared suhuf (sheets) with Abu Bakr. Before he died, Abu Bakr left the suhuf with Umar who in turn left it with his daughter Hafsah. Hafsah, Umm Salamah, and Aishah were wives of Muhammad who memorized the Qur'an.
Zayd completed the task, compiling a version of the Qur'an called Mushaf, and delivered the copy to Abu Bakr.
Zayd ibn Thabit thus became one of the foremost authorities on the Qur'an. Umar ibn al-Khattab once addressed the Muslims and said: "O people, whoever wants to ask about the Qur'an, let him go to Zayd ibn Thabit."
During the time of Uthman, by which time Islam had spread far and wide, differences in reading the Qur'an in different dialects of Arabic language became obvious. A group of companions, headed by Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, who was then stationed in Iraq, came to Uthman and urged him to "save the Muslim ummah before they differ about the Qur'an". Uthman obtained the manuscript of the Qur'an from Hafsah and again summoned the leading authority, Zayd ibn Thabit, and some other companions to make copies of it. Zayd was put in charge of the task. The style of Arabic dialect used was that of the Quraish tribe. Hence this style was emphasized over all others.
Zayd and other Companions copied many copies. One of these was sent to every Muslim province with the order that all other Quranic materials, whether fragmentary or complete copies, be burned. When standard copies were made and were widely available to the Muslim community everywhere then all other material was burned voluntarily by the Muslim community themselves. This was important in order to eliminate variations or differences in the dialect from the standard text of the Qur'an. The Caliph Uthman kept a copy for himself and returned the original manuscript to Hafsah.
Zayd ibn Thabit see Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak
Zaid ibn Thabit see Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak
Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak (Zayd ibn Thabit) (Zaid ibn Thabit) (d. 665). Companion of the Prophet. He became the Prophet’s secretary, and is best known for his part in the editing of the Qur’an.
Zayd ibn Thabit was the personal scribe of Muhammad and an Ansar. When Zayd ibn Thabit was 6 years old his father died in the Battle of Bu'ath. Zayd was 13 years old when he asked permission to participate in the Battle of Badr. Since he was younger than 15 years old, Muhammad did not allow him to do so, and sent him back. He then decided to try to win favor with Muhammad by learning the Qur'an. Later on he was appointed to write letters to non-Muslims and to collect and keep record of the Qur'anic verses.
Zayd was among those chosen by Muhammad to write down the verses of the Qur'an.
He used to spend most of his time reciting the Qur'an, and continued to learn the Quranic verses as they were recited by Muhammad.
Zayd later volunteered to fight when he was 19 years old. This time he was accepted in the ranks of the Muslim army. Zayd's time to fight had come nine years after the establishment of the Muslim community in Medina.
Zayd had the role of writing down the Quranic verses that were sent to Muhammad from Allah through the Angel Gabriel.
After the departure of Muhammad from this world the task fell on Ibn Thabit, who specialized in the Qur'an, to authenticate the first and most important reference for the ummah of Muhammad. This became an urgent task after the wars of apostasy and the Battle of Yamamah in particular in which a large number of those who had committed the Qur'an to memory perished. Umar convinced the Khalifah Abu Bakr that the Qur'an should be collected in one manuscript.
During Abu Bakr's reign as caliph, he was given the task of collecting the Quranic verses from all over Arabia. Zayd finally accepted the task and started locating the Quranic material and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leafstalks of date palms and from the memories of men who knew it by heart.
When Zayd had completed his task, he left the prepared suhuf (sheets) with Abu Bakr. Before he died, Abu Bakr left the suhuf with Umar who in turn left it with his daughter Hafsah. Hafsah, Umm Salamah, and Aishah were wives of Muhammad who memorized the Qur'an.
Zayd completed the task, compiling a version of the Qur'an called Mushaf, and delivered the copy to Abu Bakr.
Zayd ibn Thabit thus became one of the foremost authorities on the Qur'an. Umar ibn al-Khattab once addressed the Muslims and said: "O people, whoever wants to ask about the Qur'an, let him go to Zayd ibn Thabit."
During the time of Uthman, by which time Islam had spread far and wide, differences in reading the Qur'an in different dialects of Arabic language became obvious. A group of companions, headed by Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, who was then stationed in Iraq, came to Uthman and urged him to "save the Muslim ummah before they differ about the Qur'an". Uthman obtained the manuscript of the Qur'an from Hafsah and again summoned the leading authority, Zayd ibn Thabit, and some other companions to make copies of it. Zayd was put in charge of the task. The style of Arabic dialect used was that of the Quraish tribe. Hence this style was emphasized over all others.
Zayd and other Companions copied many copies. One of these was sent to every Muslim province with the order that all other Quranic materials, whether fragmentary or complete copies, be burned. When standard copies were made and were widely available to the Muslim community everywhere then all other material was burned voluntarily by the Muslim community themselves. This was important in order to eliminate variations or differences in the dialect from the standard text of the Qur'an. The Caliph Uthman kept a copy for himself and returned the original manuscript to Hafsah.
Zayd ibn Thabit see Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak
Zaid ibn Thabit see Zayd ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak
Zaydiyya
Zaydiyya (Zaydiyah) (al-Zaydiyya) (Zaydites) (Zaidiya) (Zaidīs) (Zaydis). Shi‘ite group who supported the revolt of Zayd ibn Ali, al-Husayn’s grandson, in Kufa in 739 of the Christian calendar. Zayd was the next Alid to be killed after the martyrs of Karbala, and as such is revered by the Zaydiyya.
The Zaydiyya are distinguished from all the other Shi‘ite groups in that they did not recognize the necessity of an imam, nor did they accept the principles of nass al-jali (clear designation) and ‘isma (infallibility) as prerequisites in a person assuming the imamate. Nass implied recognition of a hereditary line of imams from the descendants of Fatima, but the Zaydites accorded the office of imam to any Fatimid who openly fought against an oppressive ruler.
From the beginning, the Zaydiyya seem to have been divided into two main factions: the compromisers (Batriyya) and the revolutionaries (Jarudiyya). Both subdivisions maintained the superiority of Ali over all Companions of the Prophet. But the former, in contrast to all other Shi‘ite groups, held the doctrine of the “imamate of the inferior”, according to which, although Ali was best fitted to be the imam, it was right to acknowledge the imamate of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, since Ali had let them hold the position. The Zaydiyya were, therefore, attempting to work out a compromise between the Shi‘a and the Sunni by acknowledging the Caliphates of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, while admitting their inferiority to Ali.
The revolutionary Zaydites asserted that Muhammad had designated Ali as imam, not by name, but by describing his person, and that those who did not recognize his imamate became unbelievers. Following Ali, his two sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn, were imams. Thereafter any new imam had to be appointed by a small council from among the descendants of either al-Hasan or al-Husayn. The new imam should issue his call to allegiance by rising in rebellion. Unlike the Batriyya, the Jarudiyya held the radical views of the early Shi’a and rejected any attempt to compromise on the question of acknowledging the first three caliphs. From the ninth century of the Christian calendar onward, the Jarudiyya view of the imamate came to prevail among the Zaydiyya, particularly after the establishment of the Zaydi state in Yemen.
Zaydiyya doctrines were formulated by the theologian al-Qasim al-Rassi, who based his teaching on Mu‘tazilite principles, though with some fundamental differences. His demand that the imam be qualified in Islamic law and doctrine, with sufficient political initiative to carry out armed rebellion against usurpers, excluded many Alid pretenders and rulers, who were sometimes, in the absense of truly qualified imams, termed “restricted imams.”
The list of Zaydi imams varies, because there was always uncertainty regarding the recognition of a “restricted” or “full” imam, though there was consensus on many. The last Zaydi imam to rule Yemen was Muhammad al-Badr, whose policies ushered Yemen into the twentieth century. The constitution of the Yemen Arab Republic abolished the Zaydi imamate in 1971, declaring Yemen an Islamic state in accord with the “principles of Muslim social justice.”
Al-Zaydiyya (Zaydites) was the official name of the Fiver Shi‘ites (named after their fifth imam, Zayd ibn Ali), who established their own state structures. A Zaydite dynasty (also named the Alids after the founding father of the Shi‘ites) established by Hasan ibn Zayd (r. 864-883), ruled in Mazandaran, Tabaristan, and Dailam (Iran, to the south of the Caspian Sea) ruled from 864 to 1126. The most important Zaydite state was Yemen. In 893, the well-respected commander of the Zaydites, Yahya ibn Husain (859-911), was invited to Yemen as mediator by the tribes there and established a Zaydite imamate in Sada in 901. He and his successors brought substantial areas of Yemen (including Sanaa) under their control and ruled as Rassids (of the Banu Kasim, ruling imams since 1592, ruled in Sanaa from 1635 and was able to persuade the Ottomans to make a peaceful exit from Yemen. The Zaydite imams ruled with Fiver Shi‘ism as state religion until 1962. The most important imam of modern times, Yahya ibn Hammidaddin (1904-1948), concluded beneficial treaties with the European powers, modernized Yemen, and assumed the title of king in 1926.
Al-Zaydiyya were a group of the Shi‘a which were distinguished from the “Twelvers” and the “Seveners” by the recognition of Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin as Imam. The essential demands on the Zaydi Imam are membership of the Family of the Prophet, ability to resort to the sword if required, and the necessary learning. There was thus no dynastic tradition, individual success being in the end the deciding factor. The Zaydiyya was founded as a united community in Tabaristan by al-Hasan ibn Zayd Muhammad and lasted there until 1126, after which date it became merged in the little sect of the Nuqtawis.
In Yemen, the Zaydiyya was founded by al-Hadi ila’l-Haqq I Yahya, grandson of the al-Qasim al-Rassi, founder of the Rassids. The Rassid line lasted until 1281, and their successors, the Qasimi line, founded by al-Mansur bi’llah al-Qasim, until 1962. In 1962, the last Zaydite imam was ousted by Yemeni officers.
Doctrinally, the Zaydīyya are closer to the majority Sunnites than are the other Shīʿites. Early in the 10th century the Zaydīyya became dominant in Yemen, and thereafter Zaydī imāms were the spiritual rulers of that area. From the departure of the Turks in 1917 until 1962, they were also the temporal rulers of Yemen.
Zaydiyah see Zaydiyya
al-Zaydiyya see Zaydiyya
Zaydites see Zaydiyya
Zaidiya see Zaydiyya
Zaidis see Zaydiyya
Zaydis see Zaydiyya
Zaydiyya (Zaydiyah) (al-Zaydiyya) (Zaydites) (Zaidiya) (Zaidīs) (Zaydis). Shi‘ite group who supported the revolt of Zayd ibn Ali, al-Husayn’s grandson, in Kufa in 739 of the Christian calendar. Zayd was the next Alid to be killed after the martyrs of Karbala, and as such is revered by the Zaydiyya.
The Zaydiyya are distinguished from all the other Shi‘ite groups in that they did not recognize the necessity of an imam, nor did they accept the principles of nass al-jali (clear designation) and ‘isma (infallibility) as prerequisites in a person assuming the imamate. Nass implied recognition of a hereditary line of imams from the descendants of Fatima, but the Zaydites accorded the office of imam to any Fatimid who openly fought against an oppressive ruler.
From the beginning, the Zaydiyya seem to have been divided into two main factions: the compromisers (Batriyya) and the revolutionaries (Jarudiyya). Both subdivisions maintained the superiority of Ali over all Companions of the Prophet. But the former, in contrast to all other Shi‘ite groups, held the doctrine of the “imamate of the inferior”, according to which, although Ali was best fitted to be the imam, it was right to acknowledge the imamate of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, since Ali had let them hold the position. The Zaydiyya were, therefore, attempting to work out a compromise between the Shi‘a and the Sunni by acknowledging the Caliphates of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, while admitting their inferiority to Ali.
The revolutionary Zaydites asserted that Muhammad had designated Ali as imam, not by name, but by describing his person, and that those who did not recognize his imamate became unbelievers. Following Ali, his two sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn, were imams. Thereafter any new imam had to be appointed by a small council from among the descendants of either al-Hasan or al-Husayn. The new imam should issue his call to allegiance by rising in rebellion. Unlike the Batriyya, the Jarudiyya held the radical views of the early Shi’a and rejected any attempt to compromise on the question of acknowledging the first three caliphs. From the ninth century of the Christian calendar onward, the Jarudiyya view of the imamate came to prevail among the Zaydiyya, particularly after the establishment of the Zaydi state in Yemen.
Zaydiyya doctrines were formulated by the theologian al-Qasim al-Rassi, who based his teaching on Mu‘tazilite principles, though with some fundamental differences. His demand that the imam be qualified in Islamic law and doctrine, with sufficient political initiative to carry out armed rebellion against usurpers, excluded many Alid pretenders and rulers, who were sometimes, in the absense of truly qualified imams, termed “restricted imams.”
The list of Zaydi imams varies, because there was always uncertainty regarding the recognition of a “restricted” or “full” imam, though there was consensus on many. The last Zaydi imam to rule Yemen was Muhammad al-Badr, whose policies ushered Yemen into the twentieth century. The constitution of the Yemen Arab Republic abolished the Zaydi imamate in 1971, declaring Yemen an Islamic state in accord with the “principles of Muslim social justice.”
Al-Zaydiyya (Zaydites) was the official name of the Fiver Shi‘ites (named after their fifth imam, Zayd ibn Ali), who established their own state structures. A Zaydite dynasty (also named the Alids after the founding father of the Shi‘ites) established by Hasan ibn Zayd (r. 864-883), ruled in Mazandaran, Tabaristan, and Dailam (Iran, to the south of the Caspian Sea) ruled from 864 to 1126. The most important Zaydite state was Yemen. In 893, the well-respected commander of the Zaydites, Yahya ibn Husain (859-911), was invited to Yemen as mediator by the tribes there and established a Zaydite imamate in Sada in 901. He and his successors brought substantial areas of Yemen (including Sanaa) under their control and ruled as Rassids (of the Banu Kasim, ruling imams since 1592, ruled in Sanaa from 1635 and was able to persuade the Ottomans to make a peaceful exit from Yemen. The Zaydite imams ruled with Fiver Shi‘ism as state religion until 1962. The most important imam of modern times, Yahya ibn Hammidaddin (1904-1948), concluded beneficial treaties with the European powers, modernized Yemen, and assumed the title of king in 1926.
Al-Zaydiyya were a group of the Shi‘a which were distinguished from the “Twelvers” and the “Seveners” by the recognition of Zayd ibn ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin as Imam. The essential demands on the Zaydi Imam are membership of the Family of the Prophet, ability to resort to the sword if required, and the necessary learning. There was thus no dynastic tradition, individual success being in the end the deciding factor. The Zaydiyya was founded as a united community in Tabaristan by al-Hasan ibn Zayd Muhammad and lasted there until 1126, after which date it became merged in the little sect of the Nuqtawis.
In Yemen, the Zaydiyya was founded by al-Hadi ila’l-Haqq I Yahya, grandson of the al-Qasim al-Rassi, founder of the Rassids. The Rassid line lasted until 1281, and their successors, the Qasimi line, founded by al-Mansur bi’llah al-Qasim, until 1962. In 1962, the last Zaydite imam was ousted by Yemeni officers.
Doctrinally, the Zaydīyya are closer to the majority Sunnites than are the other Shīʿites. Early in the 10th century the Zaydīyya became dominant in Yemen, and thereafter Zaydī imāms were the spiritual rulers of that area. From the departure of the Turks in 1917 until 1962, they were also the temporal rulers of Yemen.
Zaydiyah see Zaydiyya
al-Zaydiyya see Zaydiyya
Zaydites see Zaydiyya
Zaidiya see Zaydiyya
Zaidis see Zaydiyya
Zaydis see Zaydiyya
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