Ubaydallah
Ubaydallah (Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah). Founder of the Fatimid dynasty. Ubaydallah had his capital at Mahdiyah, near modern Tunis. Ubaydallah was called “the Mahdi” (the rightly guided) by his followers.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909-934) is the founder of the Fatimid dynasty, the only major Shi'ite caliphate in Islam. Ubaydallah established Fatimid rule throughout much of North Africa.
After establishing himself as the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty he made claim to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, through Husayn, Fatimah's son, and Ismail.
He began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and began riding towards north-western Africa, which at the time was under Aghlabid rule, following the propagandist success of his chief dai', Abu 'Abdullah Al-Husayn Al-Shi'i. Al-Shi'i, along with laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental in sowing the seeds of sedition among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe.
It was Al-Shi'i's success which was the signal to Sa'id who set off from Salamyah disguised as a merchant. However, he was captured by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat-Allah and thrown into a dungeon in Sijilmasah. Al-Shi'i was then required to rescue Sa'id in 909 after which the Aghlabid dynasty, the last stronghold of Sunni Islam in North Africa, was expelled from region.
'Ubaydallah Al-Mahdi, as Sa'id was now to be known, established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. Two years after he achieved power, 'Abdullah had his missionary-commander Al-Shi'i executed. After that his power only grew. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, 'Abdullah took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah, which he founded on the Tunisian coast sixteen miles south-east of Al-Qayrawan, and which he named after himself.
After his death, 'Abdullah was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah see Ubaydallah
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909-934) is the founder of the Fatimid dynasty, the only major Shi'ite caliphate in Islam. Ubaydallah established Fatimid rule throughout much of North Africa.
After establishing himself as the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty he made claim to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, through Husayn, Fatimah's son, and Ismail.
He began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and began riding towards north-western Africa, which at the time was under Aghlabid rule, following the propagandist success of his chief dai', Abu 'Abdullah Al-Husayn Al-Shi'i. Al-Shi'i, along with laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental in sowing the seeds of sedition among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe.
It was Al-Shi'i's success which was the signal to Sa'id who set off from Salamyah disguised as a merchant. However, he was captured by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat-Allah and thrown into a dungeon in Sijilmasah. Al-Shi'i was then required to rescue Sa'id in 909 after which the Aghlabid dynasty, the last stronghold of Sunni Islam in North Africa, was expelled from region.
'Ubaydallah Al-Mahdi, as Sa'id was now to be known, established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. Two years after he achieved power, 'Abdullah had his missionary-commander Al-Shi'i executed. After that his power only grew. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, 'Abdullah took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah, which he founded on the Tunisian coast sixteen miles south-east of Al-Qayrawan, and which he named after himself.
After his death, 'Abdullah was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah see Ubaydallah
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d.686). Umayyad governor. A son of Ziyad ibn Abihi, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and advanced as far as Bukhara. In 675, he became governor of Basra, where he subdued the Kharijites, and in 679 also of Kufa. It was he who sent troops against al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali, who lost his life at the battle of Karbala’ in 683. ‘Ubayd Allah had to flee from Kufa and went to Syria. At the battle of Marj Rahit in 684, he commanded the left wing of the Umayyad Caliph Marwan I ibn al-Hakam and in the following year he was sent to Qarqisiya in order to subdue Iraq. In 686, he suffered near Mosul a disastrous defeat against al-Mukhtar ibn Abi ‘Ubayd al-Thaqafi.
Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad was a son of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan after whose death in 673 he became the Governor of Kufa and Basra and later Khurasan. He also minted coinage, which survives to this day. In 674 he crossed the Amu Darya and defeated the forces of Bukhar Khuda of Bukhara in what would become the first known invasion of the city by Muslim Arabs.
In 680, Yazid I ordered Ubayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to the popularity there of the grandson of the Prophet, Husayn ibn Ali. Ubayd Allah appointed his brother Uthman as deputy and marched to Kufa. Ubayd Allah executed Hussain ibn Ali’s cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel and put out the right eye of Hussain ibn Ali’s supporter Al-Mukhtar. He was also one of the leaders of the army of Yazid I during the battle of Karbala.
Yazid left a vacuum in Iraq upon his death in 683. Ubayd Allah abdicated the governor's mansion in Basra and took up shelter with Mas'ud ibn Amr al-Azdi. The Azd were a Yemenite tribe who then supported the Umayyads against the rebellion of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. But Basra's new governor Abd Allah ibn al-Harith sided with Ibn al-Zubayr, and had Mas'ud killed the following spring. Some traditions add, probably accurately, that Ubayd Allah and Mas'ud had complained about Ibn al-Harith's corruption (again, probably accurately - but the Basrans did not then care) with a view to regaining for Ubayd Allah his command. Ubayd Allah fled the city for Syria - leaving his wife and family behind.
While Ubayd Allah was in Syria, he persuaded Marwan ibn al-Hakam not to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Meanwhile the messianic rebel Al-Mukhtar wrested Kufa from Ibn al-Zubayr in 685. Seeing his chance, or so he thought, Ubayd Allah sent an army against Mukhtar. Mukhtar met [Ubayd Allah] Ibn Ziyad's legions with a militia composed of 13,000 lightly-armed freedmen on foot at the river Khazir near Nineveh. Ubayd Allah died in that battle.
‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (d.686). Umayyad governor. A son of Ziyad ibn Abihi, he was appointed governor of Khurasan and advanced as far as Bukhara. In 675, he became governor of Basra, where he subdued the Kharijites, and in 679 also of Kufa. It was he who sent troops against al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali, who lost his life at the battle of Karbala’ in 683. ‘Ubayd Allah had to flee from Kufa and went to Syria. At the battle of Marj Rahit in 684, he commanded the left wing of the Umayyad Caliph Marwan I ibn al-Hakam and in the following year he was sent to Qarqisiya in order to subdue Iraq. In 686, he suffered near Mosul a disastrous defeat against al-Mukhtar ibn Abi ‘Ubayd al-Thaqafi.
Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad was a son of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan after whose death in 673 he became the Governor of Kufa and Basra and later Khurasan. He also minted coinage, which survives to this day. In 674 he crossed the Amu Darya and defeated the forces of Bukhar Khuda of Bukhara in what would become the first known invasion of the city by Muslim Arabs.
In 680, Yazid I ordered Ubayd Allah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to the popularity there of the grandson of the Prophet, Husayn ibn Ali. Ubayd Allah appointed his brother Uthman as deputy and marched to Kufa. Ubayd Allah executed Hussain ibn Ali’s cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel and put out the right eye of Hussain ibn Ali’s supporter Al-Mukhtar. He was also one of the leaders of the army of Yazid I during the battle of Karbala.
Yazid left a vacuum in Iraq upon his death in 683. Ubayd Allah abdicated the governor's mansion in Basra and took up shelter with Mas'ud ibn Amr al-Azdi. The Azd were a Yemenite tribe who then supported the Umayyads against the rebellion of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. But Basra's new governor Abd Allah ibn al-Harith sided with Ibn al-Zubayr, and had Mas'ud killed the following spring. Some traditions add, probably accurately, that Ubayd Allah and Mas'ud had complained about Ibn al-Harith's corruption (again, probably accurately - but the Basrans did not then care) with a view to regaining for Ubayd Allah his command. Ubayd Allah fled the city for Syria - leaving his wife and family behind.
While Ubayd Allah was in Syria, he persuaded Marwan ibn al-Hakam not to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Meanwhile the messianic rebel Al-Mukhtar wrested Kufa from Ibn al-Zubayr in 685. Seeing his chance, or so he thought, Ubayd Allah sent an army against Mukhtar. Mukhtar met [Ubayd Allah] Ibn Ziyad's legions with a militia composed of 13,000 lightly-armed freedmen on foot at the river Khazir near Nineveh. Ubayd Allah died in that battle.
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din (Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani) (Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni) (Ubayd-i Zākāni) ('Ubayd Zakani) (1300-1370/1371). Persian poet from Qazwin. He was a satirical and erotic poet, who wrote such works as The Morals of Aristocracy and The Book of the Beard, a dialogue between the poet and the beard, regarded as a destroyer of youthful beauty.
'Ubayd Zākāni was a Persian poet and satirist of the 14th century (Timurid Period) from the city of Qazvin. He studied in Shiraz, Iran under the best masters of his day, but eventually moved back to his native town of Qazvin. He however preferred Shiraz to Qazvin, as he was a court poet in Shiraz for Shah Abu Ishaq, where a young Hafez was present as well.
His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. He is one of the most remarkable poets, satirists and social critics of Iran (Persia), whose works have not received proper attention in the past. His books are translated into Russian, Danish, Italian, English, and German.
While pursuing his studies in Shiraz, Ubayd became one of the most accomplished men of letters and learning of his time, acquiring complete proficiency in every art, and compiling books and treatises thereon. He subsequently returned to Qazvin, where he had the honor of being appointed to a judgeship and was chosen as the tutor and teacher of sundry young gentlemen. At that time the Turks in Persia had left no prohibited or vicious act undone, and the character of the Persian people, by reasons of association and intercourse with them, had become so changed and corrupted that 'Ubayd-i-Zakani, disgusted at the contemplation thereof, sought by every means to make known and bring home to them the true conditions of affairs. Therefore, as an example of the corrupt morals of the age and its people, he composed the treatise known as Akhlaq-i-Ashraf (Ethics of the Aristocracy), which was not intended as mere ribaldry, but as a satire containing serious reflections and wise warnings. So, likewise, in order to depict the level of intelligence and degree of knowledge of the leading men of Qazwin each one of whom was a mass of stupidity and ignorance, he included in his Risala-i-Dilqusha (Joyous Treatise) many anecdotes of which each contains a lesson for persons of discernment.
As a measure of his accomplishments, experience, learning and worldly wisdom, his Risala-i-Sad (Tract of a Hundred Counsels) and his Ta'rifat (Definitions) are a sufficient proof. Moreover he composed a treatise 'Ilm-i-Ma'ni u Bayan (Rhetoric) which he desired to present to the King. The courtiers and favorites, however, told him that the King had no need for such rubbish. Then he composed a fine panegyric, which he desired to recite, but they informed him that His Majesty did not like to be mocked with the lies, exaggerations and fulsome flattery of poets. Thereupon 'Ubayd-i-Zakani said, 'In that case I, too, will pursue the path of impudence, so that by these means I may obtain access to the King's most intimate society, and may become one of his courtiers and favorites', which he accordingly did.
Then he began recklessly to utter the most shameless sayings and the most unseemly and extravagant jests, whereby he obtained innumerable gifts and presents, which none dared to pose and contend with him. Thus 'Ubayd-i-Zakani a serious writer, a moralist and a panegyrist was compelled by circumstances to become a ribald satirist.
The most striking feature of the serious poems of 'Ubayd-i-Zakani is the constant references to Fars and its capital Shiraz, which evidently held the affection of the poet far more than his native city of Qazvin.
Ubayd wrote religious poems, praise of God, the Prophet and the Four Rashidun Caliphs; but he neither claimed nor desired to lead a virtuous life.
Poverty and debt were the usual lots of 'Ubayd.
Because of the ribald and often homoerotic quality of his verse, 'Ubayd was widely censored.
Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Ubayd-i Zākāni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
'Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din (Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani) (Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni) (Ubayd-i Zākāni) ('Ubayd Zakani) (1300-1370/1371). Persian poet from Qazwin. He was a satirical and erotic poet, who wrote such works as The Morals of Aristocracy and The Book of the Beard, a dialogue between the poet and the beard, regarded as a destroyer of youthful beauty.
'Ubayd Zākāni was a Persian poet and satirist of the 14th century (Timurid Period) from the city of Qazvin. He studied in Shiraz, Iran under the best masters of his day, but eventually moved back to his native town of Qazvin. He however preferred Shiraz to Qazvin, as he was a court poet in Shiraz for Shah Abu Ishaq, where a young Hafez was present as well.
His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. He is one of the most remarkable poets, satirists and social critics of Iran (Persia), whose works have not received proper attention in the past. His books are translated into Russian, Danish, Italian, English, and German.
While pursuing his studies in Shiraz, Ubayd became one of the most accomplished men of letters and learning of his time, acquiring complete proficiency in every art, and compiling books and treatises thereon. He subsequently returned to Qazvin, where he had the honor of being appointed to a judgeship and was chosen as the tutor and teacher of sundry young gentlemen. At that time the Turks in Persia had left no prohibited or vicious act undone, and the character of the Persian people, by reasons of association and intercourse with them, had become so changed and corrupted that 'Ubayd-i-Zakani, disgusted at the contemplation thereof, sought by every means to make known and bring home to them the true conditions of affairs. Therefore, as an example of the corrupt morals of the age and its people, he composed the treatise known as Akhlaq-i-Ashraf (Ethics of the Aristocracy), which was not intended as mere ribaldry, but as a satire containing serious reflections and wise warnings. So, likewise, in order to depict the level of intelligence and degree of knowledge of the leading men of Qazwin each one of whom was a mass of stupidity and ignorance, he included in his Risala-i-Dilqusha (Joyous Treatise) many anecdotes of which each contains a lesson for persons of discernment.
As a measure of his accomplishments, experience, learning and worldly wisdom, his Risala-i-Sad (Tract of a Hundred Counsels) and his Ta'rifat (Definitions) are a sufficient proof. Moreover he composed a treatise 'Ilm-i-Ma'ni u Bayan (Rhetoric) which he desired to present to the King. The courtiers and favorites, however, told him that the King had no need for such rubbish. Then he composed a fine panegyric, which he desired to recite, but they informed him that His Majesty did not like to be mocked with the lies, exaggerations and fulsome flattery of poets. Thereupon 'Ubayd-i-Zakani said, 'In that case I, too, will pursue the path of impudence, so that by these means I may obtain access to the King's most intimate society, and may become one of his courtiers and favorites', which he accordingly did.
Then he began recklessly to utter the most shameless sayings and the most unseemly and extravagant jests, whereby he obtained innumerable gifts and presents, which none dared to pose and contend with him. Thus 'Ubayd-i-Zakani a serious writer, a moralist and a panegyrist was compelled by circumstances to become a ribald satirist.
The most striking feature of the serious poems of 'Ubayd-i-Zakani is the constant references to Fars and its capital Shiraz, which evidently held the affection of the poet far more than his native city of Qazvin.
Ubayd wrote religious poems, praise of God, the Prophet and the Four Rashidun Caliphs; but he neither claimed nor desired to lead a virtuous life.
Poverty and debt were the usual lots of 'Ubayd.
Because of the ribald and often homoerotic quality of his verse, 'Ubayd was widely censored.
Nizam al-Din ‘Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Nezam od-Din Ubeydollah Zâkâni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
Ubayd-i Zākāni see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
'Ubayd Zakani see ‘Ubayd Zakani, Nizam al-Din
‘Udhra, Banu
‘Udhra, Banu (Banu ‘Udhra) is an Arab tribe belonging to the great subdivision of the Quda‘a and established in the north of the Hejaz in the Wadi’l-Qura. They exercised control over the road between the Hejaz and Syria. In 623, the Prophet sent them a letter and in 630 they dispatched an official embassy to Medina. The played no part in politics and did not give any personage of note to the history of Islam. They achieved however a fame without equal for their love of poetry, giving their name to the so-called “Udhri love.”
Banu 'Udhra see ‘Udhra, Banu
‘Udhra, Banu (Banu ‘Udhra) is an Arab tribe belonging to the great subdivision of the Quda‘a and established in the north of the Hejaz in the Wadi’l-Qura. They exercised control over the road between the Hejaz and Syria. In 623, the Prophet sent them a letter and in 630 they dispatched an official embassy to Medina. The played no part in politics and did not give any personage of note to the history of Islam. They achieved however a fame without equal for their love of poetry, giving their name to the so-called “Udhri love.”
Banu 'Udhra see ‘Udhra, Banu
Uighur
Uighur (Uyghur) (Weiwu’er) (Uygur). Turkic people of northwestern China, who ruled a large and sophisticated kingdom in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Uighurs are a Sunni Muslim Turkic-speaking people inhabiting northwestern China in Xinjiang, the largest province in the People’s Republic of China. The Uighurs rate among the four most important Turkic populations in the world. They are the largest non-Chinese nationality existing within China’s borders. The Uighurs have a long tradition of scholarship and high culture that continues to this day. In the past, they have served as a bridge between East and West; in modern times they have been a cultural mediator between the cultures of South Asia and Europe and Russia.
The first mention of Uighurs in written sources occurs in the third century of the Christian calendar, when they were one of the many nomadic tribes to migrate from northern Mongolia to Inner Asia. With the founding of an empire in 744, the Uighurs consolidated their ethnic identity. The second emperor, Moyanchuo, built a capital city and an imperial palace beside the Orkhon River.
Prior to the establishment of their empire, the Uighurs practiced their autochthonous religion. After Sogdian traders became influential at the Uighur court, the official religion of the Uighurs became Manichaeism, although many were Buddhists. In the tenth century, a Uighur prince, Sadiq Burhan al-Din, converted to Islam, but not until the fourteenth century did Islam become the primary Uighur religion.
During their imperial period the Uighurs developed their own language and script by adapting the Sogdian alphabet. At this time the Uighurs abandoned the entirely nomadic existence of their ancestors for a more sedentary urban life in which commerce and agriculture were important. When the Mongol Khans ruled Central Asia, they borrowed the Uighur alphabet and adapted it to Mongolian phonetics. In the eleventh and twelfth centureies the Uighur script was gradually replaced with the Arabic alphabet.
Before the consolidation of their empire, the Uighurs already had a traditional alliance with the Chinese. Uighur emperors sent horsemen and archers to help the Chinese put down several rebellions as well as an invasion by Tibetan nomads. Since the Chinese treated their Uighur allies as barbarians, and since the Uighurs exploited their power over the Chinese by looting and pillaging rebel held Chinese cities after battle, the relationship between the two peoples was full of resentment. The trade of Chinese silk for Uighur horses was the basis of their commercial relationship.
After the empire fell to the Kirghiz in 840, the Uighurs migrated to the southern part of the Tarim Basin and settled in the Turfan Oasis. Here they established the Kocho kingdom, which became a vassal state of the Karakhanids in the twelfth century. The Karakhanids were ousted by Jenghiz Khan and the Mongols in the thirteenth century. In the fifteenth century, Uighuristan made up a part of Mogulistan. In 1566, one of the first in a series of Khoja khans took over the area. These Muslim prelates, who came out of Bukhara and Samarkand, claimed direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad.
In 1760 the Chinese claimed the Uighur state as a part of China and named the area Xinjiang, or New Dominion. As a result of the oppression of their Chinese rulers, Muslim warlords were able to lead several rebellions, yet all were crushed by China’s armies.
Not only the Chinese wanted to control Eastern Turkestan, as it was called by the Europeans. At the end of the nineteenth century Germany, England, Russian, and even the United States were seeking to establish their power in the area. The Russians and the British were the most aggressive, spurred on by the reports of gold in the cities of Yarkand and Khotan as well as the strategic importance of Xinjiang. After the Russian Revolution, the Soviets sought to extend their revolutionary ideals into Central Asia. In the early 1930s, Uighur nationalists, with Soviet backing, founded the independent Eastern Turkestan Republic. This was quickly taken over by Chinese warlords. Since most Western publications available to Uighurs at the time came out of Russia, the Russians also had a great cultural influenc. Mao’s armies defeated the Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops stationed in Xinjiang in 1949, and the Xinjian-Uighur Autonomous Region was formed in 1955.
Today most Uighurs live in the Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. This area is China’s main site for oil and minerla production and as such is a sensitive area.
In Xinjiang, China has greatly imrpved the irrigation systems and created a transportation network of railroad and air travel. As of 1985, Xinjiang operated its own airline. A thriving commerce based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and the extraction and refinement of oil and minerals has increased the standard of living of the average Uighur. In the early 1980s the Chinese opened the area to tourists.
The Chinese government has reformed many of the restrictions on the Uighur people that grew out of the Cultural Revolution. The rich literary and musical heritage of the Uighur people continues today. Uighurs publish books in their own language, from ancient historical epics to modern comedies. Urumqi houses the Uighur National Opera. Traditional Uighur musicians and dancers travel to Europe and the United States.
In late 1985, Uighur students staged demonstrations in Beijing, Shanghai, and Urumqi, calling for an end to nuclear testing in Xinjiang, the relaxation of family planning regulations, and increased minority rights.
The Chinese government has often referred to Uyghur nationalists as "terrorists" and received more global support for what it claims to be the Chinese contribution to the "war on terror". Human Rights Watch alleged that China was taking advantage of a "post-9/11 environment" to suppress peaceful cultural and religious messages in Xinjiang. Rebiya Kadeer, a Uyghur nationalist leader, advocated a separate state for Uyghurs in Xinjiang. The Chinese government accused her of masterminding the July 2009 Ürümqi riots to this end. Nine Uyghur detainees in Guantanamo Bay also feared a backlash from China because of their separatist sympathies, so the United States resettled them in a third country rather than back to China.
Many Uyghurs in the diaspora supported Pan-Turkic groups. Several organizations such as the East Turkestan Party provided support for the Turkic Uyghurs. Some Uyghur political groups supported peaceful Uyghur nationalism and independence. However, the Chinese Government claimed two separatist groups: the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, blamed for 200 attacks between 1990 and 2001, and the recent and still disputed East Turkestan Liberation Organization.
Uyghur see Uighur
Weiwu'er see Uighur
Uygur see Uighur
Uighur (Uyghur) (Weiwu’er) (Uygur). Turkic people of northwestern China, who ruled a large and sophisticated kingdom in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Uighurs are a Sunni Muslim Turkic-speaking people inhabiting northwestern China in Xinjiang, the largest province in the People’s Republic of China. The Uighurs rate among the four most important Turkic populations in the world. They are the largest non-Chinese nationality existing within China’s borders. The Uighurs have a long tradition of scholarship and high culture that continues to this day. In the past, they have served as a bridge between East and West; in modern times they have been a cultural mediator between the cultures of South Asia and Europe and Russia.
The first mention of Uighurs in written sources occurs in the third century of the Christian calendar, when they were one of the many nomadic tribes to migrate from northern Mongolia to Inner Asia. With the founding of an empire in 744, the Uighurs consolidated their ethnic identity. The second emperor, Moyanchuo, built a capital city and an imperial palace beside the Orkhon River.
Prior to the establishment of their empire, the Uighurs practiced their autochthonous religion. After Sogdian traders became influential at the Uighur court, the official religion of the Uighurs became Manichaeism, although many were Buddhists. In the tenth century, a Uighur prince, Sadiq Burhan al-Din, converted to Islam, but not until the fourteenth century did Islam become the primary Uighur religion.
During their imperial period the Uighurs developed their own language and script by adapting the Sogdian alphabet. At this time the Uighurs abandoned the entirely nomadic existence of their ancestors for a more sedentary urban life in which commerce and agriculture were important. When the Mongol Khans ruled Central Asia, they borrowed the Uighur alphabet and adapted it to Mongolian phonetics. In the eleventh and twelfth centureies the Uighur script was gradually replaced with the Arabic alphabet.
Before the consolidation of their empire, the Uighurs already had a traditional alliance with the Chinese. Uighur emperors sent horsemen and archers to help the Chinese put down several rebellions as well as an invasion by Tibetan nomads. Since the Chinese treated their Uighur allies as barbarians, and since the Uighurs exploited their power over the Chinese by looting and pillaging rebel held Chinese cities after battle, the relationship between the two peoples was full of resentment. The trade of Chinese silk for Uighur horses was the basis of their commercial relationship.
After the empire fell to the Kirghiz in 840, the Uighurs migrated to the southern part of the Tarim Basin and settled in the Turfan Oasis. Here they established the Kocho kingdom, which became a vassal state of the Karakhanids in the twelfth century. The Karakhanids were ousted by Jenghiz Khan and the Mongols in the thirteenth century. In the fifteenth century, Uighuristan made up a part of Mogulistan. In 1566, one of the first in a series of Khoja khans took over the area. These Muslim prelates, who came out of Bukhara and Samarkand, claimed direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad.
In 1760 the Chinese claimed the Uighur state as a part of China and named the area Xinjiang, or New Dominion. As a result of the oppression of their Chinese rulers, Muslim warlords were able to lead several rebellions, yet all were crushed by China’s armies.
Not only the Chinese wanted to control Eastern Turkestan, as it was called by the Europeans. At the end of the nineteenth century Germany, England, Russian, and even the United States were seeking to establish their power in the area. The Russians and the British were the most aggressive, spurred on by the reports of gold in the cities of Yarkand and Khotan as well as the strategic importance of Xinjiang. After the Russian Revolution, the Soviets sought to extend their revolutionary ideals into Central Asia. In the early 1930s, Uighur nationalists, with Soviet backing, founded the independent Eastern Turkestan Republic. This was quickly taken over by Chinese warlords. Since most Western publications available to Uighurs at the time came out of Russia, the Russians also had a great cultural influenc. Mao’s armies defeated the Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops stationed in Xinjiang in 1949, and the Xinjian-Uighur Autonomous Region was formed in 1955.
Today most Uighurs live in the Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. This area is China’s main site for oil and minerla production and as such is a sensitive area.
In Xinjiang, China has greatly imrpved the irrigation systems and created a transportation network of railroad and air travel. As of 1985, Xinjiang operated its own airline. A thriving commerce based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and the extraction and refinement of oil and minerals has increased the standard of living of the average Uighur. In the early 1980s the Chinese opened the area to tourists.
The Chinese government has reformed many of the restrictions on the Uighur people that grew out of the Cultural Revolution. The rich literary and musical heritage of the Uighur people continues today. Uighurs publish books in their own language, from ancient historical epics to modern comedies. Urumqi houses the Uighur National Opera. Traditional Uighur musicians and dancers travel to Europe and the United States.
In late 1985, Uighur students staged demonstrations in Beijing, Shanghai, and Urumqi, calling for an end to nuclear testing in Xinjiang, the relaxation of family planning regulations, and increased minority rights.
The Chinese government has often referred to Uyghur nationalists as "terrorists" and received more global support for what it claims to be the Chinese contribution to the "war on terror". Human Rights Watch alleged that China was taking advantage of a "post-9/11 environment" to suppress peaceful cultural and religious messages in Xinjiang. Rebiya Kadeer, a Uyghur nationalist leader, advocated a separate state for Uyghurs in Xinjiang. The Chinese government accused her of masterminding the July 2009 Ürümqi riots to this end. Nine Uyghur detainees in Guantanamo Bay also feared a backlash from China because of their separatist sympathies, so the United States resettled them in a third country rather than back to China.
Many Uyghurs in the diaspora supported Pan-Turkic groups. Several organizations such as the East Turkestan Party provided support for the Turkic Uyghurs. Some Uyghur political groups supported peaceful Uyghur nationalism and independence. However, the Chinese Government claimed two separatist groups: the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, blamed for 200 attacks between 1990 and 2001, and the recent and still disputed East Turkestan Liberation Organization.
Uyghur see Uighur
Weiwu'er see Uighur
Uygur see Uighur
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