‘Omar al-Khayyam
‘Omar al-Khayyam (‘Umar Khayyam) (Omar Khayyám) (b, May 18, 1048, Neyshapur, Iran — d. 1131, Neyshapur, Iran). Mathematician and astronomer. He was also well known as a poet, philosopher, and physician. In the History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell remarks that Omar Khayyam was the only man known to him who was both a noted poet and a noted mathematician. Omar Khayyam reformed the solar calendar in 1079; his work on algebra was highly valued throughout Europe during the Middle Ages; and, in the West, he is best known for his poetic work Rubaiyat which was translated by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859. His full name was Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fateh Omar ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam.
Omar Khayyam was born in 1044 at Nishapur, the provincial capital of Khurasan. He is generally known as a Persian. However, it has been suggested that his ancestors (from the Arab Khayyami tribe) migrated and settled in Persia. Omar Khayyam was educated at Nishapur. He also traveled to several reputed institutions of learning, including those at Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand and Isfahan. His fame as a mathematician prompted the Seljuq Sultan Malik Shah and his vizier Nizam al-Mulk to invite him in 1074 to undertake astronomical research at a new observatory and to serve on a commission for calendar reform. He lived in Nishapur and Samarkand (Central Asia) for most of his life. Omar Khayyam was a contemporary of Nizam al-Mulk Tusi. He died in 1123 in Nishapur.
‘Omar Khayyam was a famous Persian scientist and poet from Nishapur. His name means “’Omar the Tentmaker.” As astronomer to the royal court, he was engaged with several other scientists to reform the calendar; their work resulted in the adoption of a new era, called the Jalalian or the Seljuk. As a writer on algebra, geometry, and related subjects, ‘Omar was one of the most notable mathematicians of his time. He is, however, most famous as the author of the Ruba‘iyat. About 1000 of these epigrammatic four-line stanzas, which reflect upon nature and humanity, are ascribed to him.
‘Omar’s ruba‘is (quatrains) were composed perhaps as the outlet for a pessimistic and cynical rationalism which ‘Omar’s strictly orthodox day it was not politic to teach openly. The English poet and translator Edward Fitzgerald was the first to introduce ‘Omar to the West through an 1859 version of 100 of the quatrains. This version is a paraphrase, often very close, that despite its flowery rhymed verse captures the spirit of the original.
‘Omar Khayyam was appreciated by the Great Saljuq Malik-Shah I but Sanjar had a grudge against him. He met Abut Hamid al-Ghazali. As a scientist, he worked on the reform of the calendar and wrote on algebra and physics. As a poet, he became very popular in the west after Edward FitzGerald (d.1883) published his free translation of the Quatrains. Of the 1,000 quatrains originally attributed to him, 102 are considered authentic, the rest being added in the manuscripts over the course of time.
Omar Khayyam was a great mathematician. He made major contributions in mathematics, particularly in algebra. His book Maqalat fi al-Jabr wa al-Muqabila, a treatise on algebra, provided great advancement in the field. He classified many algebraic equations based on their complexity and recognized thirteen different forms of cubic equation. Omar Khayyam developed a geometrical approach to solving equations, which involved an ingenious selection of proper comics. He solved cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle. Omar Khayyam was the first to develop the binomial theorem and determine binomial coefficients. He developed the binomial expansion for the case when the exponent is a positive integer. Omar Khayyam refers in his algebra book to another work on what we now know as Pascal’s triangle. This work is now lost.
Al-Khayyam extended Euclid’s work giving a new definition of rations and included the multiplication of ratios. He contributed to the theory of parallel lines.
Omar al-Khayyam is famous for another work which he contributed when he worked for the Seljuk Sultan, Malik Shah Jalal al-Din. He was asked to develop an accurate solar calendar to be used for revenue collections and various administrative matters. To accomplish this task, Omar Khayyam began his work at the new observatory at Ray in 1074. His calendar Al-Tarikh al-Jalali is superior to the Gregorian calendar and is accurate to within one day in 3770 years. Specifically, he measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. It shows that he recognized the importance of accuracy by giving his result to eleven decimal places. As a comparison, the length of the year in the twentieth century was calculated at 365.242190 days. This number changes slightly each century in the sixth decimal place, e.g., in the nineteenth century it was 365.242196 days.
Al-Khayyam contributed also to other fields of science. He developed for accurate determination of the specific gravity. He wrote two books in metaphysics, Risala Dar Wujud and Nauruz Namah. As a poet, Omar Khayyam is well known for his Rubaiyat. His themes involved complex mystical and philosophical thoughts.
Omar al-Khayyam’s ten books and thirty monographs have survived. These include four books on mathematics, one on algebra, one on geometry, three on physics, and three books on metaphysics. He made great contributions in the development of mathematics and analytical geometry, which benefited Europe several centuries later.
Khayyam, 'Omar al- see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
'Umar Khayyam see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Khayyam, 'Umar see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Omar Khayyam see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Khayyam, Omar see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Omar the Tentmaker see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
‘Omar al-Khayyam (‘Umar Khayyam) (Omar Khayyám) (b, May 18, 1048, Neyshapur, Iran — d. 1131, Neyshapur, Iran). Mathematician and astronomer. He was also well known as a poet, philosopher, and physician. In the History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell remarks that Omar Khayyam was the only man known to him who was both a noted poet and a noted mathematician. Omar Khayyam reformed the solar calendar in 1079; his work on algebra was highly valued throughout Europe during the Middle Ages; and, in the West, he is best known for his poetic work Rubaiyat which was translated by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859. His full name was Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fateh Omar ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam.
Omar Khayyam was born in 1044 at Nishapur, the provincial capital of Khurasan. He is generally known as a Persian. However, it has been suggested that his ancestors (from the Arab Khayyami tribe) migrated and settled in Persia. Omar Khayyam was educated at Nishapur. He also traveled to several reputed institutions of learning, including those at Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand and Isfahan. His fame as a mathematician prompted the Seljuq Sultan Malik Shah and his vizier Nizam al-Mulk to invite him in 1074 to undertake astronomical research at a new observatory and to serve on a commission for calendar reform. He lived in Nishapur and Samarkand (Central Asia) for most of his life. Omar Khayyam was a contemporary of Nizam al-Mulk Tusi. He died in 1123 in Nishapur.
‘Omar Khayyam was a famous Persian scientist and poet from Nishapur. His name means “’Omar the Tentmaker.” As astronomer to the royal court, he was engaged with several other scientists to reform the calendar; their work resulted in the adoption of a new era, called the Jalalian or the Seljuk. As a writer on algebra, geometry, and related subjects, ‘Omar was one of the most notable mathematicians of his time. He is, however, most famous as the author of the Ruba‘iyat. About 1000 of these epigrammatic four-line stanzas, which reflect upon nature and humanity, are ascribed to him.
‘Omar’s ruba‘is (quatrains) were composed perhaps as the outlet for a pessimistic and cynical rationalism which ‘Omar’s strictly orthodox day it was not politic to teach openly. The English poet and translator Edward Fitzgerald was the first to introduce ‘Omar to the West through an 1859 version of 100 of the quatrains. This version is a paraphrase, often very close, that despite its flowery rhymed verse captures the spirit of the original.
‘Omar Khayyam was appreciated by the Great Saljuq Malik-Shah I but Sanjar had a grudge against him. He met Abut Hamid al-Ghazali. As a scientist, he worked on the reform of the calendar and wrote on algebra and physics. As a poet, he became very popular in the west after Edward FitzGerald (d.1883) published his free translation of the Quatrains. Of the 1,000 quatrains originally attributed to him, 102 are considered authentic, the rest being added in the manuscripts over the course of time.
Omar Khayyam was a great mathematician. He made major contributions in mathematics, particularly in algebra. His book Maqalat fi al-Jabr wa al-Muqabila, a treatise on algebra, provided great advancement in the field. He classified many algebraic equations based on their complexity and recognized thirteen different forms of cubic equation. Omar Khayyam developed a geometrical approach to solving equations, which involved an ingenious selection of proper comics. He solved cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle. Omar Khayyam was the first to develop the binomial theorem and determine binomial coefficients. He developed the binomial expansion for the case when the exponent is a positive integer. Omar Khayyam refers in his algebra book to another work on what we now know as Pascal’s triangle. This work is now lost.
Al-Khayyam extended Euclid’s work giving a new definition of rations and included the multiplication of ratios. He contributed to the theory of parallel lines.
Omar al-Khayyam is famous for another work which he contributed when he worked for the Seljuk Sultan, Malik Shah Jalal al-Din. He was asked to develop an accurate solar calendar to be used for revenue collections and various administrative matters. To accomplish this task, Omar Khayyam began his work at the new observatory at Ray in 1074. His calendar Al-Tarikh al-Jalali is superior to the Gregorian calendar and is accurate to within one day in 3770 years. Specifically, he measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. It shows that he recognized the importance of accuracy by giving his result to eleven decimal places. As a comparison, the length of the year in the twentieth century was calculated at 365.242190 days. This number changes slightly each century in the sixth decimal place, e.g., in the nineteenth century it was 365.242196 days.
Al-Khayyam contributed also to other fields of science. He developed for accurate determination of the specific gravity. He wrote two books in metaphysics, Risala Dar Wujud and Nauruz Namah. As a poet, Omar Khayyam is well known for his Rubaiyat. His themes involved complex mystical and philosophical thoughts.
Omar al-Khayyam’s ten books and thirty monographs have survived. These include four books on mathematics, one on algebra, one on geometry, three on physics, and three books on metaphysics. He made great contributions in the development of mathematics and analytical geometry, which benefited Europe several centuries later.
Khayyam, 'Omar al- see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
'Umar Khayyam see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Khayyam, 'Umar see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Omar Khayyam see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Khayyam, Omar see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
Omar the Tentmaker see ‘Omar al-Khayyam
‘Omer Efendi
‘Omer Efendi. Eighteenth century Ottoman historian from Bosnia. He wrote a vivid account of the events in Bosnia between 1738 and 1739.
‘Omer Efendi. Eighteenth century Ottoman historian from Bosnia. He wrote a vivid account of the events in Bosnia between 1738 and 1739.
Oncle Alufa
Oncle Alufa. In Brazil, a god who heads a family of malevolent spirits worshipped by Muslim slaves in the colonial period.
Alufa, Oncle see Oncle Alufa.
Oncle Alufa. In Brazil, a god who heads a family of malevolent spirits worshipped by Muslim slaves in the colonial period.
Alufa, Oncle see Oncle Alufa.
Onn bin Ja’afar, Dato
Onn bin Ja’afar, Dato (1895-January 19, 1962). Malay statesman and political leader, recognized as the father of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the first political party to represent purely Malay interests. The son of a politically prominent Johor family, he had become the chief minister of Johor by the 1940s. Following World War II, he organized opposition to the Malayan Union plan. With others, he formed the UMNO in 1946 and was named its first president. In 1951, after his attempt to broaden the party’s base by admitting non-Malays was opposed, Dato Onn resigned from the UMNO and formed the Independence of Malaya Party (IMP) with a multi-racial membership. While it gained some initial support, the IMP lost most of the offices in the first municipal elections to the communal parties. Thereafter he remained on the fringes of Malay political life. His son, Hussein bin Onn, was prime minister of the Federation of Malaysia between 1976 and 1981.
Onn bin Ja'afar was a Malay politician and a Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of Johore in Malaysia, then Malaya. He was the founder of United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and was also responsible for the social economic welfare of the Malays by setting up the Rural Industrial Development Authority (RIDA). His son was Tun Hussein Onn, the third Prime Minister of Malaysia and his grandson was Hishammuddin Hussein.
Onn was born in 1895 at Johor Bahru, the capital of the Sultanate of Johore. His father Dato Jaafar Haji Muhammad was the first Menteri Besar of Johore while his mother, Hanim Rogayah was from Scarcia, Turkey. Onn was sent by Sultan Ibrahim to be educated in England and upon his return, was sent by his father for studies at the Malay College Kuala Kangsar. He served for a time as a government official in Johore. Turning then to journalism, he edited two Malay newspapers, the Lembaga Melayu and the Warta Malaya, the first independent Malay daily. When he was a member of the Majlis Mesyuarat Negeri Johor, he made two important political contributions to the people of Johore, which are the setting up of the Sultan Ibrahim Scholarship and issuance of free air fares to perform the pilgrimage in Mecca (Makkah) for Islamic officers serving the Johore government. After World War II, he became extremely active in Malayan politics.
Onn was very active in the Malaya nationalist movement and along with his companions, Haji Anwar bin Abdul Malik, Haji Syed Alwi bin Syed Sheikh al-Hadi and Mohd Haji Noah Omar was active in the founding of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) as a means to rally the Malays against the Malayan Union, which was perceived as threatening Malay privileges and the position of the Malaya rulers. Onn took up the role of UMNO's president on May 1, 1946. When plans for the union were withdrawn, Onn was made Menteri Besar by the Sultan of Johor.
Later, Onn was disgusted with what he considered to be UMNO's communalist policies, and called for party membership to be opened to all Malayans, and for UMNO to be renamed as the United Malayans National Organization. When his recommendations went unheeded, he left the party on August 26, 1951, to form the Independence of Malaya Party (IMP). However, the IMP failed to receive sufficient backing from Malayans, and eventually Onn left it to form the Parti Negara, which placed membership restrictions on non-Malays in an attempt to woo the Malays.
Neither party gained popular support against Tunku Abdul Rahman's new Alliance coalition and he was eventually eclipsed from Malayan political life.
Onn's character was portrayed in a 2007 Malaysian movie 1957: Hati Malaya which was directed by a popular Malaysian film director, Shuhaimi Baba. His role is played by Zaefrul Nadzarine Nordin.
Dato Onn bin Ja'afar see Onn bin Ja’afar, Dato
Onn bin Ja’afar, Dato (1895-January 19, 1962). Malay statesman and political leader, recognized as the father of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the first political party to represent purely Malay interests. The son of a politically prominent Johor family, he had become the chief minister of Johor by the 1940s. Following World War II, he organized opposition to the Malayan Union plan. With others, he formed the UMNO in 1946 and was named its first president. In 1951, after his attempt to broaden the party’s base by admitting non-Malays was opposed, Dato Onn resigned from the UMNO and formed the Independence of Malaya Party (IMP) with a multi-racial membership. While it gained some initial support, the IMP lost most of the offices in the first municipal elections to the communal parties. Thereafter he remained on the fringes of Malay political life. His son, Hussein bin Onn, was prime minister of the Federation of Malaysia between 1976 and 1981.
Onn bin Ja'afar was a Malay politician and a Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of Johore in Malaysia, then Malaya. He was the founder of United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and was also responsible for the social economic welfare of the Malays by setting up the Rural Industrial Development Authority (RIDA). His son was Tun Hussein Onn, the third Prime Minister of Malaysia and his grandson was Hishammuddin Hussein.
Onn was born in 1895 at Johor Bahru, the capital of the Sultanate of Johore. His father Dato Jaafar Haji Muhammad was the first Menteri Besar of Johore while his mother, Hanim Rogayah was from Scarcia, Turkey. Onn was sent by Sultan Ibrahim to be educated in England and upon his return, was sent by his father for studies at the Malay College Kuala Kangsar. He served for a time as a government official in Johore. Turning then to journalism, he edited two Malay newspapers, the Lembaga Melayu and the Warta Malaya, the first independent Malay daily. When he was a member of the Majlis Mesyuarat Negeri Johor, he made two important political contributions to the people of Johore, which are the setting up of the Sultan Ibrahim Scholarship and issuance of free air fares to perform the pilgrimage in Mecca (Makkah) for Islamic officers serving the Johore government. After World War II, he became extremely active in Malayan politics.
Onn was very active in the Malaya nationalist movement and along with his companions, Haji Anwar bin Abdul Malik, Haji Syed Alwi bin Syed Sheikh al-Hadi and Mohd Haji Noah Omar was active in the founding of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) as a means to rally the Malays against the Malayan Union, which was perceived as threatening Malay privileges and the position of the Malaya rulers. Onn took up the role of UMNO's president on May 1, 1946. When plans for the union were withdrawn, Onn was made Menteri Besar by the Sultan of Johor.
Later, Onn was disgusted with what he considered to be UMNO's communalist policies, and called for party membership to be opened to all Malayans, and for UMNO to be renamed as the United Malayans National Organization. When his recommendations went unheeded, he left the party on August 26, 1951, to form the Independence of Malaya Party (IMP). However, the IMP failed to receive sufficient backing from Malayans, and eventually Onn left it to form the Parti Negara, which placed membership restrictions on non-Malays in an attempt to woo the Malays.
Neither party gained popular support against Tunku Abdul Rahman's new Alliance coalition and he was eventually eclipsed from Malayan political life.
Onn's character was portrayed in a 2007 Malaysian movie 1957: Hati Malaya which was directed by a popular Malaysian film director, Shuhaimi Baba. His role is played by Zaefrul Nadzarine Nordin.
Dato Onn bin Ja'afar see Onn bin Ja’afar, Dato
OPEC
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Group formed in 1960 to maintain a minimum price for oil.
OPEC, in full Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, was a multinational organization that was established to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members and to provide member states with technical and economic aid.
OPEC was established at a conference held in Baghdad September 10–14, 1960, and was formally constituted in January 1961 by five countries: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela. Members admitted afterward include Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), Abū Dhabī (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), and Angola (2007). The United Arab Emirates—which includes Abū Dhabī (the largest of the emirates), Dubayy, ʿAjmān, Al-Shāriqah, Umm al-Qaywayn, Raʾs al-Khaymah, and Al-Fujayrah—assumed Abū Dhabī’s membership in the 1970s. Gabon, which had joined in 1975, withdrew in January 1995, but it had relatively insignificant oil reserves. Ecuador suspended its membership from OPEC from December 1992 until October 2007, while Indonesia suspended its membership beginning in January 2009.
OPEC’s headquarters, first located in Geneva, was moved to Vienna in 1965. OPEC members coordinate policies on oil prices, production, and related matters at semi-annual and special meetings of the OPEC Conference. The Board of Governors, which is responsible for managing the organization, convening the Conference, and drawing up the annual budget, contains representatives appointed by each member country; its chair is elected to a one-year term by the Conference. OPEC also possesses a Secretariat, headed by a secretary-general appointed by the Conference for a three-year term. The Secretariat includes research and energy-studies divisions.
OPEC members collectively own about two-thirds of the world’s proven petroleum reserves and account for two-fifths of world oil production. Members differ in a variety of ways, including the size of oil reserves, geography, religion, and economic and political interests. Four members—Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—have very large per capita oil reserves; they also are relatively strong financially and thus have considerable flexibility in adjusting their production. Saudi Arabia, which has the largest reserves and a relatively small (but fast-growing) population, has traditionally played a dominant role in determining overall production and prices.
Because OPEC has been beset by numerous conflicts throughout its history, some experts have concluded that it is not a cartel—or at least not an effective one—and that it has little, if any, influence over the amount of oil produced or its price. Other experts believe that OPEC is an effective cartel, though it has not been equally effective at all times. The debate largely centers on semantics and the definition of what constitutes a cartel. Those who argue that OPEC is not a cartel emphasize the sovereignty of each member country, the inherent problems of coordinating price and production policies, and the tendency of countries to renege on prior agreements at ministerial meetings. Those who claim that OPEC is a cartel argue that production costs in the Persian Gulf are generally less than 10 percent of the price charged and that prices would decline toward those costs in the absence of coordination by OPEC.
The influence of individual OPEC members on the organization and on the oil market usually depends on their levels of reserves and production. Saudi Arabia, which controls about one-third of OPEC’s total oil reserves, plays a leading role in the organization. Other important members are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, whose combined reserves are significantly greater than those of Saudi Arabia. Kuwait, which has a very small population, has shown a willingness to cut production relative to the size of its reserves, whereas Iran and Iraq, both with large and growing populations, have generally produced at high levels relative to reserves. Revolutions and wars have impaired the ability of some OPEC members to maintain high levels of production.
When OPEC was formed in 1960, its main goal was to prevent its concessionaires—the world’s largest oil producers, refiners, and marketers—from lowering the price of oil, which they had always specified, or “posted.” OPEC members sought to gain greater control over oil prices by coordinating their production and export policies, though each member retained ultimate control over its own policy. OPEC managed to prevent price reductions during the 1960s, but its success encouraged increases in production, resulting in a gradual decline in nominal prices (not adjusted for inflation) from $1.93 per barrel in 1955 to $1.30 per barrel in 1970. During the 1970s the primary goal of OPEC members was to secure complete sovereignty over their petroleum resources. Accordingly, several OPEC members nationalized their oil reserves and altered their contracts with major oil companies.
In October 1973, OPEC raised oil prices by 70 percent. In December, two months after the Yom Kippur War, prices were raised by an additional 130 percent, and the organization’s Arab members, which had formed OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) in 1968, curtailed production and placed an embargo on oil shipments to the United States and the Netherlands, the main supporters of Israel during the war. The result throughout the West was severe oil shortages and spiraling inflation. As OPEC continued to raise prices through the rest of the decade (prices increased 10-fold from 1973 to 1980), its political and economic power grew. Flush with petrodollars, many OPEC members began large-scale domestic economic and social development programs and invested heavily overseas, particularly in the United States and Europe. OPEC also established an international fund to aid developing countries.
Although oil-importing countries reacted slowly to the price increases, eventually they reduced their overall energy consumption, found other sources of oil (e.g., in Norway, the United Kingdom, and Mexico), and developed alternative sources of energy, such as coal, natural gas, and nuclear power. In response, OPEC members—particularly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait—reduced their production levels in the early 1980s in what proved to be a futile effort to defend their posted prices.
Production and prices continued to fall in the 1980s. Although the brunt of the production cuts were borne by Saudi Arabia, whose oil revenues shrank by some four-fifths by 1986, the revenues of all producers, including non-OPEC countries, fell by some two-thirds in the same period as the price of oil dropped to less than $10 per barrel. The decline in revenues and the ruinous Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), which pitted two OPEC members against each other, undermined the unity of the organization and precipitated a major policy shift by Saudi Arabia, which decided that it no longer would defend the price of oil but would defend its market share instead. Following Saudi Arabia’s lead, other OPEC members soon decided to maintain production quotas. Saudi Arabia’s influence within OPEC also was evident during the Persian Gulf War (1990–91)—which resulted from the invasion of one OPEC member (Kuwait) by another (Iraq)—when the kingdom agreed to increase production to stabilize prices and minimize any disruption in the international oil market.
During the 1990s OPEC continued to emphasize production quotas. Oil prices, which collapsed at the end of the decade, began to increase again in the early 21st century, owing to greater unity among OPEC members and better cooperation with nonmembers (such as Mexico, Norway, Oman, and Russia), increased tensions in the Middle East, and a political crisis in Venezuela. As the 21st century began, international efforts to reduce the burning of fossil fuels (which has contributed significantly to global warming) made it likely that the world demand for oil would inevitably decline. In response, OPEC attempted to develop a coherent environmental policy.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries see OPEC
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Group formed in 1960 to maintain a minimum price for oil.
OPEC, in full Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, was a multinational organization that was established to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members and to provide member states with technical and economic aid.
OPEC was established at a conference held in Baghdad September 10–14, 1960, and was formally constituted in January 1961 by five countries: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela. Members admitted afterward include Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), Abū Dhabī (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), and Angola (2007). The United Arab Emirates—which includes Abū Dhabī (the largest of the emirates), Dubayy, ʿAjmān, Al-Shāriqah, Umm al-Qaywayn, Raʾs al-Khaymah, and Al-Fujayrah—assumed Abū Dhabī’s membership in the 1970s. Gabon, which had joined in 1975, withdrew in January 1995, but it had relatively insignificant oil reserves. Ecuador suspended its membership from OPEC from December 1992 until October 2007, while Indonesia suspended its membership beginning in January 2009.
OPEC’s headquarters, first located in Geneva, was moved to Vienna in 1965. OPEC members coordinate policies on oil prices, production, and related matters at semi-annual and special meetings of the OPEC Conference. The Board of Governors, which is responsible for managing the organization, convening the Conference, and drawing up the annual budget, contains representatives appointed by each member country; its chair is elected to a one-year term by the Conference. OPEC also possesses a Secretariat, headed by a secretary-general appointed by the Conference for a three-year term. The Secretariat includes research and energy-studies divisions.
OPEC members collectively own about two-thirds of the world’s proven petroleum reserves and account for two-fifths of world oil production. Members differ in a variety of ways, including the size of oil reserves, geography, religion, and economic and political interests. Four members—Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—have very large per capita oil reserves; they also are relatively strong financially and thus have considerable flexibility in adjusting their production. Saudi Arabia, which has the largest reserves and a relatively small (but fast-growing) population, has traditionally played a dominant role in determining overall production and prices.
Because OPEC has been beset by numerous conflicts throughout its history, some experts have concluded that it is not a cartel—or at least not an effective one—and that it has little, if any, influence over the amount of oil produced or its price. Other experts believe that OPEC is an effective cartel, though it has not been equally effective at all times. The debate largely centers on semantics and the definition of what constitutes a cartel. Those who argue that OPEC is not a cartel emphasize the sovereignty of each member country, the inherent problems of coordinating price and production policies, and the tendency of countries to renege on prior agreements at ministerial meetings. Those who claim that OPEC is a cartel argue that production costs in the Persian Gulf are generally less than 10 percent of the price charged and that prices would decline toward those costs in the absence of coordination by OPEC.
The influence of individual OPEC members on the organization and on the oil market usually depends on their levels of reserves and production. Saudi Arabia, which controls about one-third of OPEC’s total oil reserves, plays a leading role in the organization. Other important members are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, whose combined reserves are significantly greater than those of Saudi Arabia. Kuwait, which has a very small population, has shown a willingness to cut production relative to the size of its reserves, whereas Iran and Iraq, both with large and growing populations, have generally produced at high levels relative to reserves. Revolutions and wars have impaired the ability of some OPEC members to maintain high levels of production.
When OPEC was formed in 1960, its main goal was to prevent its concessionaires—the world’s largest oil producers, refiners, and marketers—from lowering the price of oil, which they had always specified, or “posted.” OPEC members sought to gain greater control over oil prices by coordinating their production and export policies, though each member retained ultimate control over its own policy. OPEC managed to prevent price reductions during the 1960s, but its success encouraged increases in production, resulting in a gradual decline in nominal prices (not adjusted for inflation) from $1.93 per barrel in 1955 to $1.30 per barrel in 1970. During the 1970s the primary goal of OPEC members was to secure complete sovereignty over their petroleum resources. Accordingly, several OPEC members nationalized their oil reserves and altered their contracts with major oil companies.
In October 1973, OPEC raised oil prices by 70 percent. In December, two months after the Yom Kippur War, prices were raised by an additional 130 percent, and the organization’s Arab members, which had formed OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) in 1968, curtailed production and placed an embargo on oil shipments to the United States and the Netherlands, the main supporters of Israel during the war. The result throughout the West was severe oil shortages and spiraling inflation. As OPEC continued to raise prices through the rest of the decade (prices increased 10-fold from 1973 to 1980), its political and economic power grew. Flush with petrodollars, many OPEC members began large-scale domestic economic and social development programs and invested heavily overseas, particularly in the United States and Europe. OPEC also established an international fund to aid developing countries.
Although oil-importing countries reacted slowly to the price increases, eventually they reduced their overall energy consumption, found other sources of oil (e.g., in Norway, the United Kingdom, and Mexico), and developed alternative sources of energy, such as coal, natural gas, and nuclear power. In response, OPEC members—particularly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait—reduced their production levels in the early 1980s in what proved to be a futile effort to defend their posted prices.
Production and prices continued to fall in the 1980s. Although the brunt of the production cuts were borne by Saudi Arabia, whose oil revenues shrank by some four-fifths by 1986, the revenues of all producers, including non-OPEC countries, fell by some two-thirds in the same period as the price of oil dropped to less than $10 per barrel. The decline in revenues and the ruinous Iran-Iraq War (1980–88), which pitted two OPEC members against each other, undermined the unity of the organization and precipitated a major policy shift by Saudi Arabia, which decided that it no longer would defend the price of oil but would defend its market share instead. Following Saudi Arabia’s lead, other OPEC members soon decided to maintain production quotas. Saudi Arabia’s influence within OPEC also was evident during the Persian Gulf War (1990–91)—which resulted from the invasion of one OPEC member (Kuwait) by another (Iraq)—when the kingdom agreed to increase production to stabilize prices and minimize any disruption in the international oil market.
During the 1990s OPEC continued to emphasize production quotas. Oil prices, which collapsed at the end of the decade, began to increase again in the early 21st century, owing to greater unity among OPEC members and better cooperation with nonmembers (such as Mexico, Norway, Oman, and Russia), increased tensions in the Middle East, and a political crisis in Venezuela. As the 21st century began, international efforts to reduce the burning of fossil fuels (which has contributed significantly to global warming) made it likely that the world demand for oil would inevitably decline. In response, OPEC attempted to develop a coherent environmental policy.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries see OPEC
Orhan
Orhan (Orkhan ibn ‘Othman) (Orhan Gazi) (1288-1360). Ottoman bey (r.1324-1360). Orhan is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Orhan was the second ruler of the Ottoman dynasty, which had been founded by his father, Osman I. Orhan’s reign (1324–60) marked the beginning of Ottoman expansion into the Balkans.
Under Orhan’s leadership, the small Ottoman principality in northwestern Anatolia continued to attract Ghazis (warriors for the Islāmic faith) from surrounding Turkish emirates fighting against Byzantium. In 1324 the Byzantine town of Brusa (later Bursa) fell to the Ottomans, followed by Nicaea (modern İznik) in 1331 and Nicomedia (modern İzmit) in 1337.
Turning to the neighboring Turkmen states, Orhan annexed the principality of Karası, which had been weakened by dynastic struggles (c. 1345), and he extended his control to the extreme northwest corner of Anatolia. In 1346 the Ottomans became the principal ally of the future Byzantine emperor John VI Cantacuzenus by crossing over into the Balkans to assist him against his rival John V Palaeologus.
As John VI’s ally, Orhan married Theodora, John’s daughter, and acquired the right to conduct raids in the Balkans. His campaigns provided the Ottomans with an intimate knowledge of the area, and in 1354 they seized Gallipoli as a permanent foothold in Europe.
Orhan’s reign also marked the beginning of the institutions that transformed the Ottoman principality into a powerful state. In 1327 the first silver Ottoman coins were minted in Orhan’s name, while the Anatolian conquests were consolidated and the army was reorganized on a more permanent basis. Finally, Orhan built mosques, medreses (theological colleges), and caravansaries in the newly conquered towns, particularly the Ottoman capital, Bursa, which later became a major Islāmic center.
Orkhan ibn 'Othman see Orhan
Orhan Gazi see Orhan
Gazi, Orhan see Orhan
Orhan (Orkhan ibn ‘Othman) (Orhan Gazi) (1288-1360). Ottoman bey (r.1324-1360). Orhan is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Orhan was the second ruler of the Ottoman dynasty, which had been founded by his father, Osman I. Orhan’s reign (1324–60) marked the beginning of Ottoman expansion into the Balkans.
Under Orhan’s leadership, the small Ottoman principality in northwestern Anatolia continued to attract Ghazis (warriors for the Islāmic faith) from surrounding Turkish emirates fighting against Byzantium. In 1324 the Byzantine town of Brusa (later Bursa) fell to the Ottomans, followed by Nicaea (modern İznik) in 1331 and Nicomedia (modern İzmit) in 1337.
Turning to the neighboring Turkmen states, Orhan annexed the principality of Karası, which had been weakened by dynastic struggles (c. 1345), and he extended his control to the extreme northwest corner of Anatolia. In 1346 the Ottomans became the principal ally of the future Byzantine emperor John VI Cantacuzenus by crossing over into the Balkans to assist him against his rival John V Palaeologus.
As John VI’s ally, Orhan married Theodora, John’s daughter, and acquired the right to conduct raids in the Balkans. His campaigns provided the Ottomans with an intimate knowledge of the area, and in 1354 they seized Gallipoli as a permanent foothold in Europe.
Orhan’s reign also marked the beginning of the institutions that transformed the Ottoman principality into a powerful state. In 1327 the first silver Ottoman coins were minted in Orhan’s name, while the Anatolian conquests were consolidated and the army was reorganized on a more permanent basis. Finally, Orhan built mosques, medreses (theological colleges), and caravansaries in the newly conquered towns, particularly the Ottoman capital, Bursa, which later became a major Islāmic center.
Orkhan ibn 'Othman see Orhan
Orhan Gazi see Orhan
Gazi, Orhan see Orhan
Orissans
Orissans. The Muslims of the Indian state of Orissa call themselves Mahomedan or Muslim. Non-Muslims call them Musalman or Pathan. Orissans comprise about 1.5 percent of the state’s population. Orissan Muslims were converted from among the local population during the days of Moghul rule in India, beginning in the sixteenth century. As Moghul power was primarily along the coast (an area called Moghul Bandi) most Muslims are concentrated in the districts of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri. Nearly all speak Urdu as their mother tongue, although many speak Oriyan as a second language, especially if they attend regional secular schools instead of Muslim madrasas. The overwhelming majority of Orissan Muslims are Sunni.
Orissans. The Muslims of the Indian state of Orissa call themselves Mahomedan or Muslim. Non-Muslims call them Musalman or Pathan. Orissans comprise about 1.5 percent of the state’s population. Orissan Muslims were converted from among the local population during the days of Moghul rule in India, beginning in the sixteenth century. As Moghul power was primarily along the coast (an area called Moghul Bandi) most Muslims are concentrated in the districts of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri. Nearly all speak Urdu as their mother tongue, although many speak Oriyan as a second language, especially if they attend regional secular schools instead of Muslim madrasas. The overwhelming majority of Orissan Muslims are Sunni.
Oromo
Oromo (Oromoo -- The Powerful). The Oromo occupy a substantial part of the land from northeastern Ethiopia to east central Kenya, and between the borders of Sudan and Somalia. They share a common language and growing common identity.
The Oromo, commonly called the Galla, enter historical records in the middle of the sixteenth century, when they expanded to the north and northeast from an original homeland in what is today southern Ethiopia. For some reason, perhaps related to the wars and weakness of the Abyssinian/Ethiopian states at that time, Oromo began a series of raids which carried them, within a few decades, well into northern Ethiopia. During succeeding centuries they came to occupy much of the best land of highland Ethiopia, while other Oromo groups spread across the more barren lowland areas of southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. When they began their great movements in the sixteenth century, they were apparently primarily pastoral and egalitarian and practiced their own religion. Over the past four centuries they have become remarkably diversified in social and political structure, economy and religion, although certain common underlying patterns are discernible among many of the Oromo groups.
Linguistic evidence suggests that the Oromo had long resided in southern Ethiopia before their sixteenth century expansion, and no other place of origin is indicated for them. As the Oromo conquered new territories, their lives were modified. They moved into new environments and encountered new neighbors, political forces and religions. In the far north, the Wollo, Raya and Yejju became a prominent force in the politics of the Abyssinian state and played vital roles in the competition for power in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is said that today members of these groups are more likely to speak Amharic and Tigrinya than the Oromo language. Their leaders converted to Islam in the nineteenth century, and the people followed.
In Wellega and in the Gibe River region of southwest Ethiopia, the Oromo developed six kingdoms of their own. The rulers of the new state in Wellega, formed about 1850, became Ethiopian Christians, while the kings of the five Gibe states, Jimma, Limmu, Gera, Guma and Gomma, all converted to Islam in the first half of the eighteenth century. Islam was brought to this region primarily by merchants from northern Ethiopia. (All of these states were incorporated into the expanding Ethiopian empire by the 1890s.)
Most of the other Oromo groups, whether pastoral or sedentary agriculturalists, retain important elements of the original Oromo sociopolitical system and religion, subject, however, to many modifications and to control by the Ethiopian state. In the Harar area, however, the Oromo were heavily affected by the Muslim city-state of Harar and by the Egyptian occupation of that area in the period 1875-1885. The Oromo became Muslim at that time, either as a result of forced conversion or by choice. To the west and south of Harar, many Arsi and Bale Oromo also converted to Islam.
Islam spread fastest in the nineteenth century as a result of the conversion of rulers and their courts, whose people subsequently followed them. Then, and now, it also spread as individuals responded to the influence or missionary efforts of other Muslims, especially traders. Conversion is particularly marked among those Oromo who desire to join the community of merchants, since Muslims tend to dominate trade in many areas of Ethiopia.
Oromoo see Oromo
The Powerful see Oromo
The Powerful see Oromo
Orthodox Jews
Orthodox Jews. Jews having an orientation in Judaism that is strictly based upon a traditional understanding of their religion. As they see it, all values and regulations of Judaism are just as valid in modern times, as they ever have been. Orthodox Judaism is not so much a protest against modern orientations in Judaism as it is a strict continuation of traditional Judaism. As the Orthodox see it, only well educated theologians can interpret the scriptures. Hence there is little room for the modern interpretations that often have come from secular or secular-inspired authorities, like what is the case for Reform Judaism.
The Orthodox believe that the content of both the Written Law (the Torah, the first five books of the Old Testament) and Oral Law (codified in the Mishnah and interpreted in the Talmud) are eternal and cannot be changed or omitted.
The Orthodox practice their religion daily. They study the Torah, follow the dietary injunctions, and respect all aspects of the celebration of the Sabbath.
Despite its conservatism, there have been some changes inside Orthodox Judaism, as evidenced by the changes wrought by Samson Raphael Hirsch in the 19th century. In the 19th century, the German thinker Samson Raphael Hirsch introduced modifications to Orthodox Judaism which allowed modern dress, vernacular language in ceremonies and more openness towards modern society.
In the early twentieth century, Orthodox leaders opposed the ideas and work of Zionists for a Jewish state in Palestine. This was mainly because they were afraid that the secular orientation of the Zionists would reduce the importance of Judaism in the future Jewish state.
However, in 1948, when the state of Israel was formed, the Orthodox politicians managed to make their orientation the official state sanctioned form of Judaism. Indeed, over time, Orthodox Jews became very active in Israeli politics, and they even formed their own party, the Shas (Shomrei Torah Sephardim), which won 17 of the 120 seats in the Knesset in 1999.
Although there have been some modernizing changes amongst the Orthodox, in their synagogues there is a clear division between men and women, and there are no sorts of music during the communal service.
Orthodox Jews. Jews having an orientation in Judaism that is strictly based upon a traditional understanding of their religion. As they see it, all values and regulations of Judaism are just as valid in modern times, as they ever have been. Orthodox Judaism is not so much a protest against modern orientations in Judaism as it is a strict continuation of traditional Judaism. As the Orthodox see it, only well educated theologians can interpret the scriptures. Hence there is little room for the modern interpretations that often have come from secular or secular-inspired authorities, like what is the case for Reform Judaism.
The Orthodox believe that the content of both the Written Law (the Torah, the first five books of the Old Testament) and Oral Law (codified in the Mishnah and interpreted in the Talmud) are eternal and cannot be changed or omitted.
The Orthodox practice their religion daily. They study the Torah, follow the dietary injunctions, and respect all aspects of the celebration of the Sabbath.
Despite its conservatism, there have been some changes inside Orthodox Judaism, as evidenced by the changes wrought by Samson Raphael Hirsch in the 19th century. In the 19th century, the German thinker Samson Raphael Hirsch introduced modifications to Orthodox Judaism which allowed modern dress, vernacular language in ceremonies and more openness towards modern society.
In the early twentieth century, Orthodox leaders opposed the ideas and work of Zionists for a Jewish state in Palestine. This was mainly because they were afraid that the secular orientation of the Zionists would reduce the importance of Judaism in the future Jewish state.
However, in 1948, when the state of Israel was formed, the Orthodox politicians managed to make their orientation the official state sanctioned form of Judaism. Indeed, over time, Orthodox Jews became very active in Israeli politics, and they even formed their own party, the Shas (Shomrei Torah Sephardim), which won 17 of the 120 seats in the Knesset in 1999.
Although there have been some modernizing changes amongst the Orthodox, in their synagogues there is a clear division between men and women, and there are no sorts of music during the communal service.
Osama Bin Laden
Osama Bin Laden. See Bin Laden.
Osama Bin Laden. See Bin Laden.
Osei Kwame
Osei Kwame (c.1765-1803/1804). Ruler of the Akan kingdom of Asante (r.1777-1798). He was about twelve years old when he was picked to succeed Osei Kwadwo. His mother’s attempts to rule during his minority threw Asante into civil war which lasted until the early 1790s. By then Osei Kwame had come of age but before the end of the decade a new civil conflict had begun. The causes are partly attributable to Osei Kwame’s cruelty and jealousy, but the major reason was his predilection towards Islam. Islamic influence had increased as a result of Asante conquest of Muslim-governed territories to the north. Asante chiefs feared he would use Islam to undermine the traditional religion and augment his own power, already enlarged due to administrative reforms. Around 1798, he fled Kumasi, the capital, and was deposed. His successor, Opoku II (Opoku Fofie), died around 1801 and Muslims in the north attempted to restore Osei Kwame to power. Warfare continued until Osei Kwame’s death in 1803/1804.
Osei Kwame (c.1765-1803/1804). Ruler of the Akan kingdom of Asante (r.1777-1798). He was about twelve years old when he was picked to succeed Osei Kwadwo. His mother’s attempts to rule during his minority threw Asante into civil war which lasted until the early 1790s. By then Osei Kwame had come of age but before the end of the decade a new civil conflict had begun. The causes are partly attributable to Osei Kwame’s cruelty and jealousy, but the major reason was his predilection towards Islam. Islamic influence had increased as a result of Asante conquest of Muslim-governed territories to the north. Asante chiefs feared he would use Islam to undermine the traditional religion and augment his own power, already enlarged due to administrative reforms. Around 1798, he fled Kumasi, the capital, and was deposed. His successor, Opoku II (Opoku Fofie), died around 1801 and Muslims in the north attempted to restore Osei Kwame to power. Warfare continued until Osei Kwame’s death in 1803/1804.
Osman I
Osman I (Osman Gazi) ‘Othman I Ghazi (1258-1324, Sogut, Ottoman Empire [now in Turkey]). Ottoman bey (r.1300-1324), while he was the ruler of his principality from 1293. Osman is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Osman was the son of Ertugrul, and inherited the position of ruler over a principality with Sogut as capital. He controlled an effective army, consisting of Muslim warriors called ghazis. While the official purpose of the ghazis were to fight the infidels, they mainly resorted to looting in enemy territory. The main opponent was Byzantium. During Osman’s reign, several Byzantine fortresses were conquered, among which was Yenisehir.
His main campaigns were sieging Nicaea (later, under the Turks renamed to Iznik) and Brusa (later, under the Turks renamed to Bursa). Shortly before his death, he conquered Bursa, which was made into the capital of his kingdom.
With his death in Sogut at the age of 66, Osman was succeed by his son, Orhan.
Osman I was a ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. Both the name of the dynasty and the empire that the dynasty established are derived from the Arabic form (ʿUthmān) of his name.
Osman was descended from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz Turkmen. His father, Ertugrul, had established a principality centered at Sögüt. With Sögüt as their base, Osman and the Muslim frontier warriors (Ghazis) under his command waged a slow and stubborn conflict against the Byzantines, who sought to defend their territories in the hinterland of the Asiatic shore opposite Constantinople (now Istanbul). Osman gradually extended his control over several former Byzantine fortresses, including Yenişehir, which provided the Ottomans with a strong base to lay siege to Bursa and Nicaea (now İznik), in northwestern Anatolia. The greatest success of Osman’s reign was the conquest of Bursa shortly before his death.
Osman Gazi see Osman I
‘Othman I Ghazi see Osman I
Osman I (Osman Gazi) ‘Othman I Ghazi (1258-1324, Sogut, Ottoman Empire [now in Turkey]). Ottoman bey (r.1300-1324), while he was the ruler of his principality from 1293. Osman is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394.
Osman was the son of Ertugrul, and inherited the position of ruler over a principality with Sogut as capital. He controlled an effective army, consisting of Muslim warriors called ghazis. While the official purpose of the ghazis were to fight the infidels, they mainly resorted to looting in enemy territory. The main opponent was Byzantium. During Osman’s reign, several Byzantine fortresses were conquered, among which was Yenisehir.
His main campaigns were sieging Nicaea (later, under the Turks renamed to Iznik) and Brusa (later, under the Turks renamed to Bursa). Shortly before his death, he conquered Bursa, which was made into the capital of his kingdom.
With his death in Sogut at the age of 66, Osman was succeed by his son, Orhan.
Osman I was a ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. Both the name of the dynasty and the empire that the dynasty established are derived from the Arabic form (ʿUthmān) of his name.
Osman was descended from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz Turkmen. His father, Ertugrul, had established a principality centered at Sögüt. With Sögüt as their base, Osman and the Muslim frontier warriors (Ghazis) under his command waged a slow and stubborn conflict against the Byzantines, who sought to defend their territories in the hinterland of the Asiatic shore opposite Constantinople (now Istanbul). Osman gradually extended his control over several former Byzantine fortresses, including Yenişehir, which provided the Ottomans with a strong base to lay siege to Bursa and Nicaea (now İznik), in northwestern Anatolia. The greatest success of Osman’s reign was the conquest of Bursa shortly before his death.
Osman Gazi see Osman I
‘Othman I Ghazi see Osman I
Osman II
Osman II (Genc Osman -- "Young Osman") (Othman II) (Uthman II) (b. November 15, 1603, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey] - d. May 20, 1622, Constantinople). Ottoman sultan (r.1618-1622). He was born on November 15, 1603, in Istanbul. In 1618, at the age of 14, Osman II became the new sultan as Mustafa I was removed from the sultanate.
In 1621, Osman tried to reform the Janissaries by removing some of their privileges, like their coffee shops, which functioned like cells of disobedience among the troops. This led to strong reactions among the Janissaries.
In 1622, Osman started planning a pilgrimage to Mecca, which really was a campaign to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria, in order to defeat the Ottomans. The result became an actual revolt among his enemies. On May 19, Osman was forced by Janissary troops to resign from power, and let Mustafa I return to office. On May 20, he is strangled by Janissaries of Istanbul.
Despite being only fourteen years when becoming sultan, Osman was the most apt ruler of the Ottoman Empire since Suleyman I fifty years earlier. However, conditions in the empire had deteriorated too much, so when Osman tried to reform the Janissaries, he was violently removed from his position.
Osman also set out on campaigns against Poland, but without being able to get the victories he had hoped for. This failure he correctly interpreted to be the result of weak moral and little devotedness in the army, principally from the Janissary troops.
Ambitious and courageous, Osman undertook a military campaign against Poland, which had interfered in the Ottoman vassal principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Realizing that his defeat at Chocim (Khotin, Ukraine) in 1621 largely stemmed from the lack of discipline and the degeneracy of the Janissary corps, he proceeded to discipline them by cutting their pay and closing their coffee shops. Then he announced a plan to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, but his real purpose was to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria to break the power of the Janissaries. Hearing of this scheme and already resentful because of Osman’s previous policies, the Janissaries revolted, deposed Osman on May 19, 1622, and strangled him the next day.
Genc Osman see Osman II
Young Osman see Osman II
Othman II see Osman II
Uthman II see Osman II
Osman II (Genc Osman -- "Young Osman") (Othman II) (Uthman II) (b. November 15, 1603, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey] - d. May 20, 1622, Constantinople). Ottoman sultan (r.1618-1622). He was born on November 15, 1603, in Istanbul. In 1618, at the age of 14, Osman II became the new sultan as Mustafa I was removed from the sultanate.
In 1621, Osman tried to reform the Janissaries by removing some of their privileges, like their coffee shops, which functioned like cells of disobedience among the troops. This led to strong reactions among the Janissaries.
In 1622, Osman started planning a pilgrimage to Mecca, which really was a campaign to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria, in order to defeat the Ottomans. The result became an actual revolt among his enemies. On May 19, Osman was forced by Janissary troops to resign from power, and let Mustafa I return to office. On May 20, he is strangled by Janissaries of Istanbul.
Despite being only fourteen years when becoming sultan, Osman was the most apt ruler of the Ottoman Empire since Suleyman I fifty years earlier. However, conditions in the empire had deteriorated too much, so when Osman tried to reform the Janissaries, he was violently removed from his position.
Osman also set out on campaigns against Poland, but without being able to get the victories he had hoped for. This failure he correctly interpreted to be the result of weak moral and little devotedness in the army, principally from the Janissary troops.
Ambitious and courageous, Osman undertook a military campaign against Poland, which had interfered in the Ottoman vassal principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Realizing that his defeat at Chocim (Khotin, Ukraine) in 1621 largely stemmed from the lack of discipline and the degeneracy of the Janissary corps, he proceeded to discipline them by cutting their pay and closing their coffee shops. Then he announced a plan to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, but his real purpose was to recruit a new army in Egypt and Syria to break the power of the Janissaries. Hearing of this scheme and already resentful because of Osman’s previous policies, the Janissaries revolted, deposed Osman on May 19, 1622, and strangled him the next day.
Genc Osman see Osman II
Young Osman see Osman II
Othman II see Osman II
Uthman II see Osman II
Osmanli
Osmanli (Ottomans) (Imperial House of Osman) (Osmanlı Hânedanı). Term pertaining to descendants of Osman I or to their soldiers and administrators, or to their language.
The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) (Turkish: Osmanlı Hânedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan. Before that the tribe/dynasty might have been known as Söğüt but was renamed Osmanlı (Ottoman in English) in honor of Osman.
The sultan was the sole and absolute regent, head of state and head of government of the empire, at least officially, though often much power shifted de facto to other officials, especially the Grand Vizier.
The Ottoman dynasty is known in Turkish as Osmanlı, meaning "House of Osman". The first rulers of the dynasty never had called themselves sultans, but rather beys, or "chieftain", roughly the Turkic equivalent of Emir, which would itself become a gubernatorial title and even a common military or honorific rank. Thus, they still formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the contemporary Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and its successor, the Ilkhanate.
The first Ottoman to actually claim the title of sultân was Murad I, who ruled from 1359 to 1389. The title sultan was in later Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Baghdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was more prestigious then Emir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'king' or the original Persian title of Shah. With the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the road was open for the Ottoman state to become an empire, with Sultan Mehmed II taking the title of pâdişah, a Persian title meaning "lord of kings" claiming superiority to the other kings, that title was abandoned when the empire declined and lost its former might.
In addition to such secular titles, the Ottoman sultan became the Caliph of Islam, starting with Selim I, who became khalif after the death of the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, the last of Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo.
In Europe, the Ottoman padishah was often referred to informally by such terms unrelated to the Ottoman protocol as the Grand Turk and the Grand Signor.
The sultans further adopted in time many secondary formal titles as well, such as "Sovereign of the House of Osman", "Sultan of Sultans" (roughly King of Kings), and "Khan of Khans".
As the empire grew, sultans adopted secondary titles expressing the empire's claim to be the successor in law of the structures of the absorbed states. Furthermore they tended to enumerate even regular provinces, not unlike the long lists of -mainly inherited- feudal titles in the full style of many Christian European monarchs.
When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories, which at the time before the Fall of Constantinople, however, extended to little more than the city itself, plus some areas in Morea (Peloponnese) and the Empire of Trebizond.
The conqueror of Constantinople was Sultan Mehmed II Fatih Ghazi 'Abu'l Fath (1451 - 1481, 7th Sovereign of the House of Osman), was still 'simply' styled Kaysar-i-Rum (=Emperor of [Byzantium = the second] Rome, Caesar of Rome), Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, Emperor of the three Cities of Constantinople, Edirne and Bursa, Lord of the two lands and the two seas and the first to adopt the 'imperial' style Padishah.
During the 16th century, the institutions of society and government that had been evolving in the Ottoman dominions for two centuries reached the classical forms and patterns that were to persist into modern times. The basic division in Ottoman society was the traditional Middle Eastern distinction between a small ruling class of Ottomans (Osmanlı) and a large mass of subjects called rayas (reʿâyâ). Three attributes were essential for membership in the Ottoman ruling class: profession of loyalty to the sultan and his state; acceptance and practice of Islām and its underlying system of thought and action; and knowledge and practice of the complicated system of customs, behaviour, and language known as the Ottoman Way. Those who lacked any of these attributes were considered to be members of the subject class, the “protected flock” of the sultan.
Ottomans see Osmanli
Imperial House of Osman see Osmanli
Osmanli Hanedani see Osmanli
Osmanli (Ottomans) (Imperial House of Osman) (Osmanlı Hânedanı). Term pertaining to descendants of Osman I or to their soldiers and administrators, or to their language.
The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) (Turkish: Osmanlı Hânedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan. Before that the tribe/dynasty might have been known as Söğüt but was renamed Osmanlı (Ottoman in English) in honor of Osman.
The sultan was the sole and absolute regent, head of state and head of government of the empire, at least officially, though often much power shifted de facto to other officials, especially the Grand Vizier.
The Ottoman dynasty is known in Turkish as Osmanlı, meaning "House of Osman". The first rulers of the dynasty never had called themselves sultans, but rather beys, or "chieftain", roughly the Turkic equivalent of Emir, which would itself become a gubernatorial title and even a common military or honorific rank. Thus, they still formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the contemporary Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and its successor, the Ilkhanate.
The first Ottoman to actually claim the title of sultân was Murad I, who ruled from 1359 to 1389. The title sultan was in later Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Baghdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was more prestigious then Emir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'king' or the original Persian title of Shah. With the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the road was open for the Ottoman state to become an empire, with Sultan Mehmed II taking the title of pâdişah, a Persian title meaning "lord of kings" claiming superiority to the other kings, that title was abandoned when the empire declined and lost its former might.
In addition to such secular titles, the Ottoman sultan became the Caliph of Islam, starting with Selim I, who became khalif after the death of the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, the last of Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo.
In Europe, the Ottoman padishah was often referred to informally by such terms unrelated to the Ottoman protocol as the Grand Turk and the Grand Signor.
The sultans further adopted in time many secondary formal titles as well, such as "Sovereign of the House of Osman", "Sultan of Sultans" (roughly King of Kings), and "Khan of Khans".
As the empire grew, sultans adopted secondary titles expressing the empire's claim to be the successor in law of the structures of the absorbed states. Furthermore they tended to enumerate even regular provinces, not unlike the long lists of -mainly inherited- feudal titles in the full style of many Christian European monarchs.
When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories, which at the time before the Fall of Constantinople, however, extended to little more than the city itself, plus some areas in Morea (Peloponnese) and the Empire of Trebizond.
The conqueror of Constantinople was Sultan Mehmed II Fatih Ghazi 'Abu'l Fath (1451 - 1481, 7th Sovereign of the House of Osman), was still 'simply' styled Kaysar-i-Rum (=Emperor of [Byzantium = the second] Rome, Caesar of Rome), Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, Emperor of the three Cities of Constantinople, Edirne and Bursa, Lord of the two lands and the two seas and the first to adopt the 'imperial' style Padishah.
During the 16th century, the institutions of society and government that had been evolving in the Ottoman dominions for two centuries reached the classical forms and patterns that were to persist into modern times. The basic division in Ottoman society was the traditional Middle Eastern distinction between a small ruling class of Ottomans (Osmanlı) and a large mass of subjects called rayas (reʿâyâ). Three attributes were essential for membership in the Ottoman ruling class: profession of loyalty to the sultan and his state; acceptance and practice of Islām and its underlying system of thought and action; and knowledge and practice of the complicated system of customs, behaviour, and language known as the Ottoman Way. Those who lacked any of these attributes were considered to be members of the subject class, the “protected flock” of the sultan.
Ottomans see Osmanli
Imperial House of Osman see Osmanli
Osmanli Hanedani see Osmanli
Ossetians
Ossetians. People descended from the ancient Alans. The Ossetians speak Ossetic, a language of the Iranian branch of the subfamily of Indo-Iranian languages. The Ossetians inhabit Ossetia, a region in the central part of the North Caucasus. They are divided into Orthodox Christians and Sunni Muslims. The latter constitute between 20 to 30 percent of the population. Both faiths form only a thin veneer over a strong residual influence of the ancient polytheist and animist beliefs.
Christianity was introduced among the Ossetians in the twelfth century. Subsequently, a large number of them adopted Islam and many are now Sunnite Muslims. The people were conquered by the Russians in the early nineteenth century. They are divided into northern and southern groups and presently number about 600,000. The northern Ossetians export timber and cultivate various crops, principally corn. The small group of southern Ossetians is chiefly pastoral, herding sheep and goats in the east and cattle in the west. Peasant industries include the manufacture of leather goods, fur caps, daggers, and metalware. Since the Ossetians received political and cultural autonomy, the Latin alphabet has been adopted for the writing of the Ossetic language. That language was formerly written in the Armenian alphabet.
While Muslims are a minority among the Ossetians, a rural people living in the Caucasus Mountains, they are the second largest group of Indo-Iranian speaking Muslims in Russia and Georgia. Ossetians call themselves Iron and their land Iristan. One tribal division lives in the Digor River valley, and its members call themselves Digiron. It is the Digiron who comprise the Muslims among the Ossetians.
The Ossetians descend from the Alans–Sarmatians, a Scythian tribe. About 200 C.C., the Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion. The Alans remaining built up a great kingdom between the Don and the Volga. Between 350 C.C. and 374 C.C., the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom, and only a few survive to this day in the Caucasus as the Ossetes. The Ossetians became Christians under Byzantine and Georgian influence. A small number adopted Sunni Islam.
In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia-Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and benefited from the Silk Road.
Forced out of their medieval homeland (south of the River Don in present-day Russia) during Mongol rule, Alans migrated towards and over the Caucasus mountains, where they formed three ethnic groups:
* Iron and Digor in the north became what is now North Ossetia-Alania, under Russian rule from 1767. Iron dialect is the literary and written language of the Ossetian people.
* Digor in the west came under the influence of the neighboring Kabard people who introduced Islam. Today the two main Digor districts in North Ossetia are Digora district or Digorskiy rayon (with Digora as its center) and Irafskiy rayon or Iraf district (with Chikola as its center). Digora district is Christian while some parts of the Iraf district are Muslim. The dialect spoken in Digor part of North Ossetia is Digor, the most archaic form of the Ossetian language.
* Kudar, the southern Ossetic tribe. Initially they lived in the upper course of the Ardon River and the Darial Pass. Subsequently, around the 17th century, part of them started to migrate over the Caucasus and into Georgia. After the Russian annexation of Georgia in 1801, an Ossetian okrug was formed within the Tiflis governorate from 1846 to 1859. In 1922, the surrounding region received an autonomy within the Georgian SSR as South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. In 1991 Republic of South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia in aftermath of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict.
In recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian-Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and South Ossetia.
Most of the Ossetians became Christians in the 10th century under Byzantine influence.
As the time went by, Digor in the west came under Kabard and Islamic influence. It was through the Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into the region in the 17th century.
Kudar in the southernmost region became part of what is now South Ossetia, and Iron, the northernmost group, came under Russian rule after 1767, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity considerably.
Today the majority of Ossetians, from both North and South Ossetia, follow Eastern Orthodoxy, although there is a sizable number of adherents to Islam.
Traces of paganism are still very widespread among Ossetians, with rich ritual traditions, sacrificing animals, holy shrines, non-Christian saints.
Ossetians. People descended from the ancient Alans. The Ossetians speak Ossetic, a language of the Iranian branch of the subfamily of Indo-Iranian languages. The Ossetians inhabit Ossetia, a region in the central part of the North Caucasus. They are divided into Orthodox Christians and Sunni Muslims. The latter constitute between 20 to 30 percent of the population. Both faiths form only a thin veneer over a strong residual influence of the ancient polytheist and animist beliefs.
Christianity was introduced among the Ossetians in the twelfth century. Subsequently, a large number of them adopted Islam and many are now Sunnite Muslims. The people were conquered by the Russians in the early nineteenth century. They are divided into northern and southern groups and presently number about 600,000. The northern Ossetians export timber and cultivate various crops, principally corn. The small group of southern Ossetians is chiefly pastoral, herding sheep and goats in the east and cattle in the west. Peasant industries include the manufacture of leather goods, fur caps, daggers, and metalware. Since the Ossetians received political and cultural autonomy, the Latin alphabet has been adopted for the writing of the Ossetic language. That language was formerly written in the Armenian alphabet.
While Muslims are a minority among the Ossetians, a rural people living in the Caucasus Mountains, they are the second largest group of Indo-Iranian speaking Muslims in Russia and Georgia. Ossetians call themselves Iron and their land Iristan. One tribal division lives in the Digor River valley, and its members call themselves Digiron. It is the Digiron who comprise the Muslims among the Ossetians.
The Ossetians descend from the Alans–Sarmatians, a Scythian tribe. About 200 C.C., the Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion. The Alans remaining built up a great kingdom between the Don and the Volga. Between 350 C.C. and 374 C.C., the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom, and only a few survive to this day in the Caucasus as the Ossetes. The Ossetians became Christians under Byzantine and Georgian influence. A small number adopted Sunni Islam.
In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia-Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and benefited from the Silk Road.
Forced out of their medieval homeland (south of the River Don in present-day Russia) during Mongol rule, Alans migrated towards and over the Caucasus mountains, where they formed three ethnic groups:
* Iron and Digor in the north became what is now North Ossetia-Alania, under Russian rule from 1767. Iron dialect is the literary and written language of the Ossetian people.
* Digor in the west came under the influence of the neighboring Kabard people who introduced Islam. Today the two main Digor districts in North Ossetia are Digora district or Digorskiy rayon (with Digora as its center) and Irafskiy rayon or Iraf district (with Chikola as its center). Digora district is Christian while some parts of the Iraf district are Muslim. The dialect spoken in Digor part of North Ossetia is Digor, the most archaic form of the Ossetian language.
* Kudar, the southern Ossetic tribe. Initially they lived in the upper course of the Ardon River and the Darial Pass. Subsequently, around the 17th century, part of them started to migrate over the Caucasus and into Georgia. After the Russian annexation of Georgia in 1801, an Ossetian okrug was formed within the Tiflis governorate from 1846 to 1859. In 1922, the surrounding region received an autonomy within the Georgian SSR as South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. In 1991 Republic of South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia in aftermath of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict.
In recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian-Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and South Ossetia.
Most of the Ossetians became Christians in the 10th century under Byzantine influence.
As the time went by, Digor in the west came under Kabard and Islamic influence. It was through the Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into the region in the 17th century.
Kudar in the southernmost region became part of what is now South Ossetia, and Iron, the northernmost group, came under Russian rule after 1767, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity considerably.
Today the majority of Ossetians, from both North and South Ossetia, follow Eastern Orthodoxy, although there is a sizable number of adherents to Islam.
Traces of paganism are still very widespread among Ossetians, with rich ritual traditions, sacrificing animals, holy shrines, non-Christian saints.
‘Othman I Ghazi
‘Othman I Ghazi. See Osman I.
‘Othman I Ghazi. See Osman I.
‘Othman II
‘Othman II. See Osman II.
‘Othman II. See Osman II.
‘Othman III
‘Othman III (Osman III) (‘Osmān-i sālis) (January 2/3, 1699 – October 30, 1757). Ottoman sultan (r.1754-1757). His reign was relatively uneventful, but is remembered for the great fires in Istanbul in 1755 and 1756. His name is associated with the great mosque of Nuruosmaniyye.
The younger brother of Mahmud I (1730–54) and son of Mustafa II (1695–1703) and Valide Sultan Saliha Sabkati, born at Edirne Palace, Osman III was a generally insignificant prince. His brief reign is notable for a rising intolerance of non-Muslims with Christians and Jews being required to wear distinctive clothes or badges and for a fire in Istanbul. His mother was Şehsuvar Sultan, a Serbian valide sultan.
Osman III lived most of his life as a prisoner in the Palace. Upon becoming Sultan he had some behavioral peculiarities. Unlike previous Sultans, he hated music, and sent all musicians out of the palace. Also living in the "kafes", the palace prison in the "harem" which was the part of the palace containing women's quarters, he grew a dislike for women's companionship. Therefore he would wear iron shoes in order to not cross paths with any women, and by wearing such shoes they could hear him approach and disperse. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. He married Layla, without issue.
‘Othman III (Osman III) (‘Osmān-i sālis) (January 2/3, 1699 – October 30, 1757). Ottoman sultan (r.1754-1757). His reign was relatively uneventful, but is remembered for the great fires in Istanbul in 1755 and 1756. His name is associated with the great mosque of Nuruosmaniyye.
The younger brother of Mahmud I (1730–54) and son of Mustafa II (1695–1703) and Valide Sultan Saliha Sabkati, born at Edirne Palace, Osman III was a generally insignificant prince. His brief reign is notable for a rising intolerance of non-Muslims with Christians and Jews being required to wear distinctive clothes or badges and for a fire in Istanbul. His mother was Şehsuvar Sultan, a Serbian valide sultan.
Osman III lived most of his life as a prisoner in the Palace. Upon becoming Sultan he had some behavioral peculiarities. Unlike previous Sultans, he hated music, and sent all musicians out of the palace. Also living in the "kafes", the palace prison in the "harem" which was the part of the palace containing women's quarters, he grew a dislike for women's companionship. Therefore he would wear iron shoes in order to not cross paths with any women, and by wearing such shoes they could hear him approach and disperse. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. He married Layla, without issue.
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu (Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha) (1526-1585). Ottoman Grand Vizier and a celebrated military commander. A son of Ozdemir Pasha, he was beglerbegi of Habesh from 1561 to 1567 and then served as governor of San‘a’ until 1569. In 1578, he engineered two decisive victories over the Safavids, and another in 1583.
Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha see ‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu (Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha) (1526-1585). Ottoman Grand Vizier and a celebrated military commander. A son of Ozdemir Pasha, he was beglerbegi of Habesh from 1561 to 1567 and then served as governor of San‘a’ until 1569. In 1578, he engineered two decisive victories over the Safavids, and another in 1583.
Ozdemir-oghlu ‘Othman Pasha see ‘Othman Pasha, Ozdemir-oghlu
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib (Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade) (d. 1724). Ottoman poet, scholar and historian . The most important of his many works is a collection of lives of the first ninety-two Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire.
Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade see ‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib (Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade) (d. 1724). Ottoman poet, scholar and historian . The most important of his many works is a collection of lives of the first ninety-two Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire.
Ahmed Ta’ib ‘Othman-zade see ‘Othman-zade, Ahmed Ta’ib
O'Toole, Peter
Peter O’Toole, in full Peter Seamus O’Toole (born August 2, 1932, Connemara, County Galway, Ireland—died December 14, 2013, London, England), was an Irish stage and film actor whose range extended from classical drama to contemporary farce.
O’Toole grew up in Leeds, England, and was educated at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London. He was a reporter for the Yorkshire Evening Post in his teens and made his amateur stage debut at Leeds Civic Theatre. After serving two years in the Royal Navy, he acted with the Bristol Old Vic Company from 1955 to 1958 and made his London debut as Peter Shirley in George Bernard Shaw’s Major Barbara (1956). He appeared with the Shakespeare Memorial Company at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, in 1960 in highly praised performances as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice and as Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew, and he played the lead in Hamlet for the inaugural production of the National Theatre in London in 1963. A prominent film star by this point in his career, O’Toole continued to appear on stages throughout the world to great acclaim. He was named associate director of the Old Vic in 1980.
O’Toole made his motion picture debut in Kidnapped in 1960 and two years later became an international star for his portrayal of T.E. Lawrence in David Lean’s epic Lawrence of Arabia (1962). In 1964 he played Henry II in Becket, and he had the title role in Lord Jim (1965). He appeared as Henry II again in The Lion in Winter (1968), a film notable for the witty verbal sparring matches between O’Toole and costar Katharine Hepburn. The Ruling Class (1972), a controversial black comedy that has become a cult classic, cast O’Toole as a schizophrenic English earl with a messiah complex. Personal problems contributed to a decline in his popularity during the 1970s, but he made a strong comeback in the early ’80s with three well-received efforts. He portrayed a duplicitous and domineering movie director in The Stunt Man (1980), and his performance as the Roman commander Cornelius Flavius Silva in the acclaimed television miniseries Masada (1981) was hailed as one of the finest of his career. His most popular vehicle during this period was My Favorite Year (1982), an affectionate satire on the early days of television, in which O’Toole played Alan Swann, a faded Errol Flynn-type swashbuckling screen star with a penchant for tippling and troublemaking.
O’Toole subsequently maintained his status with fine performances in such films as the Oscar-winning The Last Emperor (1987), the cult favorite Wings of Fame (1989), the miniseries The Dark Angel (1991), and Fairy Tale: A True Story (1997), in which O’Toole portrayed Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Notable screen roles in the 21st century include an aging romantic in Venus (2006), the voice of a haughty food critic in the animated Ratatouille (2007), and a priest in the historical drama For Greater Glory (2012). In addition, in 2008 he portrayed Pope Paul III in the TV series The Tudors.
In 1992 O’Toole published a lively memoir, Loitering with Intent: The Child; a second volume, Loitering with Intent: The Apprentice, appeared in 1996. He was nominated for an Academy Award eight times: for Lawrence of Arabia, Becket, The Lion in Winter, Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1969), The Ruling Class, The Stunt Man, My Favorite Year, and Venus; in 2003 he was awarded an honorary Oscar. O’Toole received an Emmy Award for his performance as Bishop Cauchon in the television miniseries Joan of Arc (1999).
O’Toole grew up in Leeds, England, and was educated at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London. He was a reporter for the Yorkshire Evening Post in his teens and made his amateur stage debut at Leeds Civic Theatre. After serving two years in the Royal Navy, he acted with the Bristol Old Vic Company from 1955 to 1958 and made his London debut as Peter Shirley in George Bernard Shaw’s Major Barbara (1956). He appeared with the Shakespeare Memorial Company at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, in 1960 in highly praised performances as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice and as Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew, and he played the lead in Hamlet for the inaugural production of the National Theatre in London in 1963. A prominent film star by this point in his career, O’Toole continued to appear on stages throughout the world to great acclaim. He was named associate director of the Old Vic in 1980.
O’Toole made his motion picture debut in Kidnapped in 1960 and two years later became an international star for his portrayal of T.E. Lawrence in David Lean’s epic Lawrence of Arabia (1962). In 1964 he played Henry II in Becket, and he had the title role in Lord Jim (1965). He appeared as Henry II again in The Lion in Winter (1968), a film notable for the witty verbal sparring matches between O’Toole and costar Katharine Hepburn. The Ruling Class (1972), a controversial black comedy that has become a cult classic, cast O’Toole as a schizophrenic English earl with a messiah complex. Personal problems contributed to a decline in his popularity during the 1970s, but he made a strong comeback in the early ’80s with three well-received efforts. He portrayed a duplicitous and domineering movie director in The Stunt Man (1980), and his performance as the Roman commander Cornelius Flavius Silva in the acclaimed television miniseries Masada (1981) was hailed as one of the finest of his career. His most popular vehicle during this period was My Favorite Year (1982), an affectionate satire on the early days of television, in which O’Toole played Alan Swann, a faded Errol Flynn-type swashbuckling screen star with a penchant for tippling and troublemaking.
O’Toole subsequently maintained his status with fine performances in such films as the Oscar-winning The Last Emperor (1987), the cult favorite Wings of Fame (1989), the miniseries The Dark Angel (1991), and Fairy Tale: A True Story (1997), in which O’Toole portrayed Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Notable screen roles in the 21st century include an aging romantic in Venus (2006), the voice of a haughty food critic in the animated Ratatouille (2007), and a priest in the historical drama For Greater Glory (2012). In addition, in 2008 he portrayed Pope Paul III in the TV series The Tudors.
In 1992 O’Toole published a lively memoir, Loitering with Intent: The Child; a second volume, Loitering with Intent: The Apprentice, appeared in 1996. He was nominated for an Academy Award eight times: for Lawrence of Arabia, Becket, The Lion in Winter, Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1969), The Ruling Class, The Stunt Man, My Favorite Year, and Venus; in 2003 he was awarded an honorary Oscar. O’Toole received an Emmy Award for his performance as Bishop Cauchon in the television miniseries Joan of Arc (1999).
Ottomans (Osmanli) (Othmanli). Name of a Turkish dynasty, ultimately of Oghuz origin, which ruled from 1281 to 1924 over Anatolia, the Balkans and the Arab lands.
The family probably stemmed from the Qayigh clan and seems to have led a nomadic life in Asia Minor. They had been attached to the Rum Saljuqs in Konya, who had gradually relapsed into anarchy after the victory of the Mongols over Kaykhusraw II in 1243. Several principalities arose in Asia Minor: the Qarasi-oghlu in Mysia, the Sarukhan-oghlu in Lydia, the Aydin-oghlu in Ionia, the Menteshe-oghlu in Caria, the Teke-oghlu in Lycia, the Germiyan-oghlu in Phrygia, the Hamid-oghlu in Pisidia and the Qaraman-oghlu in Cilicia. These regions were never part of the territory administered by the Mongols in the fourteenth century.
Ottoman history may conveniently be divided into four consecutive periods: the foundation and expansion of the Ottoman Empire (1280-1500); the empire at its zenith (1500-1650); the period of decline (1650-1840); and the beginnings of reform and westernization and the end of the dynasty (1840-1924).
The father of ‘Othman I, Ertoghul, is said to have established himself with his little tribe in the neighborhood of Sogud near Eskisehir. ‘Othman’s successor Orkhan took Izniq, Izmid and Bursa (Brusa), which became the capital. At his death, the Saqarya River was practically the eastern boundary of the state, and to the south it had reached Eskisehir. He had also acquired the Turkmen principality of the Qarasi-oghlu. Both he and ‘Othman had close relations with the Christian chiefs and commanders in the neighborhood. In 1353 began the military occupation of the European side of the Hellespont; Gallipoli was taken in 1357, and in 1362 Adrianople (Edirne) became the European capital of Murad I. The greater part of what is now Bulgaria was assured and Serbian power was crushed in the battle of Kosovo in 1389. Sultan Bayazid’s military expeditions extended over Hungary, Bosnia and southern Greece, but the conquests were not yet permanent. Constantinople became a mere vassal town. Ankara fell in 1359 and the territories of the Germiyan-oghlu and the Hamid-oghlu were acquired by marriage and sale.
After the battle of Ankara in 1402, in which Bayazid I was crushed by Tamerlane, Sultan Muhammad I was able to restore Ottoman power, which in general was realized without much bloodshed. Trebizond was conquered in 1461 and in 1468 the Qaraman dynasty was extinguished. The Ottomans survived the dangerous raid of the Aq Qoyunlu Uzun Hasan in 1472, but their frontier wars with the Mameluke forces in Syria were not glorious.
During the fifteenth century, the chief military activity of the Ottomans took place in Europe. A conflict with Venice broke out with the advance into Albania and Morea, and Hungary became the other Christian opponent through Ottoman raids and conquests in Serbia and Wallachia. The capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Muhammad II was only the realization of a part of his political scheme.
The sixteenth century brought wars with the Shi‘a Safavids of Persia. At the end of the reign of Suleyman II, the Ottoman Empire found itself between two powerful continental neighbors, the Austrian monarchy and the Safavids. The defeat at Lepanto in 1571 is considered to be the first great military blow inflicted on the Ottomans, and the possibility of further military expansion brought about a further inner weakening of the Empire. Baghdad was lost in 1623 but reconquered in 1638. In 1639, a long period of peace with Persia began.
During the eighteenth century, Austria and Venice diminished in power, but another formidable enemy had risen in the now much enlarged Russia. By the end of the century, the Ottoman Empire began to be a factor in the new imperialistic schemes of the Western Powers. Bessarabia was lost to Russia, and Ottoman authority in Egypt was weakened. The Greek independence brought further humiliation. But the existence of the Ottoman Empire was considered as a political necessity, and treaties were concluded with several Western Powers. The Capitulations (Imtiyazat), however, brought a form of international servitude which, at the end of the nineteenth century had taken the character of a collective tutelage, the Empire being dismembered more and more.
During World War I, Turkey joined the Central Powers and had to sign the Treaty of Sevres in 1920. Under the growing successes of the Nationalists, the Government at Istanbul was dissolved and the Sultan deposed, by which the Ottoman Empire and its dynasty came to an end.
Ottoman arts can be divided into several branches. Architecture developed in the fourteenth century. The great name here is Mi‘mar Sinan. Glazed pottery and tiles are found at Konya in the twelfth through thirteenth century and later Izniq became the great center. Carpets and textiles were produced since the fifteenth century. Flourishing were also metalwork, bookbinding, glass-making, manuscript illustrations, royal portraiture and numismatics.
Ottoman literature may be divided into three great periods: from the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century; the period after 1600; and the so-called “European type” as well as national literature, arising out of the development of the national movement, to the end of the dynasty.
Ottoman social and economic history can be studied under the following headings: The governing class and its subjects; peasant status and power in the countryside; peasant production; nomads and other herdsmen; trade; monetary developments; urban artisans; urban society and spatial structure; social dynamics.
Religious life under the Ottomans had a two-fold aspect. First, there was the official religious institution of the ‘ulema’ and fuqaha’, in varying extents connected with the ruling dynasty and headed by the Shaykh ul-Islam (Shaykh al-Islam) in Istanbul. Second, there had always been a strong current of Sufi mysticism.
The following is a list of the Ottoman sultans:
Ertoghrul <tab>(d. c. 1280)
‘Othman I <tab>1281
Orkhan <tab>1324
Murad I <tab>1362
Bayezid I Yildirim (“The Lightning Flash”)<tab>1389
The Timurid Invasion<tab>1402
Mehemmed I Celebi <tab>
{at first in Anatolia only,
after 1413 in Rumelia also}<tab>1403
Suleyman I {in Rumelia only until 1411}<tab>1403
Murad II (first reign) <tab>1421
Mehemmed II Fatih (“The Conqueror”)<tab>
{first reign}<tab>1444
Murad II (second reign)<tab>1446
Mehemmed II Fatih (second reign) <tab>1451
Bayezid II<tab>1481
Selim I Yavuz (“The Grim”)<tab>1512
Suleyman II Qanuni
{“The Law Giver”/”The Magnificent”}<tab>1520
Selim II<tab>1566
Murad III<tab>1574
Mehemmed III<tab>1595
Ahmed I<tab>1603
Mustafa I (first reign) <tab>1617
‘Othman II <tab>1618
Mustafa I (second reign) <tab>1622
Murad IV<tab>1623
Ibrahim<tab>1640
Mehemmed IV<tab>1648
Suleyman III<tab>1687
Ahmed II<tab>1691
Mustafa II<tab>1695
Ahmed III<tab>1703
Mahmud I <tab>1730
‘Othman III<tab>1754
Mustafa III<tab>1757
Abdulhamid I<tab>1774
Selim III<tab>1789
Mustafa IV<tab>1807
Mahmud II<tab>1808
Abdulmedcid I<tab>1839
Abdulaziz<tab>1861
Murad V<tab>1876
Abdulhamid II<tab>1876
Mehemmed V Reshad <tab>1909
Mehemmed VI Wahdeddin<tab>1918
Abdulmecid II (as caliph only)<tab>1922-24
Republican regime of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
The main capitals of the Ottomans were (beginning in 1280) Yenisehir; (beginning in 1326) Bursa; (beginning in 1366) Edirne; and (beginning in 1453) Istanbul (Constantinople). As an association of Ghuzz Turks, in the thirteenth century they were driven out of central Asia by the Mongols towards the west, where they formed a belligerent frontier emirate in Bithynia (from 1237) and later drove back the Anatolian Seljuks. Under the first sultan, Osman (r. 1280-1326) and his successors came a period of successful self-assertion and expansion, achieved at the cost of the Byzantine Empire (conquest of Bursa in 1326 and Edirne in 1361). In 1354, the Ottomans established their first strongholds in the Balkans (Gallipoli) and assembled the elite Janissary corps, which enabled them to expand rapidly through the Balkans and into Anatolia (with victories in the battles of Kosovo in 1389 and Nicopolis in 1396). In 1402, they suffered defeat by the troops of Timur at Ankara, which was followed by political confusion. A reorganization of the state and further expansion followed under Murad II (r. 1421-1451) and Muhammad II (r. 1451-1481), who conquered Constantinople in 1453 and destroyed the Christian Byzantine empire. The Ottomans became the leading power in the Islamic world and landed in Lower Italy in 1480. Selim I (r. 1512-1520) conquered the whole of Southwest Asia (Syria and Palestine in 1516, Egypt in 1517, followed by the Arabian Peninsula), emerged victorious against the Safavids at Chaldiran in 1514, and took over Azerbaijan. He assumed the title of caliph. The cultural zenith was the rule of his son, Suleyman II the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566), who conquered the Balkans (as far as Hungary and the siege of Vienna in 1529) and expanded control of the Mediterranean (occupation of the entire Maghrib coast from 1552, rule over Algeria, Tunisia, Libya). After 1566, with a few exceptions, weak or incapable sultans ruled, so that the period from 1656 saw the supremacy of the great viziers and Janissary officers, as well as cultural refinement and political decadence. In the ongoing conflict with the Hapsburg empire (Vienna was besieged again in 1683), the Ottomans were on the defensive after 1700. The state structure was reorganized under the reforming sultans, Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839), which coincided with the collapse of the Ottoman empire. 1839 saw the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms based on the European model. Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) implemented the Tanzimat policy by authoritarian means and fell into lasting conflict with bourgeois-liberal and nationalist opposition groups. In 1922, the last Ottoman sultan Muhammad VI (r. 1918-1922), was deposed and in 1924, the caliphate was disbanded by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
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