Mutarrifiyya
Mutarrifiyya. Zaydi sect in Yemen named after its founder Mutarrif ibn Shihab (d. 1067). They constituted a pietist movement which was destroyed by the Zaydi Imam ‘Abd Allah al-Mansur ibn Hamza (r. 1198-1217) in 1214.
Mutarrizi, Burhan al-Din al-
Mutarrizi, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Mutarrizi) (1144-1213). Philologist, jurist and man of letters. His compendium of Arabic grammar has found the widest circulation.
Burhan al-Din al-Mutarrizi see Mutarrizi, Burhan al-Din al-
Mutarrizi, Burhan al-Din al- (Burhan al-Din al-Mutarrizi) (1144-1213). Philologist, jurist and man of letters. His compendium of Arabic grammar has found the widest circulation.
Burhan al-Din al-Mutarrizi see Mutarrizi, Burhan al-Din al-
Mu‘tasim, Abu Yahya al-
Mu‘tasim, Abu Yahya al- (Abu Yahya al-Mu‘tasim). Ruler of the dynasty of the Tujibids of the kingdom of Almeria (r. 1051-1091). He took part in the Battle of Zallaqa.
Abu Yahya al-Mu‘tasim see Mu‘tasim, Abu Yahya al-
Mu‘tasim, Abu Yahya al- (Abu Yahya al-Mu‘tasim). Ruler of the dynasty of the Tujibids of the kingdom of Almeria (r. 1051-1091). He took part in the Battle of Zallaqa.
Abu Yahya al-Mu‘tasim see Mu‘tasim, Abu Yahya al-
Mu‘tasim bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tasim bi-‘llah, al-. ‘Abbasid caliph (r.833-842). He fought the Khurami leader Babak, the Byzantines, the Qarinids in Tabaristan and rebels in Damascus, in Palestine and in Jordan.
Mu‘tasim bi-‘llah, al-. ‘Abbasid caliph (r.833-842). He fought the Khurami leader Babak, the Byzantines, the Qarinids in Tabaristan and rebels in Damascus, in Palestine and in Jordan.
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (al-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim) (March 821 – December 861). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 847-861). He was determined from the beginning to assert the independence of the caliph and to break the dominance of the Turkish military and the bureaucracy. He broke with the Mu‘tazili position which had been the official doctrine of the ‘Abbasid government since the Caliph al-Ma’mun had introduced the mihna. In its place, he stressed his adherence to the doctrines of the Hanbalis and other traditionists. His murder plunged the caliphate into anarchy.
Al-Mutawakkil was an Abbasid caliph who reigned in Samarra from 847 until 861. He succeeded his brother al-Wāthiq and is known for putting an end to the Mihna "ordeal", the Inquisition-like attempt by his predecessors to impose a single Mu'tazili version of Islam.
While al-Wathiq was caliph, his vizier, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik, had poorly treated al-Mutawakkil. On September 22, 847, al-Mutawakkil had him arrested. The former vizier's property was plundered and he was tortured in his own iron maiden. He finally died on November 2nd. The caliph had others who had mistreated him in the previous reign punished.
In 849, al-Mutawakkil had the prominent military commander Itakh al-Khazari seized in Baghdad. Itakh was imprisoned and died of thirst on December 21st. One Mahmud ibn al-Faraj al-Naysaburi arose claiming to be a prophet. He and some followers were arrested in Baghdad. He was imprisoned, beaten and on June 18, 850 he died.
In 851-852, Armenians rebelled and defeated and killed the Abbasid governor. Al-Mutawakkil sent his general Bugha al-Kabir to handle this. Bugha scored successes this year and the following year he attacked and burned Tiflis, capturing Ishaq ibn Isma'il. The rebel leader was executed. That year, Byzantines attacked Damietta.
In 854-855, the police chief in Hims killed a prominent person stirring an uprising. The police chief was driven out of office. Al-Mutawakkil offered up another police chief. When the next year saw a revolt against this new police chief, al-Mutawakkil had the revolt firmly suppressed. As Christians had joined in the second round of disturbances, the caliph had Christians expelled from Hims.
Also in 854-855, occurred the firm response to the revolt by the Bujah, people of African descent just beyond Upper Egypt. They had been paying a tax on their gold mines. They ceased paying this, drove out Muslims working in the mines and terrified people in Upper Egypt. Al-Mutawakkil sent al-Qummi to restore order. Al-Qummi sent seven ships with supplies that enabled him to persevere despite the very harsh terrain of this distant territory. He retook the mines, pressed on to the Bujah royal stronghold and defeated the king in battle. The Bujah resumed payment of the tax.
On February 23, 856, there was an exchange of captives with the Byzantines. A second such exchange took place some four years later.
Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for its many reforms and viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph. After his death, the dynasty would fall into a decline.
Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably the Byzantines, from who Sicily was captured. His vezir, Al-fath bin Khaqan, who was Turkish, was a famous figure of Al-Mutawakkil's era.
His reliance on Turkish soldiers would come back to haunt him. Al-Mutawakkil would have his Turkish commander-in-chief killed. This, coupled with his extreme attitudes towards the Shia, made his popularity decline rapidly.
Al-Mutawakkil was murdered by a Turkish soldier on December 11, 861. Some have speculated that his murder was part of a plot hatched by his son, al-Muntasir, who had grown estranged from his father. Al-Muntasir feared his father was about to move against him and struck first.
Al-Mutawakkil is said to have been slender, with a light tan complexion, a sparse beard and attractive eyes. He was also a cold blooded and ruthless killer of unorthodox Muslims and non-Muslims.
Mutawakkiil ordered Jews and Christians to wear different dress.They were forbidden to ride on animals other than donkeys.They could not build churches or synagogues.
Al-Mutawakkil was unlike his brother and father in that he was not known for having a thirst for knowledge, but he had an eye for magnificence and a hunger to build. The Great Mosque of Samarra was at its time, the largest mosque in the world; its minaret is a vast spiraling cone 55 meters high with a spiral ramp. The mosque had 17 aisles and its walls were paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.
The Great Mosque was just part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park inherited from the Sassanians. Al-Mutawakkil built as many as 20 palaces (the numbers vary in documents). Samarra became one of the largest cities of the ancient world, even the archaeological site of its ruins is one of the world's most extensive. The Caliph's building schemes extended in 859-860 to a new city, al-Jaˤfariyya, which al-Mutawakkil built on the Tigris some eighteen kilometers from Samarra. Al-Mutawakkil ordered a canal to be built to divert water from the Tigris, entrusting the project to two courtiers, who ignored the talents of a local engineer of repute and entrusted the work to al-Farghanī, the great astronomer and writer. Al-Farghanī, who was not a specialist in public works, made a miscalculation and it appeared that the opening of the canal was too deep so that water from the river would only flow at near full flood.
News leaked to the infuriated caliph might have meant the heads of all concerned save for the gracious actions of the engineer, Sind ibn ˤAlī, who vouched for the eventual success of the project, thus risking his own life. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated shortly before the error became public.
Al-Mutawakkil was keen to involve himself in many religious debates, something that would show in his actions against different minorities. His father had tolerated the Shīˤa Imām who taught and preached at Medina, and for the first years of his reign al-Mutawakkil continued the policy. Imām ˤAlī al-Hadī's growing reputation inspired a letter from the Governor of Medina, ˤAbdu l-Lāh ibn Muħammad, suggesting that a coup was being plotted, and al-Mutawakkil extended an invitation to Samarra to the Imām, an offer he could not refuse. In Samarra, the Imām was kept under virtual house arrest and spied upon. However, no excuse to take action against him ever appeared. After al-Mutawakkil's death, his successor had the Imām poisoned. Al-Hadī is buried at Samarra. The general Shīˤa population faced repression and this was embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ˤAlī, an action that was carried out ostensibly in order to stop pilgrimages to that site, and the flogging and incarceration of the Alid Yahya ibn Umar.
During his reign, the influence of the Muˤtaziliyya was reversed and questions about over the divinity of the Qur'an were ended. This resulted from the caliph's personal devotion to studying as-Sunna.
Also during his reign, al-Mutawakkil met the famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to strengthen the diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim, al- see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al- (Abu’l-Fadl al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (al-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim) (March 821 – December 861). ‘Abbasid caliph (r. 847-861). He was determined from the beginning to assert the independence of the caliph and to break the dominance of the Turkish military and the bureaucracy. He broke with the Mu‘tazili position which had been the official doctrine of the ‘Abbasid government since the Caliph al-Ma’mun had introduced the mihna. In its place, he stressed his adherence to the doctrines of the Hanbalis and other traditionists. His murder plunged the caliphate into anarchy.
Al-Mutawakkil was an Abbasid caliph who reigned in Samarra from 847 until 861. He succeeded his brother al-Wāthiq and is known for putting an end to the Mihna "ordeal", the Inquisition-like attempt by his predecessors to impose a single Mu'tazili version of Islam.
While al-Wathiq was caliph, his vizier, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik, had poorly treated al-Mutawakkil. On September 22, 847, al-Mutawakkil had him arrested. The former vizier's property was plundered and he was tortured in his own iron maiden. He finally died on November 2nd. The caliph had others who had mistreated him in the previous reign punished.
In 849, al-Mutawakkil had the prominent military commander Itakh al-Khazari seized in Baghdad. Itakh was imprisoned and died of thirst on December 21st. One Mahmud ibn al-Faraj al-Naysaburi arose claiming to be a prophet. He and some followers were arrested in Baghdad. He was imprisoned, beaten and on June 18, 850 he died.
In 851-852, Armenians rebelled and defeated and killed the Abbasid governor. Al-Mutawakkil sent his general Bugha al-Kabir to handle this. Bugha scored successes this year and the following year he attacked and burned Tiflis, capturing Ishaq ibn Isma'il. The rebel leader was executed. That year, Byzantines attacked Damietta.
In 854-855, the police chief in Hims killed a prominent person stirring an uprising. The police chief was driven out of office. Al-Mutawakkil offered up another police chief. When the next year saw a revolt against this new police chief, al-Mutawakkil had the revolt firmly suppressed. As Christians had joined in the second round of disturbances, the caliph had Christians expelled from Hims.
Also in 854-855, occurred the firm response to the revolt by the Bujah, people of African descent just beyond Upper Egypt. They had been paying a tax on their gold mines. They ceased paying this, drove out Muslims working in the mines and terrified people in Upper Egypt. Al-Mutawakkil sent al-Qummi to restore order. Al-Qummi sent seven ships with supplies that enabled him to persevere despite the very harsh terrain of this distant territory. He retook the mines, pressed on to the Bujah royal stronghold and defeated the king in battle. The Bujah resumed payment of the tax.
On February 23, 856, there was an exchange of captives with the Byzantines. A second such exchange took place some four years later.
Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for its many reforms and viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph. After his death, the dynasty would fall into a decline.
Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably the Byzantines, from who Sicily was captured. His vezir, Al-fath bin Khaqan, who was Turkish, was a famous figure of Al-Mutawakkil's era.
His reliance on Turkish soldiers would come back to haunt him. Al-Mutawakkil would have his Turkish commander-in-chief killed. This, coupled with his extreme attitudes towards the Shia, made his popularity decline rapidly.
Al-Mutawakkil was murdered by a Turkish soldier on December 11, 861. Some have speculated that his murder was part of a plot hatched by his son, al-Muntasir, who had grown estranged from his father. Al-Muntasir feared his father was about to move against him and struck first.
Al-Mutawakkil is said to have been slender, with a light tan complexion, a sparse beard and attractive eyes. He was also a cold blooded and ruthless killer of unorthodox Muslims and non-Muslims.
Mutawakkiil ordered Jews and Christians to wear different dress.They were forbidden to ride on animals other than donkeys.They could not build churches or synagogues.
Al-Mutawakkil was unlike his brother and father in that he was not known for having a thirst for knowledge, but he had an eye for magnificence and a hunger to build. The Great Mosque of Samarra was at its time, the largest mosque in the world; its minaret is a vast spiraling cone 55 meters high with a spiral ramp. The mosque had 17 aisles and its walls were paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.
The Great Mosque was just part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park inherited from the Sassanians. Al-Mutawakkil built as many as 20 palaces (the numbers vary in documents). Samarra became one of the largest cities of the ancient world, even the archaeological site of its ruins is one of the world's most extensive. The Caliph's building schemes extended in 859-860 to a new city, al-Jaˤfariyya, which al-Mutawakkil built on the Tigris some eighteen kilometers from Samarra. Al-Mutawakkil ordered a canal to be built to divert water from the Tigris, entrusting the project to two courtiers, who ignored the talents of a local engineer of repute and entrusted the work to al-Farghanī, the great astronomer and writer. Al-Farghanī, who was not a specialist in public works, made a miscalculation and it appeared that the opening of the canal was too deep so that water from the river would only flow at near full flood.
News leaked to the infuriated caliph might have meant the heads of all concerned save for the gracious actions of the engineer, Sind ibn ˤAlī, who vouched for the eventual success of the project, thus risking his own life. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated shortly before the error became public.
Al-Mutawakkil was keen to involve himself in many religious debates, something that would show in his actions against different minorities. His father had tolerated the Shīˤa Imām who taught and preached at Medina, and for the first years of his reign al-Mutawakkil continued the policy. Imām ˤAlī al-Hadī's growing reputation inspired a letter from the Governor of Medina, ˤAbdu l-Lāh ibn Muħammad, suggesting that a coup was being plotted, and al-Mutawakkil extended an invitation to Samarra to the Imām, an offer he could not refuse. In Samarra, the Imām was kept under virtual house arrest and spied upon. However, no excuse to take action against him ever appeared. After al-Mutawakkil's death, his successor had the Imām poisoned. Al-Hadī is buried at Samarra. The general Shīˤa population faced repression and this was embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ˤAlī, an action that was carried out ostensibly in order to stop pilgrimages to that site, and the flogging and incarceration of the Alid Yahya ibn Umar.
During his reign, the influence of the Muˤtaziliyya was reversed and questions about over the divinity of the Qur'an were ended. This resulted from the caliph's personal devotion to studying as-Sunna.
Also during his reign, al-Mutawakkil met the famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to strengthen the diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate.
Abu’l-Fadl al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim, al- see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Abu’l-Fadl al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Ibn al-Aftas al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Ibn al-Aftas al- (Ibn al-Aftas al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (1022-1094). Last ruler of the Aftasid dynasty in the petty state of Badajoz.
Ibn al-Aftas al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Ibn al-Aftas al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Ibn al-Aftas al- (Ibn al-Aftas al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (1022-1094). Last ruler of the Aftasid dynasty in the petty state of Badajoz.
Ibn al-Aftas al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Ibn al-Aftas al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Isma‘il al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Isma‘il al- (Isma‘il al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah). First Qasimi Zaydi Imam to rule Yemen completely independent of the Ottoman Turks. He ruled from 1644 to 1676. He conducted successful campaigns against Aden and Lahj, al-Bayda’ and Yafi’, Hadhramaut and even Dhofar in Oman.
Isma‘il al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Isma‘il al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Isma‘il al- (Isma‘il al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah). First Qasimi Zaydi Imam to rule Yemen completely independent of the Ottoman Turks. He ruled from 1644 to 1676. He conducted successful campaigns against Aden and Lahj, al-Bayda’ and Yafi’, Hadhramaut and even Dhofar in Oman.
Isma‘il al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Isma‘il al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Sharaf al-Din al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Sharaf al-Din al- (Sharaf al-Din al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (1473-1555). Zaydi Imam in whose time the Ottoman Turks first became established in Yemen. He ruled from 1535 to 1547.
Sharaf al-Din al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Sharaf al-Din al-
Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Sharaf al-Din al- (Sharaf al-Din al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah) (1473-1555). Zaydi Imam in whose time the Ottoman Turks first became established in Yemen. He ruled from 1535 to 1547.
Sharaf al-Din al-Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah see Mutawakkil ‘ala ‘llah, Sharaf al-Din al-
Mu‘tazila
Mu‘tazila (Mu'tazilis) (Muʿtazilah). Rationalist formulation of Islamic theology, best known for stressing that God created all things, including the Qur’an.
The Arabic word mu‘tazila means “standing aloof” or “withdrawal.” The term Mu‘tazila came to be applied to the celebrated “rationalist” school of early Islamic theology (kalam), whose name may have arisen from a neutral position taken by its antecedents on the question of the status of the Muslim who commits a grave sin. The advocates preferred to call themselves the “People of Justice and Unity.” The origins of the movement are obscure, but by the mid-ninth century of the Christian calendar, the characteristic principles of the Mu‘tazila had been worked into a coherent philosophical and political theology which combined Greek logical and metaphysical conceptions with the Qur’anic revelation, ideally granting them equal status while in practice favoring reason, at least implicitly. Crucial to the Mu‘tazilite notion of a just God were human freedom and responsibility. So insistent was the emphasis upon God’s unity that even the Qur’an, God’s Speech, was considered to be created in time so as not to suggest division in the godhead.
Mu‘tazili is name used for an adherent of the religious movement called Mu‘tazila. Mu‘tazila was the name of a religious movement founded at Basra by Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, subsequently becoming one of the most important theological schools of Islam. The term indicates those who take a position of neutrality in the face of two opposing factions, in particular in the question of how to define a Muslim guilty of a grave sin. For the Kharijites, he was an infidel (in Arabic, kafir), for the Murji’is a believer in spite of his sinfulness (in Arabic, fisq), and for Hasan al-Basri, Wasil’s teacher, a hypocrite (in Arabic, munafiq). The distinctive theses of Mu‘tazilism were propounded by Abu’l-Hudhayl al-‘Allaf in the form of the following “five principles”: (1) uniqueness of God; (2) justice of God; (3) every Muslim guilty of a serious offence, who dies without repentance, will suffer for eternity the torments of Hell; (4) the same sinful Muslim cannot hear on earth be classed either as “believing” or as “disbelieving,” but belongs to a separate category, that of the “malefactor” (the theory of an “intermediate state” [in Arabic, al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn]); and (5) every believer has the obligation to intervene in public affairs to uphold the Law and oppose impiety. Under the rubric of the first thesis, Mu‘tazilis declared the Qur’an to be created in time, since to affirm otherwise would be tantamount to positing a quality in God distinct from his essence and thus to deny his unity.
Far from being “freethinkers,” the Mu‘tazilites were earnest, at times even puritanical, defenders of Islam from both its external and internal enemies. An inquisition was instituted in Baghdad when the school was for a time in a dominant position under its champion, the ‘Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun (813-833). However, unlike the orthodox Sunni kalam which was destined to replace it, Mu‘tazilism also ventured into highly speculative issues with an intellectual rigor -- and apparent delight -- which would later be condemned as heresy.
For a period of some thirty years, the Mu‘tazili school enjoyed the favor of the ‘Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad, until Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 848 revoked the decrees imposing the view that the Qur’an had been created. But the Mu‘tazila continued to be supported in numerous regions of the Islamic world, especially in Persia, and by powerful princes such as the Buyids, during a second period, which lasted from the last quarter of the ninth century to the middle of the eleventh century.
Al-Ash‘ari (d.935) was influential in stemming the influence in Sunni Islam of this school, although he had originally distinguished himself in it. The Shi(ites have continued to cultivate Mu(tazilite principles in theological reflection. Al-Zamakhshari (d. 1144) filled his celebrated Qur’an commentary with Mu‘tazilite interpretations, which Sunni students are warned to resist while absorbing the uniquely valuable philological discussions.
The most characteristic feature of the first period is the extreme diversity of scholars and of doctrines, whereas in the second period genuine schools were established. Even after the end of the second period, Mu‘tazilism did not disappear. Its theses have been adopted by Imami and Zaydi Shi‘is, and in the twentieth century a significant trend of the rehabilitation of Mu‘tazilism has been observed, especially in Egypt.
Mu‘tazilis formed an opposition group in early Islam. The Mu‘tazilis stressed free will and responsibility and divine justice.
During the heyday of its influence, the Mu‘tazili school established itself in many of the great centers of the Muslim world from Spain to Transoxiana. In general it found its greatest acceptance in those lands where Hanafi law prevailed.
Mu‘tazilis was a theological school inside Islam. The school of the Mu‘tazilis can be dated back to schism around Caliph Ali, when Islam divided into three main orientations, Sunni, Shi‘a, and Khariji.
The name mu‘tazili comes probably from the Arabic verb I‘tazala, “to separate from,” and was used for a group that neither fought for Ali, nor against him (which was the main subject for the schism). Mu‘tazilism as it is known now, grew forward in the city Basra (now Iraq), in the beginning of the eighth century, and under the Caliph al-Ma’mun their teaching was elevated to the officially accepted, and was the starting point of the Muslim inquisition, called Mihna.
The Mu‘tazilis were the first Muslims to address heresy and to challenge non-Muslim thinkers. At first the opponents of the Mu‘tazilis were the traditionalists, who claimed that the only way of understanding Islam was through the literal reading of the Qur’an and the hadiths, called bilaa kayfa, “without questions.”
There were five fundamental principles to the Mu‘tazilis:
1. tawhid -- the unity of God. God could not be conceived by any human conception. There they argued that ayas, verses, in the Qur’an describing God as sitting on a throne were allegorical. The Mu‘tazilis argued that the Qur’an could not be eternal, but created by God. Otherwise the uniqueness of God would be impossible.
2. ‘adl -- divine justice. Facing the problem of existence of evil in a world where God is omnipotent, the Mu‘tazilis pointed at the free will of human beings, so that evil was defined as something that stems from the errors in human acts. God does no evil, and he demands not from any human to perform any evil act. If man’s evil acts had been from the will of God, then punishment would have been meaningless, as man performed God’s will no matter what he did.
3. ‘al-wa‘d wa-l-wa‘id -- promise and threat. This comprised questions on the Last Day and the Day of Judgment.
4. ‘al-manzila bayna al-manzilatayn -- the position between the two extremes of Kharijis and Murji’is.
5. ‘al-amru bil-ma‘ruuf wal-nahy ‘ani al-munkar -- commanding the good and prohibiting the evil. This involved spreading the message of Islam.
This way of dividing theological questions into five groups, was adopted even by the opponents of the Mu‘tazilis. But as theology, Mu‘tazilism lost officially to Ash‘arism, but it survived through a sub-existence with the theologians up to modern times, when it had been partly revived. Mu’tazilism had great influence on Shi‘a Islam, though.
Mu'tazilis see Mu‘tazila
Mu'tazilah see Mu‘tazila
Mu‘tazila (Mu'tazilis) (Muʿtazilah). Rationalist formulation of Islamic theology, best known for stressing that God created all things, including the Qur’an.
The Arabic word mu‘tazila means “standing aloof” or “withdrawal.” The term Mu‘tazila came to be applied to the celebrated “rationalist” school of early Islamic theology (kalam), whose name may have arisen from a neutral position taken by its antecedents on the question of the status of the Muslim who commits a grave sin. The advocates preferred to call themselves the “People of Justice and Unity.” The origins of the movement are obscure, but by the mid-ninth century of the Christian calendar, the characteristic principles of the Mu‘tazila had been worked into a coherent philosophical and political theology which combined Greek logical and metaphysical conceptions with the Qur’anic revelation, ideally granting them equal status while in practice favoring reason, at least implicitly. Crucial to the Mu‘tazilite notion of a just God were human freedom and responsibility. So insistent was the emphasis upon God’s unity that even the Qur’an, God’s Speech, was considered to be created in time so as not to suggest division in the godhead.
Mu‘tazili is name used for an adherent of the religious movement called Mu‘tazila. Mu‘tazila was the name of a religious movement founded at Basra by Wasil ibn ‘Ata’, subsequently becoming one of the most important theological schools of Islam. The term indicates those who take a position of neutrality in the face of two opposing factions, in particular in the question of how to define a Muslim guilty of a grave sin. For the Kharijites, he was an infidel (in Arabic, kafir), for the Murji’is a believer in spite of his sinfulness (in Arabic, fisq), and for Hasan al-Basri, Wasil’s teacher, a hypocrite (in Arabic, munafiq). The distinctive theses of Mu‘tazilism were propounded by Abu’l-Hudhayl al-‘Allaf in the form of the following “five principles”: (1) uniqueness of God; (2) justice of God; (3) every Muslim guilty of a serious offence, who dies without repentance, will suffer for eternity the torments of Hell; (4) the same sinful Muslim cannot hear on earth be classed either as “believing” or as “disbelieving,” but belongs to a separate category, that of the “malefactor” (the theory of an “intermediate state” [in Arabic, al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn]); and (5) every believer has the obligation to intervene in public affairs to uphold the Law and oppose impiety. Under the rubric of the first thesis, Mu‘tazilis declared the Qur’an to be created in time, since to affirm otherwise would be tantamount to positing a quality in God distinct from his essence and thus to deny his unity.
Far from being “freethinkers,” the Mu‘tazilites were earnest, at times even puritanical, defenders of Islam from both its external and internal enemies. An inquisition was instituted in Baghdad when the school was for a time in a dominant position under its champion, the ‘Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun (813-833). However, unlike the orthodox Sunni kalam which was destined to replace it, Mu‘tazilism also ventured into highly speculative issues with an intellectual rigor -- and apparent delight -- which would later be condemned as heresy.
For a period of some thirty years, the Mu‘tazili school enjoyed the favor of the ‘Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad, until Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 848 revoked the decrees imposing the view that the Qur’an had been created. But the Mu‘tazila continued to be supported in numerous regions of the Islamic world, especially in Persia, and by powerful princes such as the Buyids, during a second period, which lasted from the last quarter of the ninth century to the middle of the eleventh century.
Al-Ash‘ari (d.935) was influential in stemming the influence in Sunni Islam of this school, although he had originally distinguished himself in it. The Shi(ites have continued to cultivate Mu(tazilite principles in theological reflection. Al-Zamakhshari (d. 1144) filled his celebrated Qur’an commentary with Mu‘tazilite interpretations, which Sunni students are warned to resist while absorbing the uniquely valuable philological discussions.
The most characteristic feature of the first period is the extreme diversity of scholars and of doctrines, whereas in the second period genuine schools were established. Even after the end of the second period, Mu‘tazilism did not disappear. Its theses have been adopted by Imami and Zaydi Shi‘is, and in the twentieth century a significant trend of the rehabilitation of Mu‘tazilism has been observed, especially in Egypt.
Mu‘tazilis formed an opposition group in early Islam. The Mu‘tazilis stressed free will and responsibility and divine justice.
During the heyday of its influence, the Mu‘tazili school established itself in many of the great centers of the Muslim world from Spain to Transoxiana. In general it found its greatest acceptance in those lands where Hanafi law prevailed.
Mu‘tazilis was a theological school inside Islam. The school of the Mu‘tazilis can be dated back to schism around Caliph Ali, when Islam divided into three main orientations, Sunni, Shi‘a, and Khariji.
The name mu‘tazili comes probably from the Arabic verb I‘tazala, “to separate from,” and was used for a group that neither fought for Ali, nor against him (which was the main subject for the schism). Mu‘tazilism as it is known now, grew forward in the city Basra (now Iraq), in the beginning of the eighth century, and under the Caliph al-Ma’mun their teaching was elevated to the officially accepted, and was the starting point of the Muslim inquisition, called Mihna.
The Mu‘tazilis were the first Muslims to address heresy and to challenge non-Muslim thinkers. At first the opponents of the Mu‘tazilis were the traditionalists, who claimed that the only way of understanding Islam was through the literal reading of the Qur’an and the hadiths, called bilaa kayfa, “without questions.”
There were five fundamental principles to the Mu‘tazilis:
1. tawhid -- the unity of God. God could not be conceived by any human conception. There they argued that ayas, verses, in the Qur’an describing God as sitting on a throne were allegorical. The Mu‘tazilis argued that the Qur’an could not be eternal, but created by God. Otherwise the uniqueness of God would be impossible.
2. ‘adl -- divine justice. Facing the problem of existence of evil in a world where God is omnipotent, the Mu‘tazilis pointed at the free will of human beings, so that evil was defined as something that stems from the errors in human acts. God does no evil, and he demands not from any human to perform any evil act. If man’s evil acts had been from the will of God, then punishment would have been meaningless, as man performed God’s will no matter what he did.
3. ‘al-wa‘d wa-l-wa‘id -- promise and threat. This comprised questions on the Last Day and the Day of Judgment.
4. ‘al-manzila bayna al-manzilatayn -- the position between the two extremes of Kharijis and Murji’is.
5. ‘al-amru bil-ma‘ruuf wal-nahy ‘ani al-munkar -- commanding the good and prohibiting the evil. This involved spreading the message of Islam.
This way of dividing theological questions into five groups, was adopted even by the opponents of the Mu‘tazilis. But as theology, Mu‘tazilism lost officially to Ash‘arism, but it survived through a sub-existence with the theologians up to modern times, when it had been partly revived. Mu’tazilism had great influence on Shi‘a Islam, though.
Mu'tazilis see Mu‘tazila
Mu'tazilah see Mu‘tazila
Mu‘tazz bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tazz bi-‘llah, al- (al-Mu'tazz). ‘Abbasid caliph (r.866-869). His reign marks the beginning of what was in effect autonomy for Egypt under Ahmad ibn Tulun and, among other upheavals, the advance into southern Persia of the Saffarid Ya‘qub ibn al-Layth (r. 867-879).
Al-Mu'tazz was the title of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 866 to 869. Placed upon the throne by the Turks, he proved but too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters.He became the caliph at 19 he was the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power. He was surrounded by parties each jealous of the other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors). While the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz was thus surrounded by people who were ready for plot or treachery whether against each other or against al-Mu'tazz:—a poor justification, however, for the course of betrayal and bloodshed which he, not less than they, pursued.
First he put to death the former Caliph al-Musta'in. Then his own brother Al-Mu'eiyyad, being next heir to the throne, was also cruelly put to death. Also another brother, Abu Ahmed, who had bravely led the troops in the late struggle on his side, was thrown into prison. The Turks attempted his release, but al-Mu'tazz, the more alarmed, resolved on his death. He was smothered in a downy robe (or, as others say, frozen in a bed of ice); and the body was then exposed before the Court, as if, being without mark of violence, he had died a natural death.
The revenues were squandered at the reckless Court, and little was left to pay the troops. The city guards at the Capital surrounded the palace at Baghdad, demanding their pay. The Governor wrote to al-Mu'tazz for an advance; but he, prompted by the Turks, replied that "if the guards were needed for himself, he himself might pay them; if for the Caliph, he cared not for them." Thereupon the insurgency was renewed; the mob refused to let the Caliph be named in the Mosque, and so there were no prayers observed that Friday. Before the revolt was put down, the Governor had to burn one of the bridges, and set fire to an adjoining bazaar, in order to keep the rebels off. But the next year all joined together—Turks, Africans, and Persians—storming the palace for their pay.
The army's pay having been withheld, Salih, son of Wasif, one of the rebels, seized the personal secretaries of al-Mu'tazz and demanded the money embezzled or concealed by them. There being no answer but an empty treasury, they were put in irons. The Caliph implored the rebels to release his private secretary, but they were deaf to his plea. The accounts of the unfortunate ministers were seized, but nothing could be extracted from them.
Salih, and another rebel Musa, planned to depose al-Mu'tazz, and carried out the design with brutal inhumanity. Followed by clamorous troops, they seated themselves at the palace gate, and called for the Caliph to come out. Not suspecting treachery, the Caliph called them in. Entering, they beat him with clubs and kicked him. Then dragging him by his torn robes outside; they left him seated there in the scorching heat of a mid-summer sun. He was then shut up in a room alone without food or water; and so after three days the wretched Caliph died, at the early age of twenty-four.
Mu'tazz, al- see Mu‘tazz bi-‘llah, al-
Mu‘tazz bi-‘llah, al- (al-Mu'tazz). ‘Abbasid caliph (r.866-869). His reign marks the beginning of what was in effect autonomy for Egypt under Ahmad ibn Tulun and, among other upheavals, the advance into southern Persia of the Saffarid Ya‘qub ibn al-Layth (r. 867-879).
Al-Mu'tazz was the title of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 866 to 869. Placed upon the throne by the Turks, he proved but too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters.He became the caliph at 19 he was the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power. He was surrounded by parties each jealous of the other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors). While the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz was thus surrounded by people who were ready for plot or treachery whether against each other or against al-Mu'tazz:—a poor justification, however, for the course of betrayal and bloodshed which he, not less than they, pursued.
First he put to death the former Caliph al-Musta'in. Then his own brother Al-Mu'eiyyad, being next heir to the throne, was also cruelly put to death. Also another brother, Abu Ahmed, who had bravely led the troops in the late struggle on his side, was thrown into prison. The Turks attempted his release, but al-Mu'tazz, the more alarmed, resolved on his death. He was smothered in a downy robe (or, as others say, frozen in a bed of ice); and the body was then exposed before the Court, as if, being without mark of violence, he had died a natural death.
The revenues were squandered at the reckless Court, and little was left to pay the troops. The city guards at the Capital surrounded the palace at Baghdad, demanding their pay. The Governor wrote to al-Mu'tazz for an advance; but he, prompted by the Turks, replied that "if the guards were needed for himself, he himself might pay them; if for the Caliph, he cared not for them." Thereupon the insurgency was renewed; the mob refused to let the Caliph be named in the Mosque, and so there were no prayers observed that Friday. Before the revolt was put down, the Governor had to burn one of the bridges, and set fire to an adjoining bazaar, in order to keep the rebels off. But the next year all joined together—Turks, Africans, and Persians—storming the palace for their pay.
The army's pay having been withheld, Salih, son of Wasif, one of the rebels, seized the personal secretaries of al-Mu'tazz and demanded the money embezzled or concealed by them. There being no answer but an empty treasury, they were put in irons. The Caliph implored the rebels to release his private secretary, but they were deaf to his plea. The accounts of the unfortunate ministers were seized, but nothing could be extracted from them.
Salih, and another rebel Musa, planned to depose al-Mu'tazz, and carried out the design with brutal inhumanity. Followed by clamorous troops, they seated themselves at the palace gate, and called for the Caliph to come out. Not suspecting treachery, the Caliph called them in. Entering, they beat him with clubs and kicked him. Then dragging him by his torn robes outside; they left him seated there in the scorching heat of a mid-summer sun. He was then shut up in a room alone without food or water; and so after three days the wretched Caliph died, at the early age of twenty-four.
Mu'tazz, al- see Mu‘tazz bi-‘llah, al-
Mutesa I
Mutesa I (Mukabaya) (Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira) (c. 1838-1884). Ruler of the Ganda kingdom (Buganda -- Uganda) (r.1856- 1884). He opened Buganda to the outside world and oversaw the beginning of a religious and political revolution.
Mutesa was considered by many Ganda to be too young and too weak to become king when his father Suna II died in 1856. Nevertheless, Mutesa’s election and installation by government ministers was achieved with relatively little disorder, demonstrating the power of appointed officials.
If Mutesa’s supporters had counted on his being a compliant puppet, they were disappointed. Mutesa soon developed into one of the most powerful kings (Kabaka) in Ganda history.
Mutesa continued his father’s military reforms. He imported increasing numbers of firearms -- over which he maintained a monopoly -- from Arab sources to the north and to the east. Mutesa also raided his neighbors and maintained pressure on the Nyoro kingdom of Bunyoro to the west.
During the 1870s, Mutesa -- like his neighbors -- was exposed to the threat of conquest from the north when Egypt began an attempt to control the headwaters of the Nile. During the last fifteen or so years of his life, Mutesa’s foreign policy was dominated by his desire to improve his position over that of his neighbors. Mutesa was particularly concerned about besting the Bunyoro.
Mutesa had an eclectic attitude towards new ideas. The secularization of his state left him largely free of traditional ritual obligations. Muslim traders had been resident in Buganda since the time of Suna and Mutesa was attracted to Islam. However, his aversion to the rite of circumcision prevented his formal “conversion.”
By the late 1860s, Mutesa was reading the Qur’an in Arabic and was faithfully observing Islamic practices. In 1862, the explorers John Speke and J. A. Grant visited Mutesa’s court and brought Uganda to the attention of the outside world. By the time Europeans next visited him, thirteen years later, Mutesa was seriously concerned with Egyptian-Sudanese encroachments in northern Uganda and was anxious to form new alliances.
Henry Stanley visited Mutesa in 1875 and made a favorable impression by actively aiding Mutesa in a military campaign. Mutesa assented to Stanley’s proposal to introduce Christian missionaries, hoping that they would assist him militarily.
The first Protestant missionaries arrived in 1877.
Catholic missionaries soon followed in 1879 and the seeds for a cultural and political revolution were planted.
Among the comparatively tolerant Ganda, the missions flourished. However, doctrinal in-fighting between the Protestants, Catholics and Muslims gave rise to sectarian political factions.
The Protestants assisted Mutesa to send emmissaries to London in 1879, but Mutesa was disappointed by the failure of the missionaries to assist him militarily.
By the end of the decade, the Egyptian threat to the Ganda kingdom had subsided. However, internal factionalism had replaced the Egyptian threat as the dominant issue confronting Mutesa. Mutesa grew interested in Christianity, but was denied baptism by both Protestant and Catholic missions because of his political need to retain his many wives and because of his seemingly doubtful sincerity.
Mutesa ended his days sympathetic to Islam while many of his chiefs were converted to Christianity.
During Mutesa’s last five years, deteriorating health weakened his ability to rule the Ganda kingdom. His infirmity allowed power to shift into the hands of his ministers. Meanwhile, cholera and plague epidemics ravaged his subjects. He kept his army increasingly busy, but his commanders suffered several major setbacks. These developments helped to prepare for changes after his death in 1884.
Mukabaya see Mutesa I
Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira see Mutesa I
Mutesa I (Mukabaya) (Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira) (c. 1838-1884). Ruler of the Ganda kingdom (Buganda -- Uganda) (r.1856- 1884). He opened Buganda to the outside world and oversaw the beginning of a religious and political revolution.
Mutesa was considered by many Ganda to be too young and too weak to become king when his father Suna II died in 1856. Nevertheless, Mutesa’s election and installation by government ministers was achieved with relatively little disorder, demonstrating the power of appointed officials.
If Mutesa’s supporters had counted on his being a compliant puppet, they were disappointed. Mutesa soon developed into one of the most powerful kings (Kabaka) in Ganda history.
Mutesa continued his father’s military reforms. He imported increasing numbers of firearms -- over which he maintained a monopoly -- from Arab sources to the north and to the east. Mutesa also raided his neighbors and maintained pressure on the Nyoro kingdom of Bunyoro to the west.
During the 1870s, Mutesa -- like his neighbors -- was exposed to the threat of conquest from the north when Egypt began an attempt to control the headwaters of the Nile. During the last fifteen or so years of his life, Mutesa’s foreign policy was dominated by his desire to improve his position over that of his neighbors. Mutesa was particularly concerned about besting the Bunyoro.
Mutesa had an eclectic attitude towards new ideas. The secularization of his state left him largely free of traditional ritual obligations. Muslim traders had been resident in Buganda since the time of Suna and Mutesa was attracted to Islam. However, his aversion to the rite of circumcision prevented his formal “conversion.”
By the late 1860s, Mutesa was reading the Qur’an in Arabic and was faithfully observing Islamic practices. In 1862, the explorers John Speke and J. A. Grant visited Mutesa’s court and brought Uganda to the attention of the outside world. By the time Europeans next visited him, thirteen years later, Mutesa was seriously concerned with Egyptian-Sudanese encroachments in northern Uganda and was anxious to form new alliances.
Henry Stanley visited Mutesa in 1875 and made a favorable impression by actively aiding Mutesa in a military campaign. Mutesa assented to Stanley’s proposal to introduce Christian missionaries, hoping that they would assist him militarily.
The first Protestant missionaries arrived in 1877.
Catholic missionaries soon followed in 1879 and the seeds for a cultural and political revolution were planted.
Among the comparatively tolerant Ganda, the missions flourished. However, doctrinal in-fighting between the Protestants, Catholics and Muslims gave rise to sectarian political factions.
The Protestants assisted Mutesa to send emmissaries to London in 1879, but Mutesa was disappointed by the failure of the missionaries to assist him militarily.
By the end of the decade, the Egyptian threat to the Ganda kingdom had subsided. However, internal factionalism had replaced the Egyptian threat as the dominant issue confronting Mutesa. Mutesa grew interested in Christianity, but was denied baptism by both Protestant and Catholic missions because of his political need to retain his many wives and because of his seemingly doubtful sincerity.
Mutesa ended his days sympathetic to Islam while many of his chiefs were converted to Christianity.
During Mutesa’s last five years, deteriorating health weakened his ability to rule the Ganda kingdom. His infirmity allowed power to shift into the hands of his ministers. Meanwhile, cholera and plague epidemics ravaged his subjects. He kept his army increasingly busy, but his commanders suffered several major setbacks. These developments helped to prepare for changes after his death in 1884.
Mukabaya see Mutesa I
Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira see Mutesa I
Muthanna ibn Haritha, al-
Muthanna ibn Haritha, al- (d. 635). Arab tribal chieftain and hero of the early Islamic conquest of Iraq.
Muthanna ibn Haritha, al- (d. 635). Arab tribal chieftain and hero of the early Islamic conquest of Iraq.
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