Akbar
Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar) (Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar) (Akbar the Great) (Badruddin Mohammed Akbar) (October 15, 1542 – October 17 or October 27, 1605). The third Mughal emperor of India (r. 1556-1605). He is generally considered to be the true founder of the Mughal Empire and to be the greatest of the Mughal emperors. The son of Emperor Humayun, Akbar was born in Umarkot, Sind (now part of Pakistan). He succeeded to the throne at the age of 13. Akbar first ruled under a regent, Bairam Khan, who did much to re-capture for the young emperor the territory usurped by his enemies at the death of his father. In 1560, however, Akbar took the government into his own hands. Realizing that Hindu acceptance and cooperation was essential to the successful rule of any Indian empire worthy of that name, Akbar won the allegiance of the Rajputs, the most belligerent sector of the Hindu population, by a shrewd blend of tolerance, generosity, and force. Indeed, Akbar himself married two Rajput princesses.
Having neutralized the Hindus, Akbar further enlarged his realm by conquest until it extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and from the Himalaya to the Godavari River. Akbar’s supreme achievement, however, was the establishment of an efficient administrative system that held the empire together and stimulated trade and economic development.
Akbar put the Mughal Empire on an administrative footing that was to sustain it until the mid-eighteenth century. The basic institution of this administrative structure was the mansabdari system. Akbar integrated leaders of the indigenous ruling class, the Rajputs, into the imperial framework. In the preceding three centuries, Rajputs and the imperial rulers at Delhi had been at loggerheads, neither side gaining a decisive victory over the other. Akbar resolved the conflict with generous treatment of those who submitted to his authority and ruthless treatment of the few who did not.
Akbar had inherited a nobility almost equally divided between Mughals and Persians. Over the next quarter century he gradually altered this composition by inducting at the highest echelon diverse elements such as Afghans, Indian Muslims, and Hindus so that by 1580 every group had been reduced to a small minority in no position to dominate over others or the emperor. In this context, Akbar’s political and religious philosophy of mutual tolerance (“peace with all”) found ready acceptance. The diverse yet well-balanced elements in the nobility, along with the efficient administrative apparatus, also gave successive Mughal emperors a much greater degree of centralized power than any other dynasty in Indian history.
Akbar also perfected a mechanism of revenue administration that was to last until the end of the empire. After several experiments, the “Ten-Year Settlement” was formulated. Land was divided into four categories according to the period for which it lay uncultivated, the ideal being uninterrupted cultivation. Differential rates of revenue were imposed on these categories with an increase in the rate as land moved from a lower to a higher category. Average yields of each field over the preceding ten years were assessed, as were average prices of crops in neighboring markets over the same period. Revenue was fixed at between one-fourth and one-half of the gross produce, depending on the region and the crop. This share was then converted into market prices. If revenue was collected in kind, this was also converted into cash through sale. Rates were subject to revision. This tax system was essentially regressive, for it imposed the same rates on all cultivators without respect to their resources.
Almost as notable was Akbar’s promulgation of a new religion, the Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”), a blend of Islam, Brahmanism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Although this attempt failed, Akbar surrounded himself with learned men of all faiths and, although illiterate himself, made his court a center of arts and letters. Akbar took a keen interest in history writing, translation of Hindu scriptures into Persian, painting, and architecture. New schools were established in each of these areas mainly by blending Indian and Persian culture.
Of all the Mughal rulers of India, only Akbar is remembered with fondness by present day Hindus, for whom his name has become synonymous with religious tolerance. From the standpoint of Islam, however, Akbar is often pictured as a heretic, intent upon destroying the “true faith” in the interests of political expediency.
Deeply moved by several intense mystical experiences, Akbar established a Hall of Worship where, every Thursday, Muslims of various sects would debate points of theology. In 1582, Akbar apparently gave up on his attempts to reform Islam from within and founded a new religion, the Din Ilahi -- the “Divine Faith”.
The Din Ilahi became an ecletic faith aimed more at synthesizing Indian and Mughal culture than at preaching a new path to the Divine. Seasonal vegetarianism was encouraged and the killing of cows was made a crime punishable by death. Special taxes against Hindus were lifted and many were appointed to administrative positions in Akbar’s government. During Akbar’s reign, no new mosques were allowed to be built; the study of Arabic and Islamic law was discouraged; and no male could bear the revered name of Muhammad.
Akbar found fault with all dogmas. Thus, on his deathbed, he would not allow sectarian prayers of any kind to be said for him.
Akbar’s Din Ilahi soon passed away with him. The Din Ilahi is now not much more than an historical curiosity -- a religion created by a Muslim with Hindu sympathies but which essentially was a religion with no stated creed.
Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605. He was the grandson of Babur who founded the Mughal dynasty. On the eve of his death in 1605, the Mughal empire spanned almost 1 million square kilometers.
Akbar, widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was only 14 when he ascended the throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun. He was descended from Turks, Mongols, and Persians — the three peoples who predominated in the political elites of northern India in medieval times. It took him the better part of two decades to consolidate his power and bring parts of northern and central India into his realm. During his reign, he reduced external military threats from the Afghan descendants of Sher Shah by waging wars against Afghan tribes, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated the Hindu king Samrat Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu.The emperor solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Rajput caste, and by admitting Rajput princesses into his harem.
Akbar was an artisan, artist, armorer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor, general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian. His most lasting contributions were to the arts. He initiated a large collection of literature, including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned the building of widely admired buildings, and invented the first prefabricated homes and movable structures. Akbar began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka atheists and even Jesuits from Portugal. He founded his own religious cult, the Din-i-Ilahi or the "Divine Faith"; however, it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved after his death.
At birth, Akbar was named Badruddin Mohammed Akbar, because he was born on the night of a badruddin (full moon). After the capture of Kabul by Humayun his date of birth and name were changed to throw off evil sorcerers. Popular myth records that Akbar, meaning "Great", was a title given to Akbar by the people of India. In fact, he was given the name Akbar at birth after his maternal grandfather, Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami.
Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Sind where the Mughal Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum were taking refuge. Humayun had been driven into exile, following decisive battles, by the Afghan leader Sher Shah Suri. Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents and soon they were transferred to the Princely State of Rewa (in present day Madhya Pradesh) where Akbar grew up in the village of Mukundpur. Akbar and prince Ram Singh who later became Maharaja of Rewa grew up together and stayed close friends throughout life.
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. For some time, Akbar was raised by his uncle Askari and his wife in the eastern country of Persia - what is now modern Afghanistan - rather than in the splendor of the Persian court. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, but he never learned to read or write, the sole exception in Babur's line. Nonetheless, Akbar matured into a well-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts, architecture, music, a love for literature, and a breadth of vision that tolerated other opinions.
Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Khan Suri's son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Months later, Humayun died. Bairam Khan cleverly concealed the report of Humayun's death in order to prepare for Akbar's accession to the throne. Akbar succeeded his father on February 14, 1556 (Gregorian February 24), while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the reclamation of the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur (Gurdaspur, Punjab) the 13 year old Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly constructed platform, which still stands, and was proclaimed Shahanshah (Persian for "King of Kings"). The mosque built at the time of Akbar can still be seen and the place where he prayed can be visited.
Akbar decided early in his reign that he should eliminate the threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan.
Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached. However, back in Delhi Hemu, a Hindu King, also known as Hemu Vikramaditya, captured Agra and then Delhi on October 6, 1556 and declared himself as Emperor of India. Tardi Beg Khan promptly fled the city. Hemu Vikramaditya, who during three years from October 1553 to October 1556, had won 22 successive battles not only appointed himself the ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, but also re-established the Hindu Kingdom in Delhi.
News of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to Akbar, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively secure. But urged by Bairam Khan, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. To bolster troop morale, he ordered that someone should "prepare fireworks as a treat for the soldiers" and "make an image of Hemu, fill it with gunpowder, and set it on fire". Tardi Beg and his retreating troops joined the march, and also urged Akbar to retreat to Kabul, but he refused again. Later, Bairam Khan had the former regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat from Delhi as an excuse to eliminate a rival.
Akbar's army defeated the more numerous forces of Hemu Vikramaditya at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu was brought to Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Hemu's body was cut into pieces, his head was hung outside Delhi Darwaza, while his torso was hung outside Purana Qila, opposite present day Pragati Maidan in Delhi. Acting out as a Ghazi ("victor"), Akbar constructed a victory pillar made from the heads of the captured/surrendered army of Raja Hemchandra Vikramaditiya and rebellious soldiers, just like Babur did. Pictures of such towers are displayed in the National Museum, New Delhi, and Panipat Museum in Haryana.
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a battle in Bengal.
Akbar was only 14 years old when he became emperor, and so his general ruled on his behalf until he came of age. The regency belonged to Bairam Khan, a Shi'a (Afghan) noble born in Badakhshan who successfully dealt with pretenders to the throne and improved the discipline of the Mughal armies. He ensured power was centralised and was able to expand the empires boundaries with orders from the capital. These moves helped to consolidate Mughal power in the newly recovered empire.
Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his religion.
The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and Bairam's Shi'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Shaikh Gadai Kamboh, to become the Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire. Additionally, Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be even more excessive than that of Akbar.
The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act, essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbar's refusal to even meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.
Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham Khan, approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down full honors to the General, and gave him robes of honor, and agreed to fund him a proper hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam Khan's hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city of Khambhat he was killed by an Afghan assassin whose father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam. Bairam died on January 31, 1561.
Akbar is recorded as saying "A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, lest his neighbors rise in arms against him", and he went on to expand the Mughal empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among others. Akbar installed a governor over each of the conquered provinces, under his authority.
Akbar did not want to have his court tied too closely to the city of Delhi. He ordered the court moved to Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, but when this site proved untenable, he set up a roaming camp that let him keep a close eye on what was happening throughout the empire. He developed and encouraged commerce.
Akbar's tax reforms were especially noteworthy, and formed the basis of the Mughal Empire's immense wealth in succeeding generations. His officials prepared a detailed and accurate cadaster (land register) noting each land parcel's soil quality, water access, and so assessed their value, taking account of prevailing prices for various crops in each region. This was a distinct improvement on earlier land tax systems, including the Egyptian and Roman ones, which had levied land taxes as an in-kind share of the harvest. By making taxes reflect the value of the land rather than the harvest, this stimulated both improvements in investments and more productive use of the land. The economic effect was such that the revered Qing emperor Kang Xi adopted similar measures a century later in China, with similar success.
Starting in 1571, Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of victory") near Agra. Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazl in the books Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Fazl gave a positive spin to Akbar's reign by glossing over uncomfortable facts of the emperor's reign related to his interaction with other communities of his empire, which has been repeated by numerous historians over the years. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign like the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi were written outside of court influence and hence contain more authentic information and less flattery for Akbar.
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Akbar the Great see Akbar
Badruddin Mohammed Akbar see Akbar
Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar) (Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar) (Akbar the Great) (Badruddin Mohammed Akbar) (October 15, 1542 – October 17 or October 27, 1605). The third Mughal emperor of India (r. 1556-1605). He is generally considered to be the true founder of the Mughal Empire and to be the greatest of the Mughal emperors. The son of Emperor Humayun, Akbar was born in Umarkot, Sind (now part of Pakistan). He succeeded to the throne at the age of 13. Akbar first ruled under a regent, Bairam Khan, who did much to re-capture for the young emperor the territory usurped by his enemies at the death of his father. In 1560, however, Akbar took the government into his own hands. Realizing that Hindu acceptance and cooperation was essential to the successful rule of any Indian empire worthy of that name, Akbar won the allegiance of the Rajputs, the most belligerent sector of the Hindu population, by a shrewd blend of tolerance, generosity, and force. Indeed, Akbar himself married two Rajput princesses.
Having neutralized the Hindus, Akbar further enlarged his realm by conquest until it extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and from the Himalaya to the Godavari River. Akbar’s supreme achievement, however, was the establishment of an efficient administrative system that held the empire together and stimulated trade and economic development.
Akbar put the Mughal Empire on an administrative footing that was to sustain it until the mid-eighteenth century. The basic institution of this administrative structure was the mansabdari system. Akbar integrated leaders of the indigenous ruling class, the Rajputs, into the imperial framework. In the preceding three centuries, Rajputs and the imperial rulers at Delhi had been at loggerheads, neither side gaining a decisive victory over the other. Akbar resolved the conflict with generous treatment of those who submitted to his authority and ruthless treatment of the few who did not.
Akbar had inherited a nobility almost equally divided between Mughals and Persians. Over the next quarter century he gradually altered this composition by inducting at the highest echelon diverse elements such as Afghans, Indian Muslims, and Hindus so that by 1580 every group had been reduced to a small minority in no position to dominate over others or the emperor. In this context, Akbar’s political and religious philosophy of mutual tolerance (“peace with all”) found ready acceptance. The diverse yet well-balanced elements in the nobility, along with the efficient administrative apparatus, also gave successive Mughal emperors a much greater degree of centralized power than any other dynasty in Indian history.
Akbar also perfected a mechanism of revenue administration that was to last until the end of the empire. After several experiments, the “Ten-Year Settlement” was formulated. Land was divided into four categories according to the period for which it lay uncultivated, the ideal being uninterrupted cultivation. Differential rates of revenue were imposed on these categories with an increase in the rate as land moved from a lower to a higher category. Average yields of each field over the preceding ten years were assessed, as were average prices of crops in neighboring markets over the same period. Revenue was fixed at between one-fourth and one-half of the gross produce, depending on the region and the crop. This share was then converted into market prices. If revenue was collected in kind, this was also converted into cash through sale. Rates were subject to revision. This tax system was essentially regressive, for it imposed the same rates on all cultivators without respect to their resources.
Almost as notable was Akbar’s promulgation of a new religion, the Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”), a blend of Islam, Brahmanism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Although this attempt failed, Akbar surrounded himself with learned men of all faiths and, although illiterate himself, made his court a center of arts and letters. Akbar took a keen interest in history writing, translation of Hindu scriptures into Persian, painting, and architecture. New schools were established in each of these areas mainly by blending Indian and Persian culture.
Of all the Mughal rulers of India, only Akbar is remembered with fondness by present day Hindus, for whom his name has become synonymous with religious tolerance. From the standpoint of Islam, however, Akbar is often pictured as a heretic, intent upon destroying the “true faith” in the interests of political expediency.
Deeply moved by several intense mystical experiences, Akbar established a Hall of Worship where, every Thursday, Muslims of various sects would debate points of theology. In 1582, Akbar apparently gave up on his attempts to reform Islam from within and founded a new religion, the Din Ilahi -- the “Divine Faith”.
The Din Ilahi became an ecletic faith aimed more at synthesizing Indian and Mughal culture than at preaching a new path to the Divine. Seasonal vegetarianism was encouraged and the killing of cows was made a crime punishable by death. Special taxes against Hindus were lifted and many were appointed to administrative positions in Akbar’s government. During Akbar’s reign, no new mosques were allowed to be built; the study of Arabic and Islamic law was discouraged; and no male could bear the revered name of Muhammad.
Akbar found fault with all dogmas. Thus, on his deathbed, he would not allow sectarian prayers of any kind to be said for him.
Akbar’s Din Ilahi soon passed away with him. The Din Ilahi is now not much more than an historical curiosity -- a religion created by a Muslim with Hindu sympathies but which essentially was a religion with no stated creed.
Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605. He was the grandson of Babur who founded the Mughal dynasty. On the eve of his death in 1605, the Mughal empire spanned almost 1 million square kilometers.
Akbar, widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was only 14 when he ascended the throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun. He was descended from Turks, Mongols, and Persians — the three peoples who predominated in the political elites of northern India in medieval times. It took him the better part of two decades to consolidate his power and bring parts of northern and central India into his realm. During his reign, he reduced external military threats from the Afghan descendants of Sher Shah by waging wars against Afghan tribes, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated the Hindu king Samrat Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu.The emperor solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Rajput caste, and by admitting Rajput princesses into his harem.
Akbar was an artisan, artist, armorer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor, general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian. His most lasting contributions were to the arts. He initiated a large collection of literature, including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned the building of widely admired buildings, and invented the first prefabricated homes and movable structures. Akbar began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka atheists and even Jesuits from Portugal. He founded his own religious cult, the Din-i-Ilahi or the "Divine Faith"; however, it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved after his death.
At birth, Akbar was named Badruddin Mohammed Akbar, because he was born on the night of a badruddin (full moon). After the capture of Kabul by Humayun his date of birth and name were changed to throw off evil sorcerers. Popular myth records that Akbar, meaning "Great", was a title given to Akbar by the people of India. In fact, he was given the name Akbar at birth after his maternal grandfather, Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami.
Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Sind where the Mughal Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum were taking refuge. Humayun had been driven into exile, following decisive battles, by the Afghan leader Sher Shah Suri. Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents and soon they were transferred to the Princely State of Rewa (in present day Madhya Pradesh) where Akbar grew up in the village of Mukundpur. Akbar and prince Ram Singh who later became Maharaja of Rewa grew up together and stayed close friends throughout life.
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. For some time, Akbar was raised by his uncle Askari and his wife in the eastern country of Persia - what is now modern Afghanistan - rather than in the splendor of the Persian court. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, but he never learned to read or write, the sole exception in Babur's line. Nonetheless, Akbar matured into a well-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts, architecture, music, a love for literature, and a breadth of vision that tolerated other opinions.
Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Khan Suri's son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Months later, Humayun died. Bairam Khan cleverly concealed the report of Humayun's death in order to prepare for Akbar's accession to the throne. Akbar succeeded his father on February 14, 1556 (Gregorian February 24), while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the reclamation of the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur (Gurdaspur, Punjab) the 13 year old Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly constructed platform, which still stands, and was proclaimed Shahanshah (Persian for "King of Kings"). The mosque built at the time of Akbar can still be seen and the place where he prayed can be visited.
Akbar decided early in his reign that he should eliminate the threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan.
Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached. However, back in Delhi Hemu, a Hindu King, also known as Hemu Vikramaditya, captured Agra and then Delhi on October 6, 1556 and declared himself as Emperor of India. Tardi Beg Khan promptly fled the city. Hemu Vikramaditya, who during three years from October 1553 to October 1556, had won 22 successive battles not only appointed himself the ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, but also re-established the Hindu Kingdom in Delhi.
News of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to Akbar, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively secure. But urged by Bairam Khan, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. To bolster troop morale, he ordered that someone should "prepare fireworks as a treat for the soldiers" and "make an image of Hemu, fill it with gunpowder, and set it on fire". Tardi Beg and his retreating troops joined the march, and also urged Akbar to retreat to Kabul, but he refused again. Later, Bairam Khan had the former regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat from Delhi as an excuse to eliminate a rival.
Akbar's army defeated the more numerous forces of Hemu Vikramaditya at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu was brought to Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Hemu's body was cut into pieces, his head was hung outside Delhi Darwaza, while his torso was hung outside Purana Qila, opposite present day Pragati Maidan in Delhi. Acting out as a Ghazi ("victor"), Akbar constructed a victory pillar made from the heads of the captured/surrendered army of Raja Hemchandra Vikramaditiya and rebellious soldiers, just like Babur did. Pictures of such towers are displayed in the National Museum, New Delhi, and Panipat Museum in Haryana.
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a battle in Bengal.
Akbar was only 14 years old when he became emperor, and so his general ruled on his behalf until he came of age. The regency belonged to Bairam Khan, a Shi'a (Afghan) noble born in Badakhshan who successfully dealt with pretenders to the throne and improved the discipline of the Mughal armies. He ensured power was centralised and was able to expand the empires boundaries with orders from the capital. These moves helped to consolidate Mughal power in the newly recovered empire.
Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his religion.
The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and Bairam's Shi'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Shaikh Gadai Kamboh, to become the Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire. Additionally, Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be even more excessive than that of Akbar.
The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act, essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbar's refusal to even meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.
Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham Khan, approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down full honors to the General, and gave him robes of honor, and agreed to fund him a proper hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam Khan's hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city of Khambhat he was killed by an Afghan assassin whose father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam. Bairam died on January 31, 1561.
Akbar is recorded as saying "A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, lest his neighbors rise in arms against him", and he went on to expand the Mughal empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among others. Akbar installed a governor over each of the conquered provinces, under his authority.
Akbar did not want to have his court tied too closely to the city of Delhi. He ordered the court moved to Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, but when this site proved untenable, he set up a roaming camp that let him keep a close eye on what was happening throughout the empire. He developed and encouraged commerce.
Akbar's tax reforms were especially noteworthy, and formed the basis of the Mughal Empire's immense wealth in succeeding generations. His officials prepared a detailed and accurate cadaster (land register) noting each land parcel's soil quality, water access, and so assessed their value, taking account of prevailing prices for various crops in each region. This was a distinct improvement on earlier land tax systems, including the Egyptian and Roman ones, which had levied land taxes as an in-kind share of the harvest. By making taxes reflect the value of the land rather than the harvest, this stimulated both improvements in investments and more productive use of the land. The economic effect was such that the revered Qing emperor Kang Xi adopted similar measures a century later in China, with similar success.
Starting in 1571, Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of victory") near Agra. Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazl in the books Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Fazl gave a positive spin to Akbar's reign by glossing over uncomfortable facts of the emperor's reign related to his interaction with other communities of his empire, which has been repeated by numerous historians over the years. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign like the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi were written outside of court influence and hence contain more authentic information and less flattery for Akbar.
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar see Akbar
Akbar the Great see Akbar
Badruddin Mohammed Akbar see Akbar
Akbari, Ustad Muhammad
Akbari, Ustad Muhammad. See Ustad Muhammad Akbari.
Akbar, Sardar Muhammad
Akbar, Sardar Muhammad. See Sardar Muhammad Akbar.
Akbar, Sardar Muhammad. See Sardar Muhammad Akbar.
Akef, Mohammed
Mohammed Mahdi Akef (Arabic: محمد مهدى عاكف) (b. July 12, 1928, Kafr Awad Al Seneita, Dakahliya Province, Egypt – d. September 22, 2017, Cairo, Egypt) was the head of the Muslim Brotherhood, an Egypt-based Islamic political movement, from 2004 until 2010. He assumed the post, that of "general guide" (Arabic: المرشد العام - frequently translated as "chairman") upon the death of his predecessor, Ma'mun al-Hudaybi. Akef was arrested on July 4, 2013. On July 14, 2013 Egypt's new prosecutor general Hisham Barakat ordered his assets to be frozen.
Mohammed Mahdi Akef (Arabic: محمد مهدى عاكف) (b. July 12, 1928, Kafr Awad Al Seneita, Dakahliya Province, Egypt – d. September 22, 2017, Cairo, Egypt) was the head of the Muslim Brotherhood, an Egypt-based Islamic political movement, from 2004 until 2010. He assumed the post, that of "general guide" (Arabic: المرشد العام - frequently translated as "chairman") upon the death of his predecessor, Ma'mun al-Hudaybi. Akef was arrested on July 4, 2013. On July 14, 2013 Egypt's new prosecutor general Hisham Barakat ordered his assets to be frozen.
Akef was born in 1928 in Kafr Awad Al Seneita in Dakahliya Province, in the north of Egypt. The year of his birth was the year the Muslim Brotherhood Movement was founded.
Akef obtained his Primary Certificate of Education at Al Mansoura Primary School, and obtained his Secondary Certificate of Education at Cairo- Fuad 1st Secondary School. He then joined the Higher Institute of Physical Education and graduated in May 1950, after which he worked as a teacher at Fuad 1st Secondary School.
Akef first became involved with the Muslim Brotherhood in 1940, which was then led by Hassan al Banna.
Akef joined the Faculty of Law and assumed responsibility for the Brotherhood's training camps at Ibrahim University (present-day Ain Shams University). This was during the struggle against the British occupation in the Canal preceding the 1952 Revolution, after which he left responsibility to Kamaleddin Hussein, then National Guard Chief.
The last Sections Akef headed in the Muslim Brotherhood before 1954 were the Students Section and the PE Section at the Groups Headquarters.
Akef was arrested on August 1, 1954 and stood trial on charges including smuggling Major General Abdul Munem Abderraoof (one of the Army chiefs who spearheaded the ouster and expulsion of King Farouq), and was sentenced to death in absentia before the ruling was commuted to life imprisonment.
Akef was released in 1974 and was reappointed General Manager of Youth – a department affiliated to the Ministry of Reconstruction.
Akef then moved to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia to work as an advisor for the World Assembly of Muslim Youth and was in charge of its camps and conferences. He took part in organizing the biggest camps for the Muslim youth on the world arena; in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Turkey, Australia, Mali, Kenya, Cyprus, Germany, Britain and America.
Beginning in 1987, Akef was a member of the Steering Bureau (Guidance Bureau) of the Muslim Brotherhood.
Akef was elected Member of Parliament in 1987 for the East Cairo electoral constituency.
In 1996, Akef was court-martialed, charged with being head of the Muslim Brotherhood International Organization, and was sentenced to three years. He was released in 1999.
In 2005, he denounced what he called "the myth of the Holocaust" in defending Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's denial of the Holocaust, and accused the United States of attacking anyone who raised questions about the Holocaust.
On October 19, 2009, Egyptian newspapers reported that Akef had resigned as the general guide of the Muslim Brotherhood after a dispute among various leaders in the group. However the following day reports on the Muslim Brotherhood website stated that Akef had not resigned and would continue to serve as the group's general guide until elections in January 2010.
Akef's health deteriorated while he was imprisoned by the Egyptian authorities after the 2013 Egyptian coup d'etat, his daughter affirmed that he was isolated in the prison hospital and was only allowed a visit once a week, despite his old age and poor health.
He died on September 22, 2017 at the age of 89.
Akef, Naima
Aish Wal Malh (1949) Lahalibo (1949). Baladi Wa Khafa (1949). Furigat (1950). Baba Areess (1950). Fataat Al Sirk (1951). Ya Halawaat Al Hubb (1952). Arbah Banat Wa Zabit (1954). Aziza (1955). Tamr Henna (1957) with Ahmed Ramzy, Fayza Ahmed and Rushdy Abaza. Amir El Dahaa (1964).
Naima Akef (b. October 7, 1929, Tanta, Egypt - d. April 23, 1966) was a famous Egyptian belly dancer during the Egyptian cinema's golden age and starred in many films of the time. Naima Akef was born in Tanta on the Nile Delta. Her parents were acrobats in the Akef Circus (run by Naima’s grandfather), which was one of the best known circuses at the time. She started performing in the circus at the age of four, and quickly became one of the most popular acts with her acrobatic skills. Her family was based in the Bab el Khalq district of Cairo, but they traveled far and wide in order to perform.
The circus disbanded when Naima was 14, but this was only the beginning of her career. Her grandfather had many connections in the performance world of Cairo and he introduced her to his friends. When Naima’s parents divorced, she formed an acrobatic and clown act that performed in many clubs throughout Cairo. She then got the chance to work in Badeia Masabny's famous nightclub, where she became a star and was one of the very few who danced and sang. Her time with Badeia, however, was short-lived, as Badeia favored her, which made the other performers jealous. One day they ganged up on her and attempted to beat her up, but she proved to be stronger and more agile and won the fight. This caused her to be fired, so she started performing elsewhere.
The Kit Kat Club was another famous venue in Cairo, and this is where Naima was introduced to film director Abbas Kemal. Kemal's brother, Hussein Fawzy, also a film director, was very interested in having Naima star in one of his musical films. The first of such films was "Al-Eich wal malh" (Bread and Salt). Her costar was singer Saad Abdel Wahab, the nephew of the legendary singer and composer Mohammed Abdel Wahab. The film premiered on January 17, 1949, and was an instant success, bringing recognition also to Nahhas Film studios.
Naima quit acting in 1964 to take care of her only child, a son from her second marriage to accountant Salaheldeen Abdel Aleem. She died two years later from cancer at the age of 36.
A selective filmography of Naima Akef reads as follows:
Akhtar Khan, 'Abdul Rahman
Akhtar Khan, 'Abdul Rahman. See 'Abdul Rahman Akhtar Khan.
Akhtar Khan, 'Abdul Rahman. See 'Abdul Rahman Akhtar Khan.
Akhtar-ul-Iman
Akhtar-ul-Iman (1915-1996). An Urdu poet.
Born in Qila, Najibabad, in Bijnor district of Uttar Pradesh in 1915, Akhtar-ul-Iman was a leading Urdu poet and film writer of his time. He had a major influence on modern Urdu nazm. After graduating from Delhi University, he worked in the Civil Supplies Departmant and All India Radio at Delhi. From 1945, after he moved to Mumbai (then Bombay), he started working for Hindi cinema as a script writer. His poetry is highly individualistic and innovative. He stands apart from other poets of his time in his themes, style, langauage. He preferred nazm over more popular ghazal as a means of poetic expression. Akhtar ul Iman's language is coarse and for some seemingly unpoetic. He uses coarse and mundane poetic expressions to make his message effective and realistic. His poetry strives to find a balance between the conflicting or extreme choices faced by man. He chose free verse for his nazms to make his conversational style of expression more realistic. He was strongly influenced by Meeraji and N. M. Rashid and is more closer and similar to them than other poets of his era. He was a close friend of Meeraji and Meeraji lived with him until his death. They together formed Halqa-e-Arbab-e-Adab (Circle of Friends of Poetry). Poets who belong to this circle wrote independent of the idealogy and standards set by the Progressive Writers Movement. Although they were few in numbers, they contributed significantly and had major influence on later generations of poets. It was also a starting point of Modernisnm in Urdu.
Akhtar-ul-Iman left behind a substantial legacy for a new generation of poets to follow and explored new trends and themes in modern Urdu poetry giving a new direction to the modern and contemporary Urdu nazm with emphasis on philosophical humanism.
His initial education happened at Bijnor, where he came in contact with Khurshid ul Islam (a poet and scholar who taught at Aligarh Muslim University, and developed a long association with Ralph Russell). He graduated from the Anglo-Arabic College, Delhi.
Akhtar-ul-Iman is the author of Iss Aabad Kharabe Mein, an autobiography of a famous Urdu writer that was published by the Urdu Academy, Delhi, India. He also has seven collections of poetry to his credit including Tareek Sayyara (1943); Gardyab (1946); Aabjoo (1959); Yaden (1961); Bint-e-Lamhaat (1969); Naya Ahang (1977); and Sar-o-Samaan (1983). His play Sabrang (1948) is a one verse play.
The contribution Akhtar-ul-Iman to Hindi cinema is quite significant in view of the number of landmark and hit movies he has contributed to as a script writer (dialogue, story and screenplay). His first landmark movie was Kanoon, which became a big hit of its time. Kanoon became a hit despite the fact that it had no songs or comedy sequences. This achievement was unparalleled in Hindi cinema. His other important movies where he contributed as a script writer are Dharmputra (1961), for which he received filmfare award. He also wrote lyrics for Hindi cinema, and the one movie which has lyrics written by him is Bikhare Moti.
The filmography credits for Akhtar-ul-Iman include: Chor Police (1983 - writer); Lahu Pukarega (1980 - director); Do Musafir (1978 - writer); Chandi Sona (1977 - writer); Zameer (1975 - writer); 36 Ghante (1974 - writer); Roti (1974 - writer); Naya Nasha (1973 - writer); Bada Kabutar (1973 - writer); Daag (1973 - writer); Dhund (1973 - writer); Joshila (1973 - writer); Kunwara Badan (1973 - writer); Dastaan (1972 - writer); Joroo Ka Ghulam (1972 - writer); Aadmi Aur Insaan (1969 - writer); Chirag (1969 - writer); Ittefaq (1969 - writer); Aadmi (1968 - writer); Hamraaz (1967 - writer); Patthar Ke Sanam (1967 - writer); Gaban (1966 - writer); Mera Saaya (1966 - writer); Phool Aur Patthar (1966 - writer); Bhoot Bungla (1965 - writer); Waqt (1965 - writer); Shabnam (1964 - writer); Yaadein (1964 - writer); Aaj Aur Kal (1963 - writer); Akeli Mat Jaiyo (1963 - writer); Gumrah (1963 - writer); Aaj Aur Kal (1963 - writer); Akeli Mat Jaiyo (1963 - writer); Gumrah (1963 - writer); Neeli Aankhen (1962 - writer); Dharmputra (1961 - writer); Flat No. 9 (1961 - writer); Barood (1960 - writer); Kalpana (1960 - writer); Kanoon (1960 - writer); Nirdosh (1950 - writer); Actress (1948 - writer); and Jharna (1948) - writer).
Akhtar-ul-Iman (1915-1996). An Urdu poet.
Born in Qila, Najibabad, in Bijnor district of Uttar Pradesh in 1915, Akhtar-ul-Iman was a leading Urdu poet and film writer of his time. He had a major influence on modern Urdu nazm. After graduating from Delhi University, he worked in the Civil Supplies Departmant and All India Radio at Delhi. From 1945, after he moved to Mumbai (then Bombay), he started working for Hindi cinema as a script writer. His poetry is highly individualistic and innovative. He stands apart from other poets of his time in his themes, style, langauage. He preferred nazm over more popular ghazal as a means of poetic expression. Akhtar ul Iman's language is coarse and for some seemingly unpoetic. He uses coarse and mundane poetic expressions to make his message effective and realistic. His poetry strives to find a balance between the conflicting or extreme choices faced by man. He chose free verse for his nazms to make his conversational style of expression more realistic. He was strongly influenced by Meeraji and N. M. Rashid and is more closer and similar to them than other poets of his era. He was a close friend of Meeraji and Meeraji lived with him until his death. They together formed Halqa-e-Arbab-e-Adab (Circle of Friends of Poetry). Poets who belong to this circle wrote independent of the idealogy and standards set by the Progressive Writers Movement. Although they were few in numbers, they contributed significantly and had major influence on later generations of poets. It was also a starting point of Modernisnm in Urdu.
Akhtar-ul-Iman left behind a substantial legacy for a new generation of poets to follow and explored new trends and themes in modern Urdu poetry giving a new direction to the modern and contemporary Urdu nazm with emphasis on philosophical humanism.
His initial education happened at Bijnor, where he came in contact with Khurshid ul Islam (a poet and scholar who taught at Aligarh Muslim University, and developed a long association with Ralph Russell). He graduated from the Anglo-Arabic College, Delhi.
Akhtar-ul-Iman is the author of Iss Aabad Kharabe Mein, an autobiography of a famous Urdu writer that was published by the Urdu Academy, Delhi, India. He also has seven collections of poetry to his credit including Tareek Sayyara (1943); Gardyab (1946); Aabjoo (1959); Yaden (1961); Bint-e-Lamhaat (1969); Naya Ahang (1977); and Sar-o-Samaan (1983). His play Sabrang (1948) is a one verse play.
The contribution Akhtar-ul-Iman to Hindi cinema is quite significant in view of the number of landmark and hit movies he has contributed to as a script writer (dialogue, story and screenplay). His first landmark movie was Kanoon, which became a big hit of its time. Kanoon became a hit despite the fact that it had no songs or comedy sequences. This achievement was unparalleled in Hindi cinema. His other important movies where he contributed as a script writer are Dharmputra (1961), for which he received filmfare award. He also wrote lyrics for Hindi cinema, and the one movie which has lyrics written by him is Bikhare Moti.
The filmography credits for Akhtar-ul-Iman include: Chor Police (1983 - writer); Lahu Pukarega (1980 - director); Do Musafir (1978 - writer); Chandi Sona (1977 - writer); Zameer (1975 - writer); 36 Ghante (1974 - writer); Roti (1974 - writer); Naya Nasha (1973 - writer); Bada Kabutar (1973 - writer); Daag (1973 - writer); Dhund (1973 - writer); Joshila (1973 - writer); Kunwara Badan (1973 - writer); Dastaan (1972 - writer); Joroo Ka Ghulam (1972 - writer); Aadmi Aur Insaan (1969 - writer); Chirag (1969 - writer); Ittefaq (1969 - writer); Aadmi (1968 - writer); Hamraaz (1967 - writer); Patthar Ke Sanam (1967 - writer); Gaban (1966 - writer); Mera Saaya (1966 - writer); Phool Aur Patthar (1966 - writer); Bhoot Bungla (1965 - writer); Waqt (1965 - writer); Shabnam (1964 - writer); Yaadein (1964 - writer); Aaj Aur Kal (1963 - writer); Akeli Mat Jaiyo (1963 - writer); Gumrah (1963 - writer); Aaj Aur Kal (1963 - writer); Akeli Mat Jaiyo (1963 - writer); Gumrah (1963 - writer); Neeli Aankhen (1962 - writer); Dharmputra (1961 - writer); Flat No. 9 (1961 - writer); Barood (1960 - writer); Kalpana (1960 - writer); Kanoon (1960 - writer); Nirdosh (1950 - writer); Actress (1948 - writer); and Jharna (1948) - writer).
Akhund-zada
Akhund-zada (1811-1878). The first writer of original plays in Azeri Turkish.
Akhund-zada (1811-1878). The first writer of original plays in Azeri Turkish.
Akhundzada, Hibatullah
Hibatullah Akhundzada (b. 1961) is a political and religious leader who is the third Supreme Commander of the Taliban and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. He was given the title Emir-al-Mumineen (Commander of the Faithful) by Taliban which is also the title which his two predecessors had carried.
From the Kandahar province, Akhundzada belongs to the Noorzai tribe. Akhundzada has lived in Afghanistan and Pakistan for many years.
Ahundzada is well-known for his fatwas on Taliban matters. He served as the head of the Sharia courts of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Unlike many Taliban leaders, Akhundzada is more of a religious leader than a military leader. In May 2016, Akhundzada was elected as the leader of the Taliban, following the killing of the previous leader, Akhtar Mansour, in a drone strike.
Akhundzada was born in 1961 in the Panjwayi district of Kandahar Province in the Kingdom of Afghanistan. A Pashtun, he belongs to the Noorzai clan or tribe. His first name, Hibatullah, means "gift from God" in Arabic. His father, Muhammad Akhund, was a religious scholar as well as the imam of their village mosque. Not owning any land or orchards of their own, the family depended on what the congregation paid his father in cash or in a portion of their crops. Akhundzada studied under his father. The family migrated to Quetta after the Soviet invasion. Akhundzada leads a number of madrasas, or religious schools, in Pakistan's southwestern Balochistan province.
In the 1980s, Akhundzada was involved in the resistance against the Soviet military campaign in Afghanistan. In 1994, he became one of the early members of the Taliban. After Farah Province was captured by the Taliban, Akhundzada was put in charge of fighting crime in the area. Later, he was appointed as the head of Taliban's military court in eastern Nangarhar province. Akhundzada also served as the deputy head of the Supreme Court. When the Taliban captured the capital Kabul in 1996, Akhundzada was appointed as a member of the Department of the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice. He later moved to Kandahar and was put in charge of the training of 100,000 students at Jihadi Madrasa, a seminary.
After the US-led coalition in 2001, Akhundzada became the head of the group's council of religious scholars. Akhundzada was later appointed as Chief Justice of the Sharia Courts of the Islamic Emirate of Aghanistan. Akhundzada also became the advisor of Mullah Omar. Rather than a military commander, he has a reputation as a religious leader who was responsible for issuing most of the Taliban's fatwas and settling religious issues among members of the Taliban. Both Mullah Omar and Mullah Mansour are known to have consulted Akhundzada on matters of fatwa.
Akhundzada is believed to have lived in Afghanistan throughout the 2001–2016 period with no travel record, though he has close ties with the Quetta-based Taliban Shura. After his promotion to deputy leader of the Taliban in 2015, Akhundzada put in place a system under which a commission would be formed under the shadow governor in every province that could investigate abusive commanders or fighters, according to Mullah Abdul Bari, a Taliban commander in Helmand.
Akhundzada was appointed as the Taliban supreme commander on 25 May 2016 as the replacement for Mullah Akhtar Mansour. Akhundzada was previously a deputy for Mansour. Mohammad Yaqoob and Sirajuddin Haqqani both worked as Akhundzada's deputies. According to sources from the Taliban, Mansour had already named Akhundzada as his successor in his will. Mullahs Abdul Razaq Akhund and Abdul Sata Akhund pledged their support to Akhundzada in December 2016.
Yousef Ahmadi, one of the Taliban's main spokesmen, stated on 20 July 2017 that Akhundzada's son Abdur Rahman was killed while carrying out a suicide attack on an Afghan military base in Gereshk in Helmand Province. An Afghan government official said that they were investigating the incident but could not confirm if Rahman was killed.
In May 2021, Akhundzada invited Afghan people to call for the withdrawal of the United States forces and for the development of an Islamic state. In August 2021, forces under Akhundzada's nominal command began a general offensive seeking to achieve a final victory in the war. During the leadership of Akhundzada, the United States troops withdrew, and the Taliban gained control of Kabul. On August,18, 2021 it was announced that based on the general amnesty issued by Akhundzada, “it was decided to release political detainees from all prisons of Afghanistan”. By that time, the Taliban had already taken control of key prisons across the country and freed thousands of inmates, including ISIS fighters, Al-Qaeda members and senior Taliban figures.
Akkoyunlu
Akkoyunlu. See Aq-Qoyunlu.
Akkoyunlu. See Aq-Qoyunlu.
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