Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al- (1854/1855-1902). Islamic revivalist and advocate of an Arab caliphate. Al-Kawakibi was born to a prominent family in Aleppo, Syria, and was educated in religion, Ottoman administrative law, Arabic, Turkish, and Farsi. He began his career in journalism and the law and from 1879 to 1896 held several senior public posts. After suffering from the intrigues of Ottoman officials, in 1898 al-Kawakibi fled to Egypt where he remained until his death in 1902.
Al-Kawakibi is best known for his two books Umm al-qura (The Mother of the Villages), one of the names of Mecca, and Taba’i‘ al-istibdad (The Attributes of Tyranny). He published them in Cairo under the pen names of al-Sayyid al-Furati and Traveller K, respectively, to avoid the harassment of the Ottoman authorities. Published in 1899, Umm al-qura is an account of the proceedings of a fictitious secret congress (The Congress of Islamic Revival) in Mecca attended by twenty-two Muslim delegates from Arab, Muslim, European, and Asian countries. The participants’ purpose was to discuss the causes of the decline of the Muslim peoples and design a reform program for their recovery.
Al-Kawakibi attributed this decline to religious, political, and moral factors. Influenced by the reform ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad ‘Abduh, he advocated a return to the original purity of Islam, which had been distorted by alien concepts and currents such as mysticism, fatalism, sectarian divisions, and imitation. These distortions had led to ignorance among the Muslims and their submission to stagnant theologians and despotic rulers who suppressed freedoms, promoted false religion, and corrupted the moral, social, educational, and financial systems of the Muslim nation.
Al-Kawakibi proposed the formation of a society, with branches throughout the Muslim world, to educate Muslims and promote in them the aspiration for progress. Holding non-Arabs, namely the Turks, accountable for the degeneration of Islam, he called for an Arab caliphate, which would exercise religious and cultural leadership, not temporal authority, and become the basis for the revival of Islam and an Islamic federation. He stipulated that the caliph be from the tribe of Quraysh, have limited powers, and be subject to election every three years and accountable to an elected council. He viewed the true Islamic state as one based on political freedoms and government accountability.
Alluding to the autocratic rule of the Ottomans, Taba’i‘ al-istibdad is an outright attack on tyranny. Al-Kawakibi discussed the nature of despotism and its devastating effects on society as a whole. A despotic state conducts the affairs of its citizens without fear of accountability or punishment, suppresses their rights, and prevents their education and enlightenment. Its purpose is to keep the people acquiescent and inactive. Consequently, it destroys their moral, religious, and national bonds. Al-Kawakibi advocated education and gradualism as the means to uproot tyranny.
Al-Kawakibi contributed greatly to the evolution of Arab nationalist thought. Unlike the proponents of Pan-Islam at the time, he drew a clear distinction between the Arab and non-Arab Muslims, exalted the former on the basis of their language, descent, and moral attributes, and explicitly called for an Arab state. His fictional congress in Umm al-qura inspired many reformers who later adopted the idea and put it into practice. Thus, he gave an organizational form and a political content to the cause of reform and to the Arabs’ aspiration for independence from the Ottomans. Al-Kawakibi was far from being a secularist. In his endorsement of an Arab spiritual leadership and a restricted caliphate, however, he separated the temporal and spiritual, a division that represented a break from classical Islamic thought.
'Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Sayyid al-Furati, al- see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Traveller K see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al- (1854/1855-1902). Islamic revivalist and advocate of an Arab caliphate. Al-Kawakibi was born to a prominent family in Aleppo, Syria, and was educated in religion, Ottoman administrative law, Arabic, Turkish, and Farsi. He began his career in journalism and the law and from 1879 to 1896 held several senior public posts. After suffering from the intrigues of Ottoman officials, in 1898 al-Kawakibi fled to Egypt where he remained until his death in 1902.
Al-Kawakibi is best known for his two books Umm al-qura (The Mother of the Villages), one of the names of Mecca, and Taba’i‘ al-istibdad (The Attributes of Tyranny). He published them in Cairo under the pen names of al-Sayyid al-Furati and Traveller K, respectively, to avoid the harassment of the Ottoman authorities. Published in 1899, Umm al-qura is an account of the proceedings of a fictitious secret congress (The Congress of Islamic Revival) in Mecca attended by twenty-two Muslim delegates from Arab, Muslim, European, and Asian countries. The participants’ purpose was to discuss the causes of the decline of the Muslim peoples and design a reform program for their recovery.
Al-Kawakibi attributed this decline to religious, political, and moral factors. Influenced by the reform ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad ‘Abduh, he advocated a return to the original purity of Islam, which had been distorted by alien concepts and currents such as mysticism, fatalism, sectarian divisions, and imitation. These distortions had led to ignorance among the Muslims and their submission to stagnant theologians and despotic rulers who suppressed freedoms, promoted false religion, and corrupted the moral, social, educational, and financial systems of the Muslim nation.
Al-Kawakibi proposed the formation of a society, with branches throughout the Muslim world, to educate Muslims and promote in them the aspiration for progress. Holding non-Arabs, namely the Turks, accountable for the degeneration of Islam, he called for an Arab caliphate, which would exercise religious and cultural leadership, not temporal authority, and become the basis for the revival of Islam and an Islamic federation. He stipulated that the caliph be from the tribe of Quraysh, have limited powers, and be subject to election every three years and accountable to an elected council. He viewed the true Islamic state as one based on political freedoms and government accountability.
Alluding to the autocratic rule of the Ottomans, Taba’i‘ al-istibdad is an outright attack on tyranny. Al-Kawakibi discussed the nature of despotism and its devastating effects on society as a whole. A despotic state conducts the affairs of its citizens without fear of accountability or punishment, suppresses their rights, and prevents their education and enlightenment. Its purpose is to keep the people acquiescent and inactive. Consequently, it destroys their moral, religious, and national bonds. Al-Kawakibi advocated education and gradualism as the means to uproot tyranny.
Al-Kawakibi contributed greatly to the evolution of Arab nationalist thought. Unlike the proponents of Pan-Islam at the time, he drew a clear distinction between the Arab and non-Arab Muslims, exalted the former on the basis of their language, descent, and moral attributes, and explicitly called for an Arab state. His fictional congress in Umm al-qura inspired many reformers who later adopted the idea and put it into practice. Thus, he gave an organizational form and a political content to the cause of reform and to the Arabs’ aspiration for independence from the Ottomans. Al-Kawakibi was far from being a secularist. In his endorsement of an Arab spiritual leadership and a restricted caliphate, however, he separated the temporal and spiritual, a division that represented a break from classical Islamic thought.
'Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Sayyid al-Furati, al- see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Traveller K see Kawakibi, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-
Kayacan, Feyyaz
Kayacan, Feyyaz (Feyyaz Kayacan) (1919-1993). Turkish poet.
Feyyaz Kayacan see Kayacan, Feyyaz
Kayacan, Feyyaz (Feyyaz Kayacan) (1919-1993). Turkish poet.
Feyyaz Kayacan see Kayacan, Feyyaz
Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal (Osman Cemal Kaygili) (1890, Istanbul - 1945, Istanbul). Turkish novelist, short story writer and humorous essayist. His works were inspired by traditional Turkish folk literature and enjoyed by large audiences.
The works of Osman Cemal Kaygili include:
Novels:
* Çingeneler (Gypsies) (1939)
* Aygır Fatma (Fatma Stallion) (1944)
* Bekri Mustafa (Sot Mustafa) (1944)
Stories:
* Eşkıya Güzeli (Miss bandit) (1925)
* Sandalım Geliyor Varda (My boat coming Varda) (1938)
* Altın Babası (Under his father) (1923)
* Bir Kış Gecesi (A Winter's Night) (1923)
* Çingene Kavgası (Gypsy Fight) (1925)
* Goncanın İntiharı (Bud's suicide) (1925)
'Othman Jemal Kaygili see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Kaygili, Osman Cemal see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Osman Cemal Kaygili see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal (Osman Cemal Kaygili) (1890, Istanbul - 1945, Istanbul). Turkish novelist, short story writer and humorous essayist. His works were inspired by traditional Turkish folk literature and enjoyed by large audiences.
The works of Osman Cemal Kaygili include:
Novels:
* Çingeneler (Gypsies) (1939)
* Aygır Fatma (Fatma Stallion) (1944)
* Bekri Mustafa (Sot Mustafa) (1944)
Stories:
* Eşkıya Güzeli (Miss bandit) (1925)
* Sandalım Geliyor Varda (My boat coming Varda) (1938)
* Altın Babası (Under his father) (1923)
* Bir Kış Gecesi (A Winter's Night) (1923)
* Çingene Kavgası (Gypsy Fight) (1925)
* Goncanın İntiharı (Bud's suicide) (1925)
'Othman Jemal Kaygili see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Kaygili, Osman Cemal see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Osman Cemal Kaygili see Kaygili, ‘Othman Jemal
Kayi
Kayi. Central Asian tribe from which the Ottomans claimed descent. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, was a member of the Kayi tribe.
Kayi. Central Asian tribe from which the Ottomans claimed descent. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, was a member of the Kayi tribe.
Kaykawus I
Kaykawus I (ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kāʾūs I) . Saljuq sultan of Rum (r.1211-1220). He combined a policy of peace towards the Greeks of Nicaea with interventions against the Armenians of Cilicia in the south, against Sinop on the Black Sea in the north, which he acquired, and against the Ayyubids in the east.
ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kāʾūs I see Kaykawus I
Kaykawus I (ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kāʾūs I) . Saljuq sultan of Rum (r.1211-1220). He combined a policy of peace towards the Greeks of Nicaea with interventions against the Armenians of Cilicia in the south, against Sinop on the Black Sea in the north, which he acquired, and against the Ayyubids in the east.
ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kāʾūs I see Kaykawus I
Kay Kawus ibn Iskandar
Kay Kawus ibn Iskandar. Prince of the Ziyarid dynasty in Persia during the eleventh century. He was the author of the well-known Mirror for Princes in Persian.
Kay Kawus ibn Iskandar. Prince of the Ziyarid dynasty in Persia during the eleventh century. He was the author of the well-known Mirror for Princes in Persian.
Kaykhusraw I
Kaykhusraw I (Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev). Saljuq (Seljuk) sultan of Rum (r.1192-1196 and 1204/1205-1210/1211). In 1207, he acquired Antalya, the first real maritime (Mediterranean) outlet of the Saljuqid state.
Kaykhusraw I (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev), the eleventh and youngest son of Kilij Arslan II, was Seljuk Sultan of Rum. He succeeded his father in 1192, but had to fight his brothers for control of the Sultanate. He ruled it 1192-1196 and 1205-1211.
He married a daughter of Manuel Maurozomes, son of Theodore Maurozomes and of an illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Manuel Maurozomes fought on behalf of Kaykhusraw in 1205 and 1206.
In 1207, he seized Antalya from its Frankish garrison and furnished the Seljuq state with a port on the Mediterranean.
Kaykhusraw I was killed in single combat by Theodore I Laskaris, the emperor of Nicaea, during the Battle of Antioch on the Meander.
His son by Manuel Maurozomes' daughter, Kayqubad I, ruled the Sultanate from 1220 to 1237, and his grandson, Kaykhusraw II, ruled from 1237 to 1246.
Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān see Kaykhusraw I
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw I
Kaykhusraw I (Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev). Saljuq (Seljuk) sultan of Rum (r.1192-1196 and 1204/1205-1210/1211). In 1207, he acquired Antalya, the first real maritime (Mediterranean) outlet of the Saljuqid state.
Kaykhusraw I (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev), the eleventh and youngest son of Kilij Arslan II, was Seljuk Sultan of Rum. He succeeded his father in 1192, but had to fight his brothers for control of the Sultanate. He ruled it 1192-1196 and 1205-1211.
He married a daughter of Manuel Maurozomes, son of Theodore Maurozomes and of an illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Manuel Maurozomes fought on behalf of Kaykhusraw in 1205 and 1206.
In 1207, he seized Antalya from its Frankish garrison and furnished the Seljuq state with a port on the Mediterranean.
Kaykhusraw I was killed in single combat by Theodore I Laskaris, the emperor of Nicaea, during the Battle of Antioch on the Meander.
His son by Manuel Maurozomes' daughter, Kayqubad I, ruled the Sultanate from 1220 to 1237, and his grandson, Kaykhusraw II, ruled from 1237 to 1246.
Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān see Kaykhusraw I
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw I
Kaykhusraw II
Kaykhusraw II (Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II) (Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev). Saljuq (Seljuk) (Seljuq) sultan of Rum (r.1237-1245). He (along with his Christian allies) was utterly defeated by the Mongols in 1243 at the Battle of Kose Dag.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II was the sultan of the Seljuqs of Rum from 1237 until his death in 1246. He ruled at the time of the Baba Ishak uprising and the Mongol invasion of Anatolia. He lead the Seljuq army with its Christian allies at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243. He was the last of the Seljuq sultans to wield any significant power and died a vassal of the Mongols.
Kaykhusraw was the son of Kayqubad I and his Armenian wife, the daughter of Kir Fard. Although Kaykhusraw was the eldest, the sultan had chosen as heir the younger ‘Izz al-Din, one of his two sons by an Ayyubid princess. In 1226 Kayqubad assigned the newly annexed Erzincan to Kaykhusraw. With the general Kamyar, the young prince participated in the conquest of Erzurum and later Ahlat.
In 1236-37, raiding Mongols assisted by the Georgians devastated the Anatolian countryside as far as the walls of Sivas and Malatya. Since the Mongol horsemen disappeared as quickly as they had come, Kayqubad moved to punish their Georgian allies. As the Seljuq army approached, Queen Russudan of Georgia sued for peace, offering her daughter Tamar in marriage to Kaykhusraw. This marriage took place in 1240.
Upon the death of Kayqubad in 1237, Kaykhusraw seized the throne with the support of the great emirs of Anatolia. The architect of his early reign was a certain Sa'd al-Din Köpek, master of the hunt and minister of works under Kayqubad. Köpek excelled at political murder and sought to protect his newfound influence at the court with a series of executions. He captured Diyarbekir from Ayyubids in 1241.
While the Mongols threatened the Seljuq state from the outside, a new danger appeared from within: a charismatic preacher, Baba Ishak, was fomenting rebellion among the Turkmen of Anatolia.
Nomadic Turkmen had begun moving into Anatolia a few years prior to the Battle of Manzikert. After 1071, Turkic migration into the region went largely unchecked. Both their number and the persuasive power of their religious leaders, nominally Islamized shamans known as babas or dedes, played a large part in the conversion of formerly Christian Anatolia. The Persianized Seljuq military class expended considerable effort keeping these nomads from invading areas inhabited by farmers and from harassing neighboring Christian states. The Turkmen were pushed into marginal lands, mostly mountainous and frontier districts.
Baba Ishak was one such religious leader. Unlike his predecessors, whose influence was limited to smaller tribal groups, Baba Ishak’s authority extended over a vast population of Anatolian Turkmen. It is not known what he preached, but his appropriation of the title rasul, normally applied to Muhammad, suggests something beyond orthodox Islam.
The revolt began around 1240 in the remote borderland of Kafarsud in the eastern Taurus Mountains and quickly spread north to the region of Amasya. Seljuq armies at Malatya and Amasya were destroyed. Soon the very heart of Seljuq Anatolia, the regions around Kayseri, Sivas, and Tokat, were under the control of Baba Ishak’s supporters. Baba Ishak himself was killed, but the Turkmen continued their rebellion against the central Seljuq authority. The rebels were finally cornered and defeated near Kırşehir, probably in 1242 or early 1243. Simon of Saint-Quentin credits the victory to a large number of Frankish mercenaries employed by the sultan.
In the winter of 1242-43, the Mongols under Bayju attacked Erzurum. The city fell without a siege. The Mongols prepared to invade Rum in the spring. To meet the threat, Kaykhusraw assembled soldiers from his allies and vassals. Simon of Saint-Quentin, an envoy of Pope Innocent IV on his way to the Great Khan, offers an account of the sultan’s preparations. He reports that the king of Armenia was required to produce 1400 lances and the Greek Emperor of Nicaea 400 lances. Both rulers met the sultan in Kayseri to negotiate details. The Grand Komnenos of Trebizond contributed 200, while the young Ayyubid prince of Aleppo supplied 1000 horsemen. In addition to these, Kaykhusraw commanded the Seljuq army and irregular Turkmen cavalry, though both had been weakened by the Baba Ishak rebellion.
The army, except for the Armenians who were then considering an alliance with (or submission to) the Mongols, assembled at Sivas. Kaykhusraw and his allies set out to the east along the trunk road towards Erzurum. On June 26, 1243, they met the Mongols at the pass at Köse Dağ, between Erzincan and Gümüşhane. A feigned retreat by the Mongol horsemen disorganized the Seljuqs, and Kaykhusraw’s army was routed. The sultan collected his treasury and harem at Tokat and fled to Ankara. The Mongols seized Sivas, sacked Kayseri, but failed to move on Konya, the capital of the sultanate.
In the months following the battle, Muhadhdhab al-Din, the sultan’s vizier, sought out the victorious Mongol leader. Since the sultan had fled, the diplomatic mission appears to have been the vizier’s own initiative. The vizier succeeded in forestalling further Mongol devastation in Anatolia and saved Kaykhusraw’s throne. Under conditions of vassalage and a substantial annual tribute, Kaykhusraw, his power much diminished, returned to Konya.
Kaykhusraw died leaving three sons: 'Izz al-Din Kaykaus, aged 11, son of the daughter of a Greek priest; 9-year-old Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan, son of a Turkish woman of Konya; and 'Ala al-Din Kayqubadh, son of the Georgian princess Tamar and at age 7 youngest of the three boys.
Kaykhusraw had named his youngest child Kayqubad as his successor, but because he was a weakly child, the new vizier Shams al-Din al-Isfahani placed Kayqubad's two underage brothers Kaykaus II and Kilij Arslan IV on the throne as well, as co-rulers. This was an attempt to maintain Seljuq control of Anatolia in the face of the Mongol threat.
Although weakened, Seljuq power remained largely intact at the time of Kaykhusraw’s death in 1246. The Mongols failed to capture either the sultan’s treasury or his capital when they had the chance, and his Anatolian lands escaped the worst of the invaders’ depredations. The real blow to the dynasty was Kaykhusraw's inability to name a competent successor. With the choice of the three young brothers, Seljuq power in Anatolia no longer lay with Seljuq princes but instead devolved into the hands of Seljuq court administrators.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II see Kaykhusraw II
Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād see Kaykhusraw II
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw II
Kaykhusraw II (Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II) (Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev). Saljuq (Seljuk) (Seljuq) sultan of Rum (r.1237-1245). He (along with his Christian allies) was utterly defeated by the Mongols in 1243 at the Battle of Kose Dag.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II was the sultan of the Seljuqs of Rum from 1237 until his death in 1246. He ruled at the time of the Baba Ishak uprising and the Mongol invasion of Anatolia. He lead the Seljuq army with its Christian allies at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243. He was the last of the Seljuq sultans to wield any significant power and died a vassal of the Mongols.
Kaykhusraw was the son of Kayqubad I and his Armenian wife, the daughter of Kir Fard. Although Kaykhusraw was the eldest, the sultan had chosen as heir the younger ‘Izz al-Din, one of his two sons by an Ayyubid princess. In 1226 Kayqubad assigned the newly annexed Erzincan to Kaykhusraw. With the general Kamyar, the young prince participated in the conquest of Erzurum and later Ahlat.
In 1236-37, raiding Mongols assisted by the Georgians devastated the Anatolian countryside as far as the walls of Sivas and Malatya. Since the Mongol horsemen disappeared as quickly as they had come, Kayqubad moved to punish their Georgian allies. As the Seljuq army approached, Queen Russudan of Georgia sued for peace, offering her daughter Tamar in marriage to Kaykhusraw. This marriage took place in 1240.
Upon the death of Kayqubad in 1237, Kaykhusraw seized the throne with the support of the great emirs of Anatolia. The architect of his early reign was a certain Sa'd al-Din Köpek, master of the hunt and minister of works under Kayqubad. Köpek excelled at political murder and sought to protect his newfound influence at the court with a series of executions. He captured Diyarbekir from Ayyubids in 1241.
While the Mongols threatened the Seljuq state from the outside, a new danger appeared from within: a charismatic preacher, Baba Ishak, was fomenting rebellion among the Turkmen of Anatolia.
Nomadic Turkmen had begun moving into Anatolia a few years prior to the Battle of Manzikert. After 1071, Turkic migration into the region went largely unchecked. Both their number and the persuasive power of their religious leaders, nominally Islamized shamans known as babas or dedes, played a large part in the conversion of formerly Christian Anatolia. The Persianized Seljuq military class expended considerable effort keeping these nomads from invading areas inhabited by farmers and from harassing neighboring Christian states. The Turkmen were pushed into marginal lands, mostly mountainous and frontier districts.
Baba Ishak was one such religious leader. Unlike his predecessors, whose influence was limited to smaller tribal groups, Baba Ishak’s authority extended over a vast population of Anatolian Turkmen. It is not known what he preached, but his appropriation of the title rasul, normally applied to Muhammad, suggests something beyond orthodox Islam.
The revolt began around 1240 in the remote borderland of Kafarsud in the eastern Taurus Mountains and quickly spread north to the region of Amasya. Seljuq armies at Malatya and Amasya were destroyed. Soon the very heart of Seljuq Anatolia, the regions around Kayseri, Sivas, and Tokat, were under the control of Baba Ishak’s supporters. Baba Ishak himself was killed, but the Turkmen continued their rebellion against the central Seljuq authority. The rebels were finally cornered and defeated near Kırşehir, probably in 1242 or early 1243. Simon of Saint-Quentin credits the victory to a large number of Frankish mercenaries employed by the sultan.
In the winter of 1242-43, the Mongols under Bayju attacked Erzurum. The city fell without a siege. The Mongols prepared to invade Rum in the spring. To meet the threat, Kaykhusraw assembled soldiers from his allies and vassals. Simon of Saint-Quentin, an envoy of Pope Innocent IV on his way to the Great Khan, offers an account of the sultan’s preparations. He reports that the king of Armenia was required to produce 1400 lances and the Greek Emperor of Nicaea 400 lances. Both rulers met the sultan in Kayseri to negotiate details. The Grand Komnenos of Trebizond contributed 200, while the young Ayyubid prince of Aleppo supplied 1000 horsemen. In addition to these, Kaykhusraw commanded the Seljuq army and irregular Turkmen cavalry, though both had been weakened by the Baba Ishak rebellion.
The army, except for the Armenians who were then considering an alliance with (or submission to) the Mongols, assembled at Sivas. Kaykhusraw and his allies set out to the east along the trunk road towards Erzurum. On June 26, 1243, they met the Mongols at the pass at Köse Dağ, between Erzincan and Gümüşhane. A feigned retreat by the Mongol horsemen disorganized the Seljuqs, and Kaykhusraw’s army was routed. The sultan collected his treasury and harem at Tokat and fled to Ankara. The Mongols seized Sivas, sacked Kayseri, but failed to move on Konya, the capital of the sultanate.
In the months following the battle, Muhadhdhab al-Din, the sultan’s vizier, sought out the victorious Mongol leader. Since the sultan had fled, the diplomatic mission appears to have been the vizier’s own initiative. The vizier succeeded in forestalling further Mongol devastation in Anatolia and saved Kaykhusraw’s throne. Under conditions of vassalage and a substantial annual tribute, Kaykhusraw, his power much diminished, returned to Konya.
Kaykhusraw died leaving three sons: 'Izz al-Din Kaykaus, aged 11, son of the daughter of a Greek priest; 9-year-old Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan, son of a Turkish woman of Konya; and 'Ala al-Din Kayqubadh, son of the Georgian princess Tamar and at age 7 youngest of the three boys.
Kaykhusraw had named his youngest child Kayqubad as his successor, but because he was a weakly child, the new vizier Shams al-Din al-Isfahani placed Kayqubad's two underage brothers Kaykaus II and Kilij Arslan IV on the throne as well, as co-rulers. This was an attempt to maintain Seljuq control of Anatolia in the face of the Mongol threat.
Although weakened, Seljuq power remained largely intact at the time of Kaykhusraw’s death in 1246. The Mongols failed to capture either the sultan’s treasury or his capital when they had the chance, and his Anatolian lands escaped the worst of the invaders’ depredations. The real blow to the dynasty was Kaykhusraw's inability to name a competent successor. With the choice of the three young brothers, Seljuq power in Anatolia no longer lay with Seljuq princes but instead devolved into the hands of Seljuq court administrators.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II see Kaykhusraw II
Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād see Kaykhusraw II
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw II
Kaykhusraw III
Kaykhusraw III (Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw ibn Qilij Arslan) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev) (d. March 1284). Saljuq (Seljuq) sultan of Rum (r.1265-1284). He reigned in name only under the tutelage of the Mongols or their lieutenants. In 1283, he was co-opted by the Mongol Kangirtay in a revolt against his brother, the new Ilkhan sovereign Ahmad. Kaykhusraw III was executed in March of 1284.
Kaykhusraw III was between two and six years old when in 1265 he was named Seljuq Sultan of Rum. He was the son of Kilij Arslan IV, the weak representative of the Seljuq line who was controlled by the Pervane, Mu’in al-Din Suleyman.
The Pervane, quarreling with the father of the sultan and empowered by the Mongol khan Abagha to deal with his Turkish subjects however he liked, had Kilij Arslan strangled in 1265. The young Kaykhusraw became no more than a figurehead. He played no part in the events of his reign which were dominated first by the Pervane and later by the Mongol vizier of Rum, Fakhr al-Din Ali. In 1283 Kaykhusraw was co-opted by the Mongol Kangirtay in a revolt against his brother, the new Ilkhan sovereign Ahmad. He was executed in March of 1284. Kaykhusraw III was the last Seljuq sultan buried in the dynastic mausoleum at the Alaeddin Camii in Konya.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw ibn Qilij Arslan see Kaykhusraw III
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw III
Kaykhusraw III (Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw ibn Qilij Arslan) (Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev) (d. March 1284). Saljuq (Seljuq) sultan of Rum (r.1265-1284). He reigned in name only under the tutelage of the Mongols or their lieutenants. In 1283, he was co-opted by the Mongol Kangirtay in a revolt against his brother, the new Ilkhan sovereign Ahmad. Kaykhusraw III was executed in March of 1284.
Kaykhusraw III was between two and six years old when in 1265 he was named Seljuq Sultan of Rum. He was the son of Kilij Arslan IV, the weak representative of the Seljuq line who was controlled by the Pervane, Mu’in al-Din Suleyman.
The Pervane, quarreling with the father of the sultan and empowered by the Mongol khan Abagha to deal with his Turkish subjects however he liked, had Kilij Arslan strangled in 1265. The young Kaykhusraw became no more than a figurehead. He played no part in the events of his reign which were dominated first by the Pervane and later by the Mongol vizier of Rum, Fakhr al-Din Ali. In 1283 Kaykhusraw was co-opted by the Mongol Kangirtay in a revolt against his brother, the new Ilkhan sovereign Ahmad. He was executed in March of 1284. Kaykhusraw III was the last Seljuq sultan buried in the dynastic mausoleum at the Alaeddin Camii in Konya.
Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw ibn Qilij Arslan see Kaykhusraw III
Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev see Kaykhusraw III
Kayqubad II
Kayqubad II ('Ala al-Din Kayqubad ibn Kaykhusraw) (Alâeddin Keykubad) . Saljuq (Seljuk) sultan of Rum (r.1249-1257).
Kayqubad II was the youngest of the three sons of the Seljuq Sultan of Rum Kaykhusraw II. As son of the sultan’s favorite wife, the Georgian princess Tamar, he was designated heir. He had a weak constitution and was likely seven years old at the time of his father’s death in 1246.
The vizier Shams al-Din al-Isfahani, seeking to defend a degree of Seljuk sovereignty in Anatolia from the Mongols, put Kayqubad on the throne together with his two elder brothers, Kaykaus II and Kilij Arslan IV.
In 1254 the Mongols asked that Kaykaus, then nineteen years old, come in person to Möngke, the Great Khan. The brothers, at a conference in Kayseri, decided that Kayqubad should go in his stead. The voyage to Möngke’s capital at Karakhorum would be arduous. Kayqubad delayed his trip until 1256. He witnessed Bayju assembling his horsemen for the migration to Anatolia and sent messages advising his brothers to comply with the Mongol’s demands. One day on the road Kayqubad was found dead. The vizier Baba Tughra’i, who had joined the embassy in route, was accused but nothing came of it. Kayqubad was buried somewhere in the wastelands between Anatolia and Mongolia.
'Ala al-Din Kayqubad ibn Kaykhusraw see Kayqubad II
Alâeddin Keykubad see Kayqubad II
Kayqubad II ('Ala al-Din Kayqubad ibn Kaykhusraw) (Alâeddin Keykubad) . Saljuq (Seljuk) sultan of Rum (r.1249-1257).
Kayqubad II was the youngest of the three sons of the Seljuq Sultan of Rum Kaykhusraw II. As son of the sultan’s favorite wife, the Georgian princess Tamar, he was designated heir. He had a weak constitution and was likely seven years old at the time of his father’s death in 1246.
The vizier Shams al-Din al-Isfahani, seeking to defend a degree of Seljuk sovereignty in Anatolia from the Mongols, put Kayqubad on the throne together with his two elder brothers, Kaykaus II and Kilij Arslan IV.
In 1254 the Mongols asked that Kaykaus, then nineteen years old, come in person to Möngke, the Great Khan. The brothers, at a conference in Kayseri, decided that Kayqubad should go in his stead. The voyage to Möngke’s capital at Karakhorum would be arduous. Kayqubad delayed his trip until 1256. He witnessed Bayju assembling his horsemen for the migration to Anatolia and sent messages advising his brothers to comply with the Mongol’s demands. One day on the road Kayqubad was found dead. The vizier Baba Tughra’i, who had joined the embassy in route, was accused but nothing came of it. Kayqubad was buried somewhere in the wastelands between Anatolia and Mongolia.
'Ala al-Din Kayqubad ibn Kaykhusraw see Kayqubad II
Alâeddin Keykubad see Kayqubad II
Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din (‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubad I) ('Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykā'ūs) (Alâeddin Keykubad). Saljuq sultan of Rum (r.1220-1237). His foreign policy made his dynasty one of the most powerful of his time. In the south he occupied a great part of the Cilician Taurus, on the Black Sea in the north he assured a Saljuq protectorate over the Crimean harbor of Sughdaq, and in the east he annexed the Artuqid possessions on the right bank of the Middle Euphrates. He defeated the Khwarazmians and, in 1233, the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Kamil I.
Kayqubad I was the Seljuk Sultan of Rum who reigned from 1220 to 1237. He expanded the borders of the sultanate at the expense of his neighbors, particularly the Mengujek emirate and the Ayyubids, and established a Seljuk presence on the Mediterranean with his acquisition of the port of Kalon Oros, later renamed Ala'iyya in his honor. He also brought the southern Crimea under Turkish control for a brief period as a result of a raid against the Black Sea port of Sudak. The sultan, sometimes styled "Kayqubad the Great," is remembered today for his rich architectural legacy and the brilliant court culture that flourished under his reign.
Kayqubad's reign represented the apogee of Seljuk power and influence in Anatolia, and Kayqubad himself was considered the most illustrious prince of the dynasty. In the period following the mid-13th century Mongol invasion, inhabitants of Anatolia frequently looked back on his reign as a golden age, while the new rulers of the Turkish beyliks sought to justify their own authority through pedigrees traced to him.
Kayqubad was the second son of Sultan Kaykhusraw I, who bestowed upon him at an early age the title malik and the governorship of the important central Anatolian town of Tokat. When the sultan died following the battle of Alaşehir in 1211, both Kayqubad and his elder brother Kaykaus struggled for the throne. Kayqubad initially garnered some support among the neighbors of the sultanate: Leo I, the king of Cilician Armenia and Tughrilshah, the brothers' uncle and the independent ruler of Erzurum. Most of the emirs, as the powerful landed aristocracy of the sultanate, supported Kaykaus. Kayqubad was forced to flee to the fortress at Ankara, where he sought aid from the Turkman tribes of Kastamonu. He was soon apprehended and imprisoned by his brother in a fortress in western Anatolia.
Upon Kaykaus' unexpected death in 1219 (or 1220), Kayqubad, released from captivity, succeeded to the throne of the sultanate.
In foreign policy, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was reduced and became a vassal of the sultanate. The sultan settled Turcomans along the Taurus Mountains frontier, in a region later called İçel. At the end of the 13th century, these Turcomans established the Karamanoğlu beylik.
In 1227/1228, Kayqubad advanced into eastern Anatolia, where the arrival of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, who was fleeing the destruction of his Khwarezmian Empire by the Mongols, had created an unstable political situation. The sultan defeated the Artukids and the Ayyubids and absorbed the Mengujek emirate into the sultanate, capturing the fortresses of Hısn Mansur, Kahta, and Çemişgezek along his march. He also put down a revolt by the Empire of Trebizond and, although he fell short of capturing their capital, forced the Komnenos dynasty family to renew their pledges of vassalage.
At first Kayqubad sought an alliance with his Turkish kinsman Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu against the Mongol threat. The alliance could not be achieved, and afterwards Jalal ad-Din took the important fortress at Ahlat. Kayqubad finally defeated him at the Battle of Yassıçimen between Sivas and Erzincan in 1230. After his victory, he advanced further east, establishing Seljuk rule over Erzurum, Ahlat and the region of Lake Van (formerly part of Ayyubids). The Artukids of Diyarbekir and the Ayyubids of Syria recognized his sovereignty. He also captured a number of fortresses in Georgia, whose queen sued for peace and gave her daughter Tamar in marriage to Kayqubad's son, Kaykhusraw II.
Mindful of the increasing presence and power of the Mongols on the borders of the Sultanate of Rum, he strengthened the defenses and fortresses in his eastern provinces. He died at an early age in 1237, the last of his line to die in independence.
Kayqubad had three sons:'Izz al-Din, son of his Ayyubid wife; Rukn al-Din, son of his Ayyubid wife; and Kaykhusraw II, the eldest. Kayqubad originally had his subjects swear allegiance to his son Izz al-Din, but the emirs generally preferred to rally behind the more powerful Kaykhusraw. With no clear successor, conflict broke out between the various factions upon Kayqubad's death.
Kayqubad sponsored a large scale building campaign across Anatolia. Apart from reconstructing towns and fortresses, he built many mosques, medreses, caravanserais, bridges and hospitals, many of which are preserved to this day. Besides completing the construction of the Seljuk Palace in Konya, he also built the Kubadabad Palace on the shore of Lake Beyşehir and Keykubadiye Palace near Kayseri.
'Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykā'ūs see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
Alâeddin Keykubad see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din (‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubad I) ('Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykā'ūs) (Alâeddin Keykubad). Saljuq sultan of Rum (r.1220-1237). His foreign policy made his dynasty one of the most powerful of his time. In the south he occupied a great part of the Cilician Taurus, on the Black Sea in the north he assured a Saljuq protectorate over the Crimean harbor of Sughdaq, and in the east he annexed the Artuqid possessions on the right bank of the Middle Euphrates. He defeated the Khwarazmians and, in 1233, the Ayyubid al-Malik al-Kamil I.
Kayqubad I was the Seljuk Sultan of Rum who reigned from 1220 to 1237. He expanded the borders of the sultanate at the expense of his neighbors, particularly the Mengujek emirate and the Ayyubids, and established a Seljuk presence on the Mediterranean with his acquisition of the port of Kalon Oros, later renamed Ala'iyya in his honor. He also brought the southern Crimea under Turkish control for a brief period as a result of a raid against the Black Sea port of Sudak. The sultan, sometimes styled "Kayqubad the Great," is remembered today for his rich architectural legacy and the brilliant court culture that flourished under his reign.
Kayqubad's reign represented the apogee of Seljuk power and influence in Anatolia, and Kayqubad himself was considered the most illustrious prince of the dynasty. In the period following the mid-13th century Mongol invasion, inhabitants of Anatolia frequently looked back on his reign as a golden age, while the new rulers of the Turkish beyliks sought to justify their own authority through pedigrees traced to him.
Kayqubad was the second son of Sultan Kaykhusraw I, who bestowed upon him at an early age the title malik and the governorship of the important central Anatolian town of Tokat. When the sultan died following the battle of Alaşehir in 1211, both Kayqubad and his elder brother Kaykaus struggled for the throne. Kayqubad initially garnered some support among the neighbors of the sultanate: Leo I, the king of Cilician Armenia and Tughrilshah, the brothers' uncle and the independent ruler of Erzurum. Most of the emirs, as the powerful landed aristocracy of the sultanate, supported Kaykaus. Kayqubad was forced to flee to the fortress at Ankara, where he sought aid from the Turkman tribes of Kastamonu. He was soon apprehended and imprisoned by his brother in a fortress in western Anatolia.
Upon Kaykaus' unexpected death in 1219 (or 1220), Kayqubad, released from captivity, succeeded to the throne of the sultanate.
In foreign policy, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was reduced and became a vassal of the sultanate. The sultan settled Turcomans along the Taurus Mountains frontier, in a region later called İçel. At the end of the 13th century, these Turcomans established the Karamanoğlu beylik.
In 1227/1228, Kayqubad advanced into eastern Anatolia, where the arrival of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, who was fleeing the destruction of his Khwarezmian Empire by the Mongols, had created an unstable political situation. The sultan defeated the Artukids and the Ayyubids and absorbed the Mengujek emirate into the sultanate, capturing the fortresses of Hısn Mansur, Kahta, and Çemişgezek along his march. He also put down a revolt by the Empire of Trebizond and, although he fell short of capturing their capital, forced the Komnenos dynasty family to renew their pledges of vassalage.
At first Kayqubad sought an alliance with his Turkish kinsman Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu against the Mongol threat. The alliance could not be achieved, and afterwards Jalal ad-Din took the important fortress at Ahlat. Kayqubad finally defeated him at the Battle of Yassıçimen between Sivas and Erzincan in 1230. After his victory, he advanced further east, establishing Seljuk rule over Erzurum, Ahlat and the region of Lake Van (formerly part of Ayyubids). The Artukids of Diyarbekir and the Ayyubids of Syria recognized his sovereignty. He also captured a number of fortresses in Georgia, whose queen sued for peace and gave her daughter Tamar in marriage to Kayqubad's son, Kaykhusraw II.
Mindful of the increasing presence and power of the Mongols on the borders of the Sultanate of Rum, he strengthened the defenses and fortresses in his eastern provinces. He died at an early age in 1237, the last of his line to die in independence.
Kayqubad had three sons:'Izz al-Din, son of his Ayyubid wife; Rukn al-Din, son of his Ayyubid wife; and Kaykhusraw II, the eldest. Kayqubad originally had his subjects swear allegiance to his son Izz al-Din, but the emirs generally preferred to rally behind the more powerful Kaykhusraw. With no clear successor, conflict broke out between the various factions upon Kayqubad's death.
Kayqubad sponsored a large scale building campaign across Anatolia. Apart from reconstructing towns and fortresses, he built many mosques, medreses, caravanserais, bridges and hospitals, many of which are preserved to this day. Besides completing the construction of the Seljuk Palace in Konya, he also built the Kubadabad Palace on the shore of Lake Beyşehir and Keykubadiye Palace near Kayseri.
'Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykā'ūs see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
Alâeddin Keykubad see Kayqubad I, ‘Ala’ al-Din
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