Shaaban Robert
Shaaban Robert (Shaaban bin Robert) (b. January 1, 1909, Tanga, German East Africa - d. June 22, 1962, Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika). Tanzanian poet. Born near Tanga and educated at Dar-es-Salaam, Shaaban Robert spent all his life on or near the East African coast, much of the time in government service. Shaaban Robert’s father converted to Christianity during the German occupation of Tanganyika (now Tanzania). However, Shaaban Robert remained a Muslim and lived in a sub-stratum largely divorced from colonial rule.
Shaaban bin Robert, also known as Shaaban Robert, was a Tanzanian poet, author, and essayist who supported the preservation of African verse traditions. He was born in Vibamba in the country's Tanga Region. Robert is thought of as a great Swahili thinker and writer in East Africa and has been called "poet laureate of Swahili" and the "Father of Swahili."
As a school teacher, Shaaban Robert published a considerable body of poetry and prose. All of his work was in the Swahili language. His contribution to modern Swahili literature was recognized in 1960 by the award of the Margaret Wrong Medal and Prize.
Shaaban Robert’s early published works include Pambo la lugha (“The Embellishment of Language”), published in 1947, and the autobiographical Maisha yangu (“My Life”), which was published in 1949. These were followed by Kusadikika (1951), an allegory after the style of Gulliver’s Travels of present day political trends as seen by a Tanzanian. This is perhaps his best work.
In 1952, Shaaban Robert produced a Swahili translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. His later publications comprise Adili na nduguze (“Adili and His Brothers”) (1952); Kielezo cha insha (1952); Siti bint saad, a biography of the Zanzibari singer Siti Bint Saad (1960); and the didactic Masomo yenye adili (“Readings in Behavior”) (1959); also Almasi za Afrika (“African Diamonds”) (1960); and Insha na mashairi (“Essays and Poems”) (1961).
Shaaban Robert’s poems drew upon traditional Swahili verse forms. He treated a broad spectrum of modern themes, which gave his works a universal appeal.
Shaaban Robert’s greatest poetic work was the posthumously published Utenzi wa Vita vya Uhuru (“epic of the war of freedom”) about World War II.
Shaaban Robert was a pious Muslim, and some of his prose writing is marred by an excess of moralization.
Shaaban Robert was the product of two cultures—his father was a Christian, but Shaaban returned to Islam. His work ranges from poetry to essay and didactic tale, influenced in style by the Oriental tradition. Many poems follow the form of utendi verse (used for narration and didactic themes), but, like his famous predecessor, Muyaka bin Haji al-Ghassaniy, he often employed other traditional and experimental forms. His prose style is clear and concrete and strongly individual in expression.
In addition to his poems and tales, Robert produced an autobiography, Maisha yangu (1949; “My Life”), and a biography, Maisha ya Siti Binti Saad, mwimbaji wa Unguja (1958; “Life of Siti Binti Saad, Poetess of Zanzibar”). His essays on many subjects were collected in Insha ya mashairi (1959; “Essays and Poems”). He lectured on poetry and its relation to Swahili culture and strongly supported the movement to preserve African verse traditions of the past. The first volume of his complete works, Diwani ya Shaaban, appeared in 1966.
Robert, Shaaban see Shaaban Robert
Shaaban bin Robert see Shaaban Robert
Robert, Shaabin bin see Shaaban Robert
The Poet Laureate of Swahili see Shaaban Robert
Shaaban bin Robert, also known as Shaaban Robert, was a Tanzanian poet, author, and essayist who supported the preservation of African verse traditions. He was born in Vibamba in the country's Tanga Region. Robert is thought of as a great Swahili thinker and writer in East Africa and has been called "poet laureate of Swahili" and the "Father of Swahili."
As a school teacher, Shaaban Robert published a considerable body of poetry and prose. All of his work was in the Swahili language. His contribution to modern Swahili literature was recognized in 1960 by the award of the Margaret Wrong Medal and Prize.
Shaaban Robert’s early published works include Pambo la lugha (“The Embellishment of Language”), published in 1947, and the autobiographical Maisha yangu (“My Life”), which was published in 1949. These were followed by Kusadikika (1951), an allegory after the style of Gulliver’s Travels of present day political trends as seen by a Tanzanian. This is perhaps his best work.
In 1952, Shaaban Robert produced a Swahili translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. His later publications comprise Adili na nduguze (“Adili and His Brothers”) (1952); Kielezo cha insha (1952); Siti bint saad, a biography of the Zanzibari singer Siti Bint Saad (1960); and the didactic Masomo yenye adili (“Readings in Behavior”) (1959); also Almasi za Afrika (“African Diamonds”) (1960); and Insha na mashairi (“Essays and Poems”) (1961).
Shaaban Robert’s poems drew upon traditional Swahili verse forms. He treated a broad spectrum of modern themes, which gave his works a universal appeal.
Shaaban Robert’s greatest poetic work was the posthumously published Utenzi wa Vita vya Uhuru (“epic of the war of freedom”) about World War II.
Shaaban Robert was a pious Muslim, and some of his prose writing is marred by an excess of moralization.
Shaaban Robert was the product of two cultures—his father was a Christian, but Shaaban returned to Islam. His work ranges from poetry to essay and didactic tale, influenced in style by the Oriental tradition. Many poems follow the form of utendi verse (used for narration and didactic themes), but, like his famous predecessor, Muyaka bin Haji al-Ghassaniy, he often employed other traditional and experimental forms. His prose style is clear and concrete and strongly individual in expression.
In addition to his poems and tales, Robert produced an autobiography, Maisha yangu (1949; “My Life”), and a biography, Maisha ya Siti Binti Saad, mwimbaji wa Unguja (1958; “Life of Siti Binti Saad, Poetess of Zanzibar”). His essays on many subjects were collected in Insha ya mashairi (1959; “Essays and Poems”). He lectured on poetry and its relation to Swahili culture and strongly supported the movement to preserve African verse traditions of the past. The first volume of his complete works, Diwani ya Shaaban, appeared in 1966.
Robert, Shaaban see Shaaban Robert
Shaaban bin Robert see Shaaban Robert
Robert, Shaabin bin see Shaaban Robert
The Poet Laureate of Swahili see Shaaban Robert
The Father of Swahili see Shaaban Robert
Shabak
Shabak. Religious community of Kurdish origin near Mosul. They are related to the Yazidis, and show a particular devotion to the Prophet’s son-in-law ‘Ali.
The Shabak people are an religious minority group living in northern Iraq, who live mainly in the villages of Ali Rash, Khazna, Yangidja and Tallara in Sinjar district in the province of Ninawa in northern Iraq. Many Bajalans are also found in Armenia. Their language, Shabaki, is a Northwestern Iranian language. The Shabak people are scattered in 35 villages located in the east of Mosul.
Shabaks follow an independent religion, related to but distinct from Islam and Christianity. It contains elements of Islam, and Christianity and other Pagan religions. There is a close affinity between the Shabak and the Yazidis. For example, Shabaks perform pilgrimage to Yazidi shrines. The Shabaks have a sacred book called the Buyruk written in Iraqi Turkmen colloquial. The Shabaks consist of three different ta'ifs or sects: the Bajalan, the Zengana, and the Shabak proper.
The geographical spread of Shabak people has been largely changed due to the massive deportations in the notorious Al-Anfal Campaign in 1988 and the refugee crisis in 1991. Many Shabaks along with Zengana (Kurdish group) and Hawrami (Kurdish group) were relocated and deported to concentration camps (mujamma'at in Arabic) far away from their original homeland. Despite all these actions, Iraqi government efforts at forced assimilation and Arabization, as well as religious persecution of Shabaks has put them under increasing pressure.
The distinctive features of the Shabak culture is due to their special religious beliefs and practices. Shabaks combine elements of Sufism with their own interpretation of divine reality, which according to them, is more advanced than the literal interpretation of the Qur'an known as Sharia. Shabak spiritual guides are known as pir, who are individuals well versed in the prayers and rituals of the sect. Pirs themselves are under the leadership of the Supreme Head or Baba. Pirs act as mediators between Divine power and ordinary Shabaks. Their beliefs form a syncretic system with such features as private and public confession and allowing consumption of alcoholic beverages. This last feature makes them distinct from the neighboring Muslim populations. The beliefs of the Yarsan closely resemble those of the Shabak people.
Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Kurds have opened KDP offices and raised the flag of Kurdistan in Shabak villages. It is alleged that Iraqi Kurdistan wants to annex Shabak villages and the eastern side of Mosul (Nineveh Plains) into its territory. There have also been allegations of voter fraud and intimidation of Shabaks and other minority groups such as Assyrians, Turcoman, Mandeans and Armenians by Kurdish authorities in Ninawa Governorate.
On August 15, 2005 in Bartella, two Assyrians were killed and four Shabaks were wounded by the Pêşmerge forces in a demonstration organized by the Democratic Shabak Coalition which wants separate representation for the Shabak community.
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, in the Mosul area alone, 1,000 Shabaks were killed, mostly by Sunni Arab militants. A further 4,000 Shabaks in Mosul were driven from their homes. The number of Shabak deaths in Iraq approached genocide levels, as was the case for many of Iraq's minority groups (Turkmens, Yazidis (Kurdish religion), Palestinians, Assyrians, Armenians, Mandeans and many others).
The Shabaks have representatives in the mainly Assyrian Christian dominated Bakhdida, Bartella, Basheqa, Tel Keppe and Nimrod municipalities of the Ninawa Governorate.
The Shabak people are an religious minority group living in northern Iraq, who live mainly in the villages of Ali Rash, Khazna, Yangidja and Tallara in Sinjar district in the province of Ninawa in northern Iraq. Many Bajalans are also found in Armenia. Their language, Shabaki, is a Northwestern Iranian language. The Shabak people are scattered in 35 villages located in the east of Mosul.
Shabaks follow an independent religion, related to but distinct from Islam and Christianity. It contains elements of Islam, and Christianity and other Pagan religions. There is a close affinity between the Shabak and the Yazidis. For example, Shabaks perform pilgrimage to Yazidi shrines. The Shabaks have a sacred book called the Buyruk written in Iraqi Turkmen colloquial. The Shabaks consist of three different ta'ifs or sects: the Bajalan, the Zengana, and the Shabak proper.
The geographical spread of Shabak people has been largely changed due to the massive deportations in the notorious Al-Anfal Campaign in 1988 and the refugee crisis in 1991. Many Shabaks along with Zengana (Kurdish group) and Hawrami (Kurdish group) were relocated and deported to concentration camps (mujamma'at in Arabic) far away from their original homeland. Despite all these actions, Iraqi government efforts at forced assimilation and Arabization, as well as religious persecution of Shabaks has put them under increasing pressure.
The distinctive features of the Shabak culture is due to their special religious beliefs and practices. Shabaks combine elements of Sufism with their own interpretation of divine reality, which according to them, is more advanced than the literal interpretation of the Qur'an known as Sharia. Shabak spiritual guides are known as pir, who are individuals well versed in the prayers and rituals of the sect. Pirs themselves are under the leadership of the Supreme Head or Baba. Pirs act as mediators between Divine power and ordinary Shabaks. Their beliefs form a syncretic system with such features as private and public confession and allowing consumption of alcoholic beverages. This last feature makes them distinct from the neighboring Muslim populations. The beliefs of the Yarsan closely resemble those of the Shabak people.
Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Kurds have opened KDP offices and raised the flag of Kurdistan in Shabak villages. It is alleged that Iraqi Kurdistan wants to annex Shabak villages and the eastern side of Mosul (Nineveh Plains) into its territory. There have also been allegations of voter fraud and intimidation of Shabaks and other minority groups such as Assyrians, Turcoman, Mandeans and Armenians by Kurdish authorities in Ninawa Governorate.
On August 15, 2005 in Bartella, two Assyrians were killed and four Shabaks were wounded by the Pêşmerge forces in a demonstration organized by the Democratic Shabak Coalition which wants separate representation for the Shabak community.
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, in the Mosul area alone, 1,000 Shabaks were killed, mostly by Sunni Arab militants. A further 4,000 Shabaks in Mosul were driven from their homes. The number of Shabak deaths in Iraq approached genocide levels, as was the case for many of Iraq's minority groups (Turkmens, Yazidis (Kurdish religion), Palestinians, Assyrians, Armenians, Mandeans and many others).
The Shabaks have representatives in the mainly Assyrian Christian dominated Bakhdida, Bartella, Basheqa, Tel Keppe and Nimrod municipalities of the Ninawa Governorate.
Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din (Al-Ashraf Sha'ban) (Al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban) (Shaban II). Bahri Mameluke sultan (r.1363-1376). His reign was marked by frequent attacks by Frankish fleets on Alexandria and Tripolis. Peace was concluded in 1370. In 1374, the Egyptians attacked Little Armenia, which became a permanent Muslim possession. The frontier town of Aswan was destroyed by the rebellious Nubians.
Al-Ashraf Sha'ban was a grandson of Al-Nasir Muhammad. He had two sons who succeeded him: al-Mansur Ali and al-Salih Hajji.
Ashraf Sha'ban, al- see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Shaban II see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din (Al-Ashraf Sha'ban) (Al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban) (Shaban II). Bahri Mameluke sultan (r.1363-1376). His reign was marked by frequent attacks by Frankish fleets on Alexandria and Tripolis. Peace was concluded in 1370. In 1374, the Egyptians attacked Little Armenia, which became a permanent Muslim possession. The frontier town of Aswan was destroyed by the rebellious Nubians.
Al-Ashraf Sha'ban was a grandson of Al-Nasir Muhammad. He had two sons who succeeded him: al-Mansur Ali and al-Salih Hajji.
Ashraf Sha'ban, al- see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Shaban II see Sha‘ban II al-Ashraf Nasir al-Din
Shabankara
Shabankara (Shabankareh) (Shwankara) (Soncara) (Shwankara). Name of a Kurdish tribe and region between Fars, Kirman and the Persian Gulf, whose capital was the stronghold Ig. Their most glorious period fell between 1168 and 1200. In 1220, Ig was destroyed by Hulegu, and in 1354 the region became part of the Muzaffarid state.
Shabankara was the name of an ancient tribal federation in southern Zaghros. They were powerful during the Sassanid era as well as in the Middle Ages.
In the early twelfth century there were five subdivisions of them: Ramani, Shakani, Karzuwi, Masudi and Ismaili.
According to Dehkhoda Dictionary, Ardashir I was the son of a Kurdish mother from the Shabankara tribe in the Fars Province. In 11th century one of Shabankara leaders ruled parts of the Fars region in southern Zagros. After the collapse of the Seljukids, Shabankara ruled again the area with Shahre-Idj as their capital. In the Ilkhanid era. the Ilkhanids ruled Shabankareh province centered at Darabgird.
Today a Kurdish clan by this name exists just northwest of Kirmanshahan.
Also, a small village named Shwankarah exists 30 kilometers northeast of Divandarreh in Kurdistan province, Iran. After the 1979 Revolution the name was changed to Husei Abad in official records, but the local people continue to use the name "Shwankara" to refer to the village. It is inhabited by about 30 Kurdish Sunni families. It contains an elementary school and a sanitary center.
Shabankareh see Shabankara
Shwankara see Shabankara
Soncara see Shabankara
Shwankara see Shabankara
Shabankara (Shabankareh) (Shwankara) (Soncara) (Shwankara). Name of a Kurdish tribe and region between Fars, Kirman and the Persian Gulf, whose capital was the stronghold Ig. Their most glorious period fell between 1168 and 1200. In 1220, Ig was destroyed by Hulegu, and in 1354 the region became part of the Muzaffarid state.
Shabankara was the name of an ancient tribal federation in southern Zaghros. They were powerful during the Sassanid era as well as in the Middle Ages.
In the early twelfth century there were five subdivisions of them: Ramani, Shakani, Karzuwi, Masudi and Ismaili.
According to Dehkhoda Dictionary, Ardashir I was the son of a Kurdish mother from the Shabankara tribe in the Fars Province. In 11th century one of Shabankara leaders ruled parts of the Fars region in southern Zagros. After the collapse of the Seljukids, Shabankara ruled again the area with Shahre-Idj as their capital. In the Ilkhanid era. the Ilkhanids ruled Shabankareh province centered at Darabgird.
Today a Kurdish clan by this name exists just northwest of Kirmanshahan.
Also, a small village named Shwankarah exists 30 kilometers northeast of Divandarreh in Kurdistan province, Iran. After the 1979 Revolution the name was changed to Husei Abad in official records, but the local people continue to use the name "Shwankara" to refer to the village. It is inhabited by about 30 Kurdish Sunni families. It contains an elementary school and a sanitary center.
Shabankareh see Shabankara
Shwankara see Shabankara
Soncara see Shabankara
Shwankara see Shabankara
Shabazz, Betty
Betty Shabazz (b. Betty Dean Sanders, May 28, 1934, Pinehurst, Georgia – d. June 23, 1997, New York City, New York), also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was married to Malcolm X.
Shabazz was born in Pinehurst, Georgia, and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism. She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where she had her first encounters with racism. Unhappy with the situation in Alabama, she moved to New York City, where she became a nurse. It was there that she met Malcolm X and, in 1956, joined the Nation of Islam. The couple married in 1958.
Along with her husband, Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964. She witnessed his assassination the following year. Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a widow, Shabazz pursued higher education, and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
Following the 1995 arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan, Shabazz took in her ten-year-old grandson Malcolm. In 1997, her grandson, Malcolm, set fire to her apartment. Shabazz suffered severe burns and died three weeks later as a result of her injuries.
Shabazz, Malikah
Malikah Shabazz (b. 1965 - d. November 21, 2021, Brooklyn, New York). One of the youngest daughters of Malcolm X and his wife Betty Shabazz.Malikah and her twin sister Malaak were born a few months after the assassination of their father, Malcolm X, on February 21, 1965. Malikah and Malaak were in the womb of the pregnant Betty Shabazz who was present during the assassination of her husband. Ironically, Malikah was found dead four days after a judge exonerated two men who were convicted in 1966 of assassinating Malcolm X the year before. Malikah's mother, Betty Shabazz, died from injuries sustained in a fire (caused my her grandson) at her home in Yonkers in 1997. Malikah Shabazz left New York in 1999 and moved to first to North Carolina and then to Maryland, before returning to New York. She had a complicated relationship with her sisters, with whom she fought for more than a decade over her mother’s estate. In 2011, she pleaded guilty to running up credit-card debt in the name of a 70-year-old widow whose husband had been one of Malcolm X’s bodyguards. She was sentenced to five years probation.
Sha‘bi, Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al-
Sha‘bi, Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al- (Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al-Sha‘bi) (640-c.728). Transmitter of traditions. He is said to have been sent by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik on missions to Constantinople and Egypt. Judged as trustworthy, he was the teacher of Abu Hanifa.
Abu 'Amr 'Amir ibn Sharahil al-Sha'bi see Sha‘bi, Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al-
Sha‘bi, Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al- (Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al-Sha‘bi) (640-c.728). Transmitter of traditions. He is said to have been sent by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik on missions to Constantinople and Egypt. Judged as trustworthy, he was the teacher of Abu Hanifa.
Abu 'Amr 'Amir ibn Sharahil al-Sha'bi see Sha‘bi, Abu ‘Amr ‘Amir ibn Sharahil al-
Shabib ibn Yazid ibn Mu‘aym
Shabib ibn Yazid ibn Mu‘aym (646-697). Kharijite leader. In his struggle with al-Hajjaj, he showed himself to be a master of guerrilla warfare.
Shabib ibn Yazid ibn Mu‘aym (646-697). Kharijite leader. In his struggle with al-Hajjaj, he showed himself to be a master of guerrilla warfare.
Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud
Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud (Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud Shabistari) (Mahmud Shabistari) (c.1260/1288-1340). Persian mystical poet. He is known for his mathnawi in which he explains the descent and ascent of the “Perfect Man” (in Arabic, al-insan al-kamil).
Mahmūd Shabistarī is one of the most celebrated Persian Sufi poets of the 14th century.
Shabistari was born in the town of Shabestar near Tabriz, where he received his education. He became deeply versed in the symbolic terminology of Ibn Arabi. He wrote during a period of Mongol invasions.
His most famous work is a mystic text called The Secret Rose Garden (Gulshan-i Rāz) written about 1311 in rhyming couplets (Mathnawi). This poem was written in response to seventeen queries concerning Sufi metaphysics posed to "the Sufi literati of Tabriz" by Rukh Al Din Amir Husayn Harawi (d. 1318). It was also the main reference used by François Bernier when explaining Sufism to his European friends (in: Lettre sur le Quietisme des Indes; 1688)
Other works include The Book of Felicity (Sa'adat-nāma) and The Truth of Certainty about the Knowledge of the Lord of the Worlds (Ḥaqq al-yaqīn fi ma'rifat rabb al-'alamīn. The former is regarded as a relatively unknown poetic masterpiece written in khafif meter, while the later is his lone work of prose.
The details of Shabestarī’s life are obscure. Apparently he spent most of it in Tabrīz. He grew up in an age of spiritual confusion, following the Mongol invasion of Iran, the sack of Baghdad, and the final fall of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate (1258) to the Mongols. Tabrīz was a capital of the new Mongol empire, and Shabestarī’s life was clearly influenced by fierce doctrinal disputes and by a struggle between Christianity and Islām for the allegiance of the Mongol rulers. His work shows a clear acquaintance with Christian doctrines, probably as a result of these disputes. In order to come to terms with the distressed status of a Muslim under heathen rule, he, like many of his contemporaries, withdrew from the outer world and sought refuge in spirituality and mysticism.
Shabestarī’s Golshan-e rāz, written in 1311, or possibly 1317, is a poetical expression of his retreat from the temporal world. It consists of questions and answers about mystical doctrines. The work was introduced into Europe in about 1700. It soon became popular and was translated into German in 1821. European readers often regarded it as the major work of Ṣūfism, and it enjoyed a vogue among Christian followers of mystical theology who shunned ritualism and sought transcendental union with the Divine Being.
Sa'id al-Din Mahmud Shabistari see Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud
Mahmud Shabistari see Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud
Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud (Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud Shabistari) (Mahmud Shabistari) (c.1260/1288-1340). Persian mystical poet. He is known for his mathnawi in which he explains the descent and ascent of the “Perfect Man” (in Arabic, al-insan al-kamil).
Mahmūd Shabistarī is one of the most celebrated Persian Sufi poets of the 14th century.
Shabistari was born in the town of Shabestar near Tabriz, where he received his education. He became deeply versed in the symbolic terminology of Ibn Arabi. He wrote during a period of Mongol invasions.
His most famous work is a mystic text called The Secret Rose Garden (Gulshan-i Rāz) written about 1311 in rhyming couplets (Mathnawi). This poem was written in response to seventeen queries concerning Sufi metaphysics posed to "the Sufi literati of Tabriz" by Rukh Al Din Amir Husayn Harawi (d. 1318). It was also the main reference used by François Bernier when explaining Sufism to his European friends (in: Lettre sur le Quietisme des Indes; 1688)
Other works include The Book of Felicity (Sa'adat-nāma) and The Truth of Certainty about the Knowledge of the Lord of the Worlds (Ḥaqq al-yaqīn fi ma'rifat rabb al-'alamīn. The former is regarded as a relatively unknown poetic masterpiece written in khafif meter, while the later is his lone work of prose.
The details of Shabestarī’s life are obscure. Apparently he spent most of it in Tabrīz. He grew up in an age of spiritual confusion, following the Mongol invasion of Iran, the sack of Baghdad, and the final fall of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate (1258) to the Mongols. Tabrīz was a capital of the new Mongol empire, and Shabestarī’s life was clearly influenced by fierce doctrinal disputes and by a struggle between Christianity and Islām for the allegiance of the Mongol rulers. His work shows a clear acquaintance with Christian doctrines, probably as a result of these disputes. In order to come to terms with the distressed status of a Muslim under heathen rule, he, like many of his contemporaries, withdrew from the outer world and sought refuge in spirituality and mysticism.
Shabestarī’s Golshan-e rāz, written in 1311, or possibly 1317, is a poetical expression of his retreat from the temporal world. It consists of questions and answers about mystical doctrines. The work was introduced into Europe in about 1700. It soon became popular and was translated into German in 1821. European readers often regarded it as the major work of Ṣūfism, and it enjoyed a vogue among Christian followers of mystical theology who shunned ritualism and sought transcendental union with the Divine Being.
Sa'id al-Din Mahmud Shabistari see Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud
Mahmud Shabistari see Shabistari, Sa‘id al-Din Mahmud
Shaddadids
Shaddadids (Banu Shaddad). Dynasty of Kurdish origin who ruled over Arran and eastern Armenia (r. 951-1174).
The Shaddadids were a Kurdish dynasty who ruled in various parts of Armenia and Arran from 951-1199. They were established in Dvin. Through their long tenure in Armenia, they often intermarried with the Bagratuni royal family of Armenia.
They began ruling in the city of Dvin, and eventually ruled other major cities, such as Barda, Ganja, and were given the city of Ani as a reward for their service to the Seljuqs, to whom they became vassals. From 1047 to 1057, the Shaddadids were engaged in several wars against the Byzantine army. The area between the rivers Kura and Arax was ruled by a Shaddadid dynasty.
The Shaddadid rulers were:
* Muhammad bin Shaddad (951-971)
* Ali Lashkari bin Muhammad (971-978)
* Marzuban bin Muhammad (978-986)
* Al-Fadl I bin Muhammad (986-1031)
* Abu-l-Fa't Musa (1031-1034)
* Ali II Lashkari (1034-1049)
* Anushirvan bin Ali II Lashkari (1049)
* Abu-l-Aswar Shavur I bin al-Fadl I (1049-1067)
* Al Fadl II bin Shavur I (1067-1073)
* Ashot bin Shavur I (1067)
* Al-Fadl III bin al-Fadl II (1073-1075)
The Emirs in Ani were:
* Menuchir (1075-1118) (The emir of Ani. A mosque in the city is named after him)
* Abu-l-Asvar Shavur II (1118-1124)
* Fadl IV bin Shavur II (1125-?)
* Mahmud (?-1131)
* Khushchikr (1131-?)
* Shaddad (?-1155)
* Fadl V (1155-1161)
* Shahanshah (also, Sultan ibn Mahmud) (1164-1174)
Banu Shaddad see Shaddadids
Shaddadids (Banu Shaddad). Dynasty of Kurdish origin who ruled over Arran and eastern Armenia (r. 951-1174).
The Shaddadids were a Kurdish dynasty who ruled in various parts of Armenia and Arran from 951-1199. They were established in Dvin. Through their long tenure in Armenia, they often intermarried with the Bagratuni royal family of Armenia.
They began ruling in the city of Dvin, and eventually ruled other major cities, such as Barda, Ganja, and were given the city of Ani as a reward for their service to the Seljuqs, to whom they became vassals. From 1047 to 1057, the Shaddadids were engaged in several wars against the Byzantine army. The area between the rivers Kura and Arax was ruled by a Shaddadid dynasty.
The Shaddadid rulers were:
* Muhammad bin Shaddad (951-971)
* Ali Lashkari bin Muhammad (971-978)
* Marzuban bin Muhammad (978-986)
* Al-Fadl I bin Muhammad (986-1031)
* Abu-l-Fa't Musa (1031-1034)
* Ali II Lashkari (1034-1049)
* Anushirvan bin Ali II Lashkari (1049)
* Abu-l-Aswar Shavur I bin al-Fadl I (1049-1067)
* Al Fadl II bin Shavur I (1067-1073)
* Ashot bin Shavur I (1067)
* Al-Fadl III bin al-Fadl II (1073-1075)
The Emirs in Ani were:
* Menuchir (1075-1118) (The emir of Ani. A mosque in the city is named after him)
* Abu-l-Asvar Shavur II (1118-1124)
* Fadl IV bin Shavur II (1125-?)
* Mahmud (?-1131)
* Khushchikr (1131-?)
* Shaddad (?-1155)
* Fadl V (1155-1161)
* Shahanshah (also, Sultan ibn Mahmud) (1164-1174)
Banu Shaddad see Shaddadids
Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al- (Abu’l-Hasan al-Shadhili) (Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili) (b. 1196/97, Ghumàra, near Ceuta, Mor - d. 1258, Humaithra, on the Red Sea). Mystic of Moroccan origin and founder of the religious brotherhood named after him. He is said to be the originator of coffee-drinking.
Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili was the founder of the eponymous Shadhili order. He was born in Ghumara, near Ceuta in the north of Morocco in 1196 into a family of peasant laborers. He studied in Fes. He set out across North Africa and into the Levant in the hope of finding the great living saint of his time. In Iraq, a Sufi named al-Wasiti told him that he could find this saint in the country Abul Hasan had travelled from, ‘Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish, the great Moroccan spiritual master. Under his guidance, Abul Hasan attained enlightenment and proceeded to spread his knowledge across North Africa, especially in Tunisia and Egypt, where he is buried. He advocated a path of moderation in outward actions, concentrating instead on attaining sincerity through constant invocation, heartfelt petitions to God, and invocation of the Name, Allah. He died in 1258 in Humaithra, Egypt, while he was on his way from a pilgrimage to Mecca. His shrine is highly venerated.
Al-Shadhili taught his close followers to lead a life of contemplation and remembrance of Allah while performing the normal everyday activities of the world. He disliked initiating any would-be follower unless that person already had a profession. His admonition to his close followers was to apply the teachings of Islam in their own lives in the world and to transform their existence.
The details of al-Shādhilī’s life are clouded by legend. He is said to have been a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and to have gone blind in his youth because of excessive study. In 1218/19 he traveled to Tunisia, where his Sufi teachings of ascetic mysticism aroused the hostility of the traditional orthodox Muslim theologians. Al-Shādhilī was forced to go into exile in Egypt. He died returning from a pilgrimage to the Islamic holy cities of Arabia. It was while he was in Egypt that he founded the Shādhilīyah order, which was destined to become one of the most popular of the mystical brotherhoods of the Middle East and North Africa and from which 15 other orders derive their origin.
Although al-Shādhilī left no writings, certain sayings and some poetry have been preserved by his disciples.
Abu'l-Hasan al-Shadhili see Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili see Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al- (Abu’l-Hasan al-Shadhili) (Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili) (b. 1196/97, Ghumàra, near Ceuta, Mor - d. 1258, Humaithra, on the Red Sea). Mystic of Moroccan origin and founder of the religious brotherhood named after him. He is said to be the originator of coffee-drinking.
Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili was the founder of the eponymous Shadhili order. He was born in Ghumara, near Ceuta in the north of Morocco in 1196 into a family of peasant laborers. He studied in Fes. He set out across North Africa and into the Levant in the hope of finding the great living saint of his time. In Iraq, a Sufi named al-Wasiti told him that he could find this saint in the country Abul Hasan had travelled from, ‘Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish, the great Moroccan spiritual master. Under his guidance, Abul Hasan attained enlightenment and proceeded to spread his knowledge across North Africa, especially in Tunisia and Egypt, where he is buried. He advocated a path of moderation in outward actions, concentrating instead on attaining sincerity through constant invocation, heartfelt petitions to God, and invocation of the Name, Allah. He died in 1258 in Humaithra, Egypt, while he was on his way from a pilgrimage to Mecca. His shrine is highly venerated.
Al-Shadhili taught his close followers to lead a life of contemplation and remembrance of Allah while performing the normal everyday activities of the world. He disliked initiating any would-be follower unless that person already had a profession. His admonition to his close followers was to apply the teachings of Islam in their own lives in the world and to transform their existence.
The details of al-Shādhilī’s life are clouded by legend. He is said to have been a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and to have gone blind in his youth because of excessive study. In 1218/19 he traveled to Tunisia, where his Sufi teachings of ascetic mysticism aroused the hostility of the traditional orthodox Muslim theologians. Al-Shādhilī was forced to go into exile in Egypt. He died returning from a pilgrimage to the Islamic holy cities of Arabia. It was while he was in Egypt that he founded the Shādhilīyah order, which was destined to become one of the most popular of the mystical brotherhoods of the Middle East and North Africa and from which 15 other orders derive their origin.
Although al-Shādhilī left no writings, certain sayings and some poetry have been preserved by his disciples.
Abu'l-Hasan al-Shadhili see Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili see Shadhili, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Shadhiliyya
Shadhiliyya (Shaziliyah). Sufi sect which, apart from the mysterious knowledge of its leaders, claimed to be strictly orthodox. When a revelation conflicted with the sunna, the latter had to prevail. The members of the sect claimed that they were all predestined to belong to the “well-guarded Tablet” (in Arabic, lawh mahfuz), that ecstasy does not permanently incapacitate them from active life, and that “the most perfect human being” (in Arabic, qutb) will throughout the ages be one of them. The main seat of the brotherhood is Algeria and Tunisia. Many other communities have sprung from it.
The Shadhiliyya was a widespread brotherhood of Muslim mystics (Ṣūfīs), founded on the teachings of Abū al-Ḥasan ash-Shādhilī (d. 1258) in Alexandria. Shādhilī teachings stress five points: fear of God, living the sunna (practices) of the Prophet, disdain of mankind, fatalism, and turning to God in times of happiness and distress. The order, which spread throughout North Africa and the Sudan and into Arabia, was created by disciples, as ash-Shādhilī himself discouraged monasticism and urged his followers to maintain their ordinary lives, a tradition still followed. The order gave rise to an unusually large number of suborders, notably the Jazūlīyah and the Darqāwā in Morocco and the ʿĪsāwīyah in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
The Shadhili Tariqa has historically been of importance and influence in North Africa and Egypt with many contributions to Islamic literature. Among the figures most known for their literary and intellectual contributions are Ibn 'Ata Allah, author of the Hikam, and Shaykh Ahmed Zarruq, author of numerous commentaries and works, and Sheikh ibn Ajibah who also wrote numerous commentaries and works. In poetry expressing love of Muhammad, there have been the notable contributions of al-Jazuli, author of the "Dala'il al-Khayrat", and Busiri, author of the famous poem, the Poem of the Mantle. Many of the head lecturers of al-Azhar University in Cairo have also been followers of this tariqa.
Of the various branches of the Shadhili tariqa are the Fassiyatush, found largely in India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan. The Darqawi branch is found mostly in Morocco and the Alawiyya (no connection to the Turkish or Syrian Alawi or Alevi groups) which originated in Algeria is now found the world over, particularly in Syria, Jordan, France and among many English-speaking communities.
The Swedish impressionist painter and Sufi scholar Ivan Aguéli (1869-1917) was the first official Moqaddam (representative) of the Shadhili Order in Western Europe. Aguéli initiated René Guénon (1886-1951) into the Shadhili tariqa. Guénon went on to write a number of influential books on tradition and modernity.
The silsila of the Shadhili order is as follows:
* Prophet Muhammad
* Ali ibn Abi Talib
* Hasan al-Basri
* Habib al-‘Ajami
* Dawud al-Ta’i
* Ma‘ruf al-Karkhi
* Sari al-Saqati
* Abul Qasim al-Junayd
* Abu Bakr al-Shibli
* Abu Faraj ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Tamimi
* Abul Faraj al-Tartusi
* Abul Hasan ibn ‘Ali Yusuf
* Sa‘id al-Mubarak
* Abdul-Qadir Gilani
* al-Ghawth Abu Madyan
* ‘Abd al-Rahman al-‘Attar al-Zayyat
* Abdeslam Ben Mshish
* Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili
Shaziliyah see Shadhiliyya
Shadhiliyya (Shaziliyah). Sufi sect which, apart from the mysterious knowledge of its leaders, claimed to be strictly orthodox. When a revelation conflicted with the sunna, the latter had to prevail. The members of the sect claimed that they were all predestined to belong to the “well-guarded Tablet” (in Arabic, lawh mahfuz), that ecstasy does not permanently incapacitate them from active life, and that “the most perfect human being” (in Arabic, qutb) will throughout the ages be one of them. The main seat of the brotherhood is Algeria and Tunisia. Many other communities have sprung from it.
The Shadhiliyya was a widespread brotherhood of Muslim mystics (Ṣūfīs), founded on the teachings of Abū al-Ḥasan ash-Shādhilī (d. 1258) in Alexandria. Shādhilī teachings stress five points: fear of God, living the sunna (practices) of the Prophet, disdain of mankind, fatalism, and turning to God in times of happiness and distress. The order, which spread throughout North Africa and the Sudan and into Arabia, was created by disciples, as ash-Shādhilī himself discouraged monasticism and urged his followers to maintain their ordinary lives, a tradition still followed. The order gave rise to an unusually large number of suborders, notably the Jazūlīyah and the Darqāwā in Morocco and the ʿĪsāwīyah in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
The Shadhili Tariqa has historically been of importance and influence in North Africa and Egypt with many contributions to Islamic literature. Among the figures most known for their literary and intellectual contributions are Ibn 'Ata Allah, author of the Hikam, and Shaykh Ahmed Zarruq, author of numerous commentaries and works, and Sheikh ibn Ajibah who also wrote numerous commentaries and works. In poetry expressing love of Muhammad, there have been the notable contributions of al-Jazuli, author of the "Dala'il al-Khayrat", and Busiri, author of the famous poem, the Poem of the Mantle. Many of the head lecturers of al-Azhar University in Cairo have also been followers of this tariqa.
Of the various branches of the Shadhili tariqa are the Fassiyatush, found largely in India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan. The Darqawi branch is found mostly in Morocco and the Alawiyya (no connection to the Turkish or Syrian Alawi or Alevi groups) which originated in Algeria is now found the world over, particularly in Syria, Jordan, France and among many English-speaking communities.
The Swedish impressionist painter and Sufi scholar Ivan Aguéli (1869-1917) was the first official Moqaddam (representative) of the Shadhili Order in Western Europe. Aguéli initiated René Guénon (1886-1951) into the Shadhili tariqa. Guénon went on to write a number of influential books on tradition and modernity.
The silsila of the Shadhili order is as follows:
* Prophet Muhammad
* Ali ibn Abi Talib
* Hasan al-Basri
* Habib al-‘Ajami
* Dawud al-Ta’i
* Ma‘ruf al-Karkhi
* Sari al-Saqati
* Abul Qasim al-Junayd
* Abu Bakr al-Shibli
* Abu Faraj ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Tamimi
* Abul Faraj al-Tartusi
* Abul Hasan ibn ‘Ali Yusuf
* Sa‘id al-Mubarak
* Abdul-Qadir Gilani
* al-Ghawth Abu Madyan
* ‘Abd al-Rahman al-‘Attar al-Zayyat
* Abdeslam Ben Mshish
* Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili
Shaziliyah see Shadhiliyya
Shadi Abdel Salam
Shadi Abdel Salam (Arabic: Shadi ʿAbd al-Salam) (b. March 15, 1930, Alexandria, Egypt - d. October 8, 1986, Cairo, Egypt) was an Egyptian film director, screenwriter and costume and set designer.
Born in Alexandria on March 15, 1930, Shadi graduated from Victoria College, Alexandria, in 1948, and then moved to England to study theater arts from 1949 to 1950. Shadi then joined the faculty of fine arts in Cairo where he graduated as an architect in 1955. He worked as assistant to the artistic architect, Ramsis W. Wassef in 1957, and designed the decorations and costumes of some of the most famous historical Egyptian films such as Wa Islamah, Maww'ed fil Bourg, Al Nasser Salah Ad-Din, and Almaz wa Abdu El Hamouly. Shadi also worked as a historical consultant and supervisor of the decoration, costumes and accessories sections of the Polish film, Pharaoh, directed by Jerzy Kawalerowicz.
Shadi is best known for directing the long drama film entitled The Night of Counting the Years (also known as The Mummy - Al-Momiaa), 1968–1969. Shadi received many film accolades for this work and The Night of Counting the Years has been named the third best Egyptian film on the list of the 100 Greatest Egyptian films.
Shadi also directed the Ancient Egyptian short drama film entitled The Eloquent Peasant. Notably, Shadi once worked as the Director of the Ministry of Culture Center for experimental films in 1970. He also wrote the scenario of the long drama film entitled "Ikhnatoun" and finalized the relevant designs from 1974–1985.
Shadi taught at the Cinema Higher Institute of Egypt in the Departments of Decorations, Costumes and Film Direction from 1963–1969.
Shadi died on October 8, 1986, in Cairo, Egypt.
Shadia
Fatma Ahmed Kamal Shaker (Arabic: فاطمة أحمد كمال), better known by her stage name Shadia (b. February 8, 1931, Sharqia Governorate, Egypt – d. November 28, 2017, Cairo, Egypt), was an Egyptian actress and singer. She was famous for her roles in light comedies and drama in the 1950s and 1960s. Her first appearance was in the film el-Aql Fi Agaza (The Mind on Vacation), and she retired after her last film La Tas'alni Man Ana (Don't Ask Me Who I Am).
Born Fatma Ahmed Kamal Shaker in 1931, in the Sharqia Governorate, in Egypt. Her father, Ahmed Kamak Shaker, was an Upper Egyptian man whose family moved to El Sharqia and her mother was from a family of both Egyptian and Turk origin. She began acting at the age of thirteen.
Shaker was given the stage name "Shadia" by the film director Helmy Rafla. In her heyday during the 1950s and 1960s, Shadia acted in numerous melodramas, romance, and comedy films. However, it was her musical talent as a singer that established Shadia as one of the most important Egyptian cinema stars of her era.
Overall, as "Shadia", she performed in more than 100 films. She starred in more than 30 films with the actor Kamal el-Shennawi, and sang opposite Farid al-Atrash and Abdel Halim Hafez, such as in "The People's Idol" (1967). She also appeared with Faten Hamama in "An Appointment with Life" (1954), and in "The Unknown Woman" (1959) she played the role of Fatma in a heavy melodrama. Other notable films she starred in include "The Thief and the Dogs" (1962) and in her comedy roles in films "Wife Number 13" (1962) and "My Wife the General Manager" (1966). Indeed, Shadia was often cast in cunning and cheeky roles, however, she also played serious roles, such as in "The Road" (1964), and in the stage version of "Raya and Sakina", which was based on the true story of two Alexandrian serial killers and directed by Hussein Kama (1953).
After retiring from acting, Shadia joined a number of Egyptian actresses who took on the veil (hijab) in an act of Islamic resistance and salvation.
Shadia is considered one of the most popular and most talented singers and actresses in the Arabic movie and entertainment industry. Her songs and movies are still sought after, and her songs are popular among all generations.
Shadia was hospitalized on November 4, 2017 after suffering a massive stroke in Cairo.
On November 28, 2017, Shadia died from respiratory failure caused by the pneumonia.
Shafi‘i
Shafi‘i (Shafi‘ites) (in Arabic, al-Shafi‘iyya) (Madhhab Shāfiʿī). Term which refers to a school of Sunni Muslim jurisprudence which is predominant in Asia and in eastern Africa. The Sunni school of Islamic law, derived from the teachings of al-Shafi‘i, Shafi‘i originated in Cairo and makes considerable use of analogy. In the ninth and tenth century, the school won many adherents in Baghdad, Cairo, Mecca and Medina, although their position in Baghdad was difficult because of the so-called “partisans of personal opinion” (in Arabic, ashab al-ra’y). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, there were frequent street fights with the Hanbalis in Baghdad. Under the Ottoman sultans the school was replaced by the Hanafis, while in Persia they had to cede to the Shi‘a under the Safavids. The school is still dominant in South Arabia, Bahrain, Malaysia, East Africa, Dagestan and some parts of Central Asia.
Shafi’i was one of the four schools of law in orthodox Islam, named after Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi’i (d. 820), its founder and guiding influence. Disturbed by the confusing plethora of views, methods and practices that prevailed in the legal circles of his day, Shafi’i set out to develop a systematic theory of law on the basis of which legal thought and practice in Islam might be unified. His Risala, composed in Cairo near the end of his life, constitutes his most important work on juridical theory. In it he sets down what were to become the characteristic features of Shafi’i law. Although Shafi’i aimed at the elaboration of a comprehensive theory of law, his most important contribution to the history of Islamic jurisprudence lies in his insistence on the indispensability of the sunna, or tradition of the Prophet, as a substantive source of law. Over against Hanafis and Malikis, for whom the sunna was largely a function of local practice, Shafi’i not only linked it to the Prophet himself but declared it to be divinely inspired. In keeping with his position on the primacy of revelation (that is, the Qur’an and the sunna), he sought to limit personal judgment (ijtihad/ra’y) to analogical reason (qiyas), whose only function was to extend the application of those principles laid down in the revealed texts to problems not addressed by the latter.
Shafi’i’s views, although not universally accepted at first, had a substantial impact on Islamic law in the long term. His views defined the essential elements of what was to become classical Shafi’i doctrine, and compelled Hanafis, Malikis, and others to undertake important revisions of their own legal systems. From Baghdad and Cairo, the chief centers of the early Shafi’i school, its influence spread throughout the central lands of Islam from Egypt to Khurasan and, by the late Mameluke period, had become the dominant school of law in this vast region. While the school found only limited acceptance in India and Central Asia, it became and remains the principal school of law in the Muslim lands of Southeast Asia.
In Islām, the Shafi'ites formed one of the four Sunnī schools of religious law, derived from the teachings of Abū ʿAbd Allāh ash-Shāfiʿī (767–820). This legal school (madhhab) stabilized the bases of Islāmic legal theory, admitting the validity of both divine will and human speculation. Rejecting provincial dependence on the living sunnah (traditional community practice) as the source of precedent, the Shafiites argued for the unquestioning acceptance of Ḥadīth (traditions concerning the life and utterances of the Prophet) as the major basis for legal and religious judgments and the use of qiyas (analogical reasoning) when no clear directives could be found in the Qurʾān or Ḥadīth. Ijmāʿ (consensus of scholars) was accepted but not stressed. The Shāfiʿī school predominates in eastern Africa, parts of Arabia, and Indonesia.
The Shāfi‘ī madhhab is one of the four schools of fiqh, or religious law, within the Sunni branch of Islam. The Shāfi‘ī school of fiqh is named after Imām ash-Shāfi‘ī. The other three schools of Islamic law are Hanafi, Maliki and Hanbali.
Shafi'ites see Shafi‘i
Shafi'iyya, al- see Shafi‘i
Madhhab Shafi'i see Shafi‘i
Shafi‘i (Shafi‘ites) (in Arabic, al-Shafi‘iyya) (Madhhab Shāfiʿī). Term which refers to a school of Sunni Muslim jurisprudence which is predominant in Asia and in eastern Africa. The Sunni school of Islamic law, derived from the teachings of al-Shafi‘i, Shafi‘i originated in Cairo and makes considerable use of analogy. In the ninth and tenth century, the school won many adherents in Baghdad, Cairo, Mecca and Medina, although their position in Baghdad was difficult because of the so-called “partisans of personal opinion” (in Arabic, ashab al-ra’y). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, there were frequent street fights with the Hanbalis in Baghdad. Under the Ottoman sultans the school was replaced by the Hanafis, while in Persia they had to cede to the Shi‘a under the Safavids. The school is still dominant in South Arabia, Bahrain, Malaysia, East Africa, Dagestan and some parts of Central Asia.
Shafi’i was one of the four schools of law in orthodox Islam, named after Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi’i (d. 820), its founder and guiding influence. Disturbed by the confusing plethora of views, methods and practices that prevailed in the legal circles of his day, Shafi’i set out to develop a systematic theory of law on the basis of which legal thought and practice in Islam might be unified. His Risala, composed in Cairo near the end of his life, constitutes his most important work on juridical theory. In it he sets down what were to become the characteristic features of Shafi’i law. Although Shafi’i aimed at the elaboration of a comprehensive theory of law, his most important contribution to the history of Islamic jurisprudence lies in his insistence on the indispensability of the sunna, or tradition of the Prophet, as a substantive source of law. Over against Hanafis and Malikis, for whom the sunna was largely a function of local practice, Shafi’i not only linked it to the Prophet himself but declared it to be divinely inspired. In keeping with his position on the primacy of revelation (that is, the Qur’an and the sunna), he sought to limit personal judgment (ijtihad/ra’y) to analogical reason (qiyas), whose only function was to extend the application of those principles laid down in the revealed texts to problems not addressed by the latter.
Shafi’i’s views, although not universally accepted at first, had a substantial impact on Islamic law in the long term. His views defined the essential elements of what was to become classical Shafi’i doctrine, and compelled Hanafis, Malikis, and others to undertake important revisions of their own legal systems. From Baghdad and Cairo, the chief centers of the early Shafi’i school, its influence spread throughout the central lands of Islam from Egypt to Khurasan and, by the late Mameluke period, had become the dominant school of law in this vast region. While the school found only limited acceptance in India and Central Asia, it became and remains the principal school of law in the Muslim lands of Southeast Asia.
In Islām, the Shafi'ites formed one of the four Sunnī schools of religious law, derived from the teachings of Abū ʿAbd Allāh ash-Shāfiʿī (767–820). This legal school (madhhab) stabilized the bases of Islāmic legal theory, admitting the validity of both divine will and human speculation. Rejecting provincial dependence on the living sunnah (traditional community practice) as the source of precedent, the Shafiites argued for the unquestioning acceptance of Ḥadīth (traditions concerning the life and utterances of the Prophet) as the major basis for legal and religious judgments and the use of qiyas (analogical reasoning) when no clear directives could be found in the Qurʾān or Ḥadīth. Ijmāʿ (consensus of scholars) was accepted but not stressed. The Shāfiʿī school predominates in eastern Africa, parts of Arabia, and Indonesia.
The Shāfi‘ī madhhab is one of the four schools of fiqh, or religious law, within the Sunni branch of Islam. The Shāfi‘ī school of fiqh is named after Imām ash-Shāfi‘ī. The other three schools of Islamic law are Hanafi, Maliki and Hanbali.
Shafi'ites see Shafi‘i
Shafi'iyya, al- see Shafi‘i
Madhhab Shafi'i see Shafi‘i
Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al-
Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al- (Abu ‘Abdullah ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i) (Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafiʿī) (b. 767, Gaza, Palestine - d. 820, Fustat, Egypt). Founder of the Shafi‘ite school of law, most famous for his exposition of the “roots of jurisprudence,” which forms the basis for most Islamic legal considerations.
Al-Shafi‘i was so highly regarded from such an early date that his biographical notices tend to be more hagiographic than accurate. A Quraysh of the clan of Hashim, and therefore distantly related to Muhammad, al-Shafi‘i was raised in Mecca and received both an Arab and a Muslim education. He studied with Malik ibn Anas in Medina, had Shi‘ite involvements in the Yemen, spent time in Baghdad and Mecca, and died in Egypt.
In the area of substantive commentary on legal practice, al-Shafi‘i, because of his eclectic and broad education, was able to make penetrating analyses of practices current in his time, but he is more famous for his Rasala, written in the last years of his life, which expounds his theoretical positions on the foundations of law. According to his system, the four roots are Qur’an, the Sunna of Muhammad, consensus (ijma’), and analogic reasoning (qiyas). While these elements had been present before his time, al-Shafi‘i remade the Islamic legal system by redefining these terms. There was no dispute about the Qur’an’s role in law, but there was controversy about its interpretation. Starting with the Qur’anic injunction to obey both Allah and Muhammad {see Sura 4:69}, al-Shafi‘i raised the position of Muhammad’s sunna above that of only first among equals, making Muhammad’s actions the interpreter of the Qur’an. By the use of the notion of consensus, al-Shafi‘i legitimized the then current practice of the Muslim community as it was seen in retrospect to conform to the historical perceptions of the age of Muhammad and the Prophet’s Companions -- the Sahaba. Finally, the limitation of human reasoning to analogic reasoning removed much of the individual idiosyncrasy from legal practice. Al-Shafi‘i’s theory can be seen as a compromise between the strict Traditionists and the so-called Rationalists.
The Shafi‘ite school has had its greatest influence in East Africa, South Arabia, and Southeast Asia, although al-Shafi‘i’s personal influence is felt in all schools. The Shafi‘ites stand with the Hanbalites in opposing admission of judicial or public interest in legal consideration, and are most consistent in applying rules of analogy throughout their system, preferring judicial reasoning to weak traditions. They opposed legal stratagems in their early stages of development but admitted some in later periods. The Shafi‘ite school was generally adopted by the Ash‘arite speculative theologians after the tenth century.
Abu ‘Abdullah ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i see Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al-
Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafiʿī see Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al-
Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al- (Abu ‘Abdullah ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i) (Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafiʿī) (b. 767, Gaza, Palestine - d. 820, Fustat, Egypt). Founder of the Shafi‘ite school of law, most famous for his exposition of the “roots of jurisprudence,” which forms the basis for most Islamic legal considerations.
Al-Shafi‘i was so highly regarded from such an early date that his biographical notices tend to be more hagiographic than accurate. A Quraysh of the clan of Hashim, and therefore distantly related to Muhammad, al-Shafi‘i was raised in Mecca and received both an Arab and a Muslim education. He studied with Malik ibn Anas in Medina, had Shi‘ite involvements in the Yemen, spent time in Baghdad and Mecca, and died in Egypt.
In the area of substantive commentary on legal practice, al-Shafi‘i, because of his eclectic and broad education, was able to make penetrating analyses of practices current in his time, but he is more famous for his Rasala, written in the last years of his life, which expounds his theoretical positions on the foundations of law. According to his system, the four roots are Qur’an, the Sunna of Muhammad, consensus (ijma’), and analogic reasoning (qiyas). While these elements had been present before his time, al-Shafi‘i remade the Islamic legal system by redefining these terms. There was no dispute about the Qur’an’s role in law, but there was controversy about its interpretation. Starting with the Qur’anic injunction to obey both Allah and Muhammad {see Sura 4:69}, al-Shafi‘i raised the position of Muhammad’s sunna above that of only first among equals, making Muhammad’s actions the interpreter of the Qur’an. By the use of the notion of consensus, al-Shafi‘i legitimized the then current practice of the Muslim community as it was seen in retrospect to conform to the historical perceptions of the age of Muhammad and the Prophet’s Companions -- the Sahaba. Finally, the limitation of human reasoning to analogic reasoning removed much of the individual idiosyncrasy from legal practice. Al-Shafi‘i’s theory can be seen as a compromise between the strict Traditionists and the so-called Rationalists.
The Shafi‘ite school has had its greatest influence in East Africa, South Arabia, and Southeast Asia, although al-Shafi‘i’s personal influence is felt in all schools. The Shafi‘ites stand with the Hanbalites in opposing admission of judicial or public interest in legal consideration, and are most consistent in applying rules of analogy throughout their system, preferring judicial reasoning to weak traditions. They opposed legal stratagems in their early stages of development but admitted some in later periods. The Shafi‘ite school was generally adopted by the Ash‘arite speculative theologians after the tenth century.
Abu ‘Abdullah ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i see Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al-
Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafiʿī see Shafi‘i, Abu Abdullah ibn al-
Shafiq, Durriyah
Shafiq, Durriyah (Doria Shafik) (b. 1908/December 14, 1919, Tanta, Egypt - d. September 1975/1976, Cairo, Egypt). Egyptian scholar, teacher, journalist, and feminist activist. The writings and activism of Durriyah Shafiq followed in the secular, democratic tradition of the Egyptian feminists Huda Sha‘rawi and Aminah al-Sa‘id. Shafiq was educated in Western schools, first in a kindergarten run by Italian nuns and then at a French mission school. She was an admirer of Sha‘rawi from youth, and it was with Sha‘rawi’s assistance that Shafiq was able to attend the Sorbonne, where she received a doctorate in 1940.
Upon returning to Egypt Shafiq taught at Alexandria College for Girls and at the Sannia School. She then worked for the Ministry of Education as a French language inspector before beginning her career as a journalist and political activist. In 1945, she founded the magazine Majallat bint al-Nil (Daughter of the Nile Magazine), which included a segment devoted to promoting political rigths for women called Bint al-Nil al-siyasiyah (Political Daughter of the Nile).
In 1948, Shafiq founded the Ittihad Bint al-Nil (Daughter of the Nile Union), a middle class feminist association with branches in several provincial cities, dedicated to encouraging female literacy and full political rights for women. In a bid to gain international recognition for Egyptian feminism, Shafiq affiliated the Union with the International Council of Women under the name of the National Council for Egyptian Women.
In 1951, a thousand members of Shafiq’s Union disrupted the Egyptian parliament in a demonstration calling for the vote and other political rights for women. The demonstration sparked a reaction on the part of religious conservatives, and the Union of Muslim Associations in Egypt, which included the Muslim Brotherhood, demanded that the king abolish all women’s organizations that called for participation in politics, that women be encouraged to stay at home, and that the use of the veil be enforced. Shafiq responded with a “White Paper on the Rights of Egyptian Women” (Al-kitab al-abyad li-huquq al-mar’ah al-Misriyah), in which she argued in the reformist tradition of Muslim feminists that Islam speaks for the equality of women and requires neither the veil nor domesticity.
The following year political opposition groups conducted a series of strikes against foreign interests in a bid to undermine the British occupation, and the paramilitary arm of Shafiq’s Union joined in the strike by picketing Barclay’s Bank. After the Free Officers came to power in 1952, Shafiq continued to agitate for political rights for women. She founded a short-lived “Daughter of the Nile” political party, which was disbanded with all other political parties in 1953 by the revolutionary government. In 1954, when the constitutional assembly formed by President Gamal Abdel Nasser to adopt or reject a proposed new constitution included no women, Shafiq carried out a much publicized hunger strike to demand political rights for women, in which she was joined by members of the Bint al-Nil Union in Cairo and Alexandria. Having sought and gained international recognition for her strike, Shafiq was rewarded when the governor of Cairo agreed to put in writing that the constitution would guarantee full political rights for women. The 1956 constitution did in fact grant women the right to vote, but only to those who formally applied for it, while for men the right to vote was automatic. Consequently, Shafiq filed a legal protest.
The following year marked Shafiq’s political undoing. She announced to Nasser and the press that she was going on a hunger strike to protest Nasser’s dictatorship, as well as the lingering Israeli occupation of the Sinai in the wake of the Suez invasion, which should have ended with the United Nations ordered withdrawal. Shafiq’s colleagues at the Bint al-Nil Union not only failed to support her but asked her to resign, and, along with other women’s associations, they denounced her as a traitor. She was placed under house arrest, and the Bint al-Nil Union and magazine were closed down. In the following years, Shafiq experienced repeated emotional breakdowns and eventually committed suicide in 1976.
Shafiq, like her predecessor Huda Sha‘rawi, had anticipated erroneously that women’s participation in the struggle for national liberation would engender popular support for feminist causes. Shafiq miscalculated on two counts -- first on the strength of Islamic conservative reaction, and second on the charisma of Nasser, who in spite of his repression of democracy enjoyed great popularity for having initiated the final evacuation of the British from Egypt.
In addition to her political writings, Shafiq wrote Al-mar’ah al-Misriyah min al-fara ‘inah ila al-yawm (Egyptian Women from the Pharaohs until Today), and, with Ibrahim ‘Abduh, Tatawwur al-nahdah al-Misriyah, 1798-1951 (Development of the Women’s Renaissance in Egypt), as well as several books of poetry and prose published in France.
Shafīq was born in Lower Egypt and received a Western-style education in French and Italian schools. She was a great admirer of Egyptian feminist pioneer Hudā Shaʿrāwī, who helped Shafīq continue her education in France. She obtained a doctorate from the Sorbonne—the first Egyptian woman to do so—and returned to Egypt in 1940. In her homeland she taught for several years and founded the magazine Bint al-Nīl, an organ devoted to promoting women’s issues. Three years later she founded the organization of the same name. The group engaged in a variety of social and political activities. In 1951 members interrupted a session of the Egyptian parliament and demonstrated in Cairo. In 1954 Shafīq and some of her followers went on a week’s hunger strike to protest for women’s rights. Some believe these tactics were influential in Egypt’s decision to grant women the franchise in 1956. Later demonstrations, challenging the autocratic rule of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, were not successful, and she was roundly censured, even by her erstwhile supporters. Driven from public life, she grew despondent and took her own life by throwing herself off the balcony of her home.
Doria Shafiq was one of the very first women who led to the women's liberation movement in Egypt in the early 1950s. Because of her, Egyptian women have the right to vote in the Egyptian constitution. She was the founder of literature patrols, a researcher and a freedom fighter against the British occupation in Egypt.
Durriyah Shafiq see Shafiq, Durriyah
Doria Shafik see Shafiq, Durriyah
Shafik, Doria see Shafiq, Durriyah
Shafiq, Durriyah (Doria Shafik) (b. 1908/December 14, 1919, Tanta, Egypt - d. September 1975/1976, Cairo, Egypt). Egyptian scholar, teacher, journalist, and feminist activist. The writings and activism of Durriyah Shafiq followed in the secular, democratic tradition of the Egyptian feminists Huda Sha‘rawi and Aminah al-Sa‘id. Shafiq was educated in Western schools, first in a kindergarten run by Italian nuns and then at a French mission school. She was an admirer of Sha‘rawi from youth, and it was with Sha‘rawi’s assistance that Shafiq was able to attend the Sorbonne, where she received a doctorate in 1940.
Upon returning to Egypt Shafiq taught at Alexandria College for Girls and at the Sannia School. She then worked for the Ministry of Education as a French language inspector before beginning her career as a journalist and political activist. In 1945, she founded the magazine Majallat bint al-Nil (Daughter of the Nile Magazine), which included a segment devoted to promoting political rigths for women called Bint al-Nil al-siyasiyah (Political Daughter of the Nile).
In 1948, Shafiq founded the Ittihad Bint al-Nil (Daughter of the Nile Union), a middle class feminist association with branches in several provincial cities, dedicated to encouraging female literacy and full political rights for women. In a bid to gain international recognition for Egyptian feminism, Shafiq affiliated the Union with the International Council of Women under the name of the National Council for Egyptian Women.
In 1951, a thousand members of Shafiq’s Union disrupted the Egyptian parliament in a demonstration calling for the vote and other political rights for women. The demonstration sparked a reaction on the part of religious conservatives, and the Union of Muslim Associations in Egypt, which included the Muslim Brotherhood, demanded that the king abolish all women’s organizations that called for participation in politics, that women be encouraged to stay at home, and that the use of the veil be enforced. Shafiq responded with a “White Paper on the Rights of Egyptian Women” (Al-kitab al-abyad li-huquq al-mar’ah al-Misriyah), in which she argued in the reformist tradition of Muslim feminists that Islam speaks for the equality of women and requires neither the veil nor domesticity.
The following year political opposition groups conducted a series of strikes against foreign interests in a bid to undermine the British occupation, and the paramilitary arm of Shafiq’s Union joined in the strike by picketing Barclay’s Bank. After the Free Officers came to power in 1952, Shafiq continued to agitate for political rights for women. She founded a short-lived “Daughter of the Nile” political party, which was disbanded with all other political parties in 1953 by the revolutionary government. In 1954, when the constitutional assembly formed by President Gamal Abdel Nasser to adopt or reject a proposed new constitution included no women, Shafiq carried out a much publicized hunger strike to demand political rights for women, in which she was joined by members of the Bint al-Nil Union in Cairo and Alexandria. Having sought and gained international recognition for her strike, Shafiq was rewarded when the governor of Cairo agreed to put in writing that the constitution would guarantee full political rights for women. The 1956 constitution did in fact grant women the right to vote, but only to those who formally applied for it, while for men the right to vote was automatic. Consequently, Shafiq filed a legal protest.
The following year marked Shafiq’s political undoing. She announced to Nasser and the press that she was going on a hunger strike to protest Nasser’s dictatorship, as well as the lingering Israeli occupation of the Sinai in the wake of the Suez invasion, which should have ended with the United Nations ordered withdrawal. Shafiq’s colleagues at the Bint al-Nil Union not only failed to support her but asked her to resign, and, along with other women’s associations, they denounced her as a traitor. She was placed under house arrest, and the Bint al-Nil Union and magazine were closed down. In the following years, Shafiq experienced repeated emotional breakdowns and eventually committed suicide in 1976.
Shafiq, like her predecessor Huda Sha‘rawi, had anticipated erroneously that women’s participation in the struggle for national liberation would engender popular support for feminist causes. Shafiq miscalculated on two counts -- first on the strength of Islamic conservative reaction, and second on the charisma of Nasser, who in spite of his repression of democracy enjoyed great popularity for having initiated the final evacuation of the British from Egypt.
In addition to her political writings, Shafiq wrote Al-mar’ah al-Misriyah min al-fara ‘inah ila al-yawm (Egyptian Women from the Pharaohs until Today), and, with Ibrahim ‘Abduh, Tatawwur al-nahdah al-Misriyah, 1798-1951 (Development of the Women’s Renaissance in Egypt), as well as several books of poetry and prose published in France.
Shafīq was born in Lower Egypt and received a Western-style education in French and Italian schools. She was a great admirer of Egyptian feminist pioneer Hudā Shaʿrāwī, who helped Shafīq continue her education in France. She obtained a doctorate from the Sorbonne—the first Egyptian woman to do so—and returned to Egypt in 1940. In her homeland she taught for several years and founded the magazine Bint al-Nīl, an organ devoted to promoting women’s issues. Three years later she founded the organization of the same name. The group engaged in a variety of social and political activities. In 1951 members interrupted a session of the Egyptian parliament and demonstrated in Cairo. In 1954 Shafīq and some of her followers went on a week’s hunger strike to protest for women’s rights. Some believe these tactics were influential in Egypt’s decision to grant women the franchise in 1956. Later demonstrations, challenging the autocratic rule of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, were not successful, and she was roundly censured, even by her erstwhile supporters. Driven from public life, she grew despondent and took her own life by throwing herself off the balcony of her home.
Doria Shafiq was one of the very first women who led to the women's liberation movement in Egypt in the early 1950s. Because of her, Egyptian women have the right to vote in the Egyptian constitution. She was the founder of literature patrols, a researcher and a freedom fighter against the British occupation in Egypt.
Durriyah Shafiq see Shafiq, Durriyah
Doria Shafik see Shafiq, Durriyah
Shafik, Doria see Shafiq, Durriyah
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