Bitruji
Bitruji (Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji) (Nur ad-Din al-Betrugi) (Abu Ishak ibn al-Bitrogi) (Alpetragius) (al-Bidrudschi) (d. 1204). Born in Morocco, he later migrated to Spain and lived in Seville (in Arabic, Isbiliah). He died at the beginning of the thirteenth century around 1204.
Al-Bitruji was a leading astronomer of his time. His Kitab al-Hay’ah was popular in Europe in the thirteenth century. It was first translated into Hebrew and then from Hebrew into Latin. The Latin edition of his book was printed in Vienna in 1531. He attempted to modify Ptolemy’s system of planetary motions, but was unsuccessful primarily because he followed Aristotle’s notion of perfect (circular) motion. However, other Spanish Arab astronomers have suggested an elliptical orbit for planetary motion. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond named a surface feature of the Moon after al-Bitruji (Alpetragius). It is a crater twenty-six miles in diameter. It has a small conical peak at its center and its terraced perpendicular walls and surrounding plain shine with noticeable brightness.
Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq Al-Bitruji and Abu Ishâk ibn al-Bitrogi; another spelling is al Bidrudschi) (known in the West by the Latinized name of Alpetragius) (died ca. 1204 AD) was an Arab astronomer and philosopher of the Islamic Golden Age (Middle Ages). Born in Morocco, he settled in Seville, in Andalusia. He became a disciple of Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and was a contemporary of Averroës (Ibn Rushd).
Al Bitrugi wrote the Kitab-al-Hay’ah, in which he advanced a theory on planetary motion that avoided both epicycles and eccentrics, and attempted to account for the phenomena peculiar to the wandering stars, by compounding rotations of homocentric spheres. This was a modification of the system of planetary motion proposed by his predecessors, Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Tufail (Abubacer). His efforts were unsuccessful in replacing Ptolemy's planetary model, due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in his configuration being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model, mainly because he followed Aristotle's notion of perfect circular motion.
Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji see Bitruji
Alpetragius see Bitruji
Nur ad-Din al-Betrugi see Bitruji
Abu Ishak ibn al-Bitrogi see Bitruji
al-Bidrudschi see Bitruji
Bitruji (Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji) (Nur ad-Din al-Betrugi) (Abu Ishak ibn al-Bitrogi) (Alpetragius) (al-Bidrudschi) (d. 1204). Born in Morocco, he later migrated to Spain and lived in Seville (in Arabic, Isbiliah). He died at the beginning of the thirteenth century around 1204.
Al-Bitruji was a leading astronomer of his time. His Kitab al-Hay’ah was popular in Europe in the thirteenth century. It was first translated into Hebrew and then from Hebrew into Latin. The Latin edition of his book was printed in Vienna in 1531. He attempted to modify Ptolemy’s system of planetary motions, but was unsuccessful primarily because he followed Aristotle’s notion of perfect (circular) motion. However, other Spanish Arab astronomers have suggested an elliptical orbit for planetary motion. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond named a surface feature of the Moon after al-Bitruji (Alpetragius). It is a crater twenty-six miles in diameter. It has a small conical peak at its center and its terraced perpendicular walls and surrounding plain shine with noticeable brightness.
Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq Al-Bitruji and Abu Ishâk ibn al-Bitrogi; another spelling is al Bidrudschi) (known in the West by the Latinized name of Alpetragius) (died ca. 1204 AD) was an Arab astronomer and philosopher of the Islamic Golden Age (Middle Ages). Born in Morocco, he settled in Seville, in Andalusia. He became a disciple of Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and was a contemporary of Averroës (Ibn Rushd).
Al Bitrugi wrote the Kitab-al-Hay’ah, in which he advanced a theory on planetary motion that avoided both epicycles and eccentrics, and attempted to account for the phenomena peculiar to the wandering stars, by compounding rotations of homocentric spheres. This was a modification of the system of planetary motion proposed by his predecessors, Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Tufail (Abubacer). His efforts were unsuccessful in replacing Ptolemy's planetary model, due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in his configuration being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model, mainly because he followed Aristotle's notion of perfect circular motion.
Nur al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji see Bitruji
Alpetragius see Bitruji
Nur ad-Din al-Betrugi see Bitruji
Abu Ishak ibn al-Bitrogi see Bitruji
al-Bidrudschi see Bitruji
Black Muslims
Black Muslims (The Nation of Islam) (American Muslim Mission). The Nation of Islam -- the Black Muslims -- began in Detroit during the Depression. Its founder, W. D. Fard, gathered followers from among the poverty stricken African Americans of Detroit and organized the Detroit Temple. Fard’s teachings included “the deceptive character of the white man and the glorious history of the black race.” Illiterate followers were taught to read so that they could read for themselves the history of their great race. Fard wrote two manuals which are now the basic documents for the movement: The Secret Ritual of the Nation of Islam and Teaching for the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way. Fard established the ritual and worship of the temple and founded the University of Islam to provide elementary and secondary education. The Fruit of Islam, a paramilitary organization for men, was established to deal with unbelievers. Members were taught military tactics, including the use of weapons.
As the movement developed, Fard established a hierarchy under a minister of Islam, Elijah Muhammad. Upon Fard’s disappearance in June 1934, Elijah Muhammad ran into difficulty with the moderate element of the movement which gained control of the Detroit Temple. He moved to Chicago and took charge of Temple No. 2. There he began to reshape the movement and to make it more militant. Through the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, Fard was identified with Allah, which made it possible for prayer and sacrifice to be made to him. Muhammad assumed the titles “Prophet” and “Messenger of Allah.”
Under Elijah Muhammad, the movement gained international prominence. Mosques were started in most major cities of the United States. Schools, apartment complexes, stores, and farms owned by the Nation of Islam came to be commonplace. The publication Muhammad Speaks (now Bilalian News) came to be read by Americans of all races.
The Black Muslims have had phenomenal success with converting convicts, criminals, and dope users. An excellent example of this transformation is the life of Malcolm Little -- Malcolm X. There is a strict morality among the Black Muslims. A devout member prays five times daily. Before prayer, the proper ablution must be made. Cleanliness of body and spirit is essential. Dietary laws are rigidly enforced, fasting is encouraged, and tobacco and alcohol are forbidden. There is a strict sexual code.
Traditionally, the Nation of Islam has taught that Christianity is a European religion and that it is a disgrace for persons of African descent to call themselves Christians. Central to the traditional teachings are: (a) the black man has a manifest destiny; (b) whites are the personification of evil -- a hindrance to black freedom and moral development; (c) the original man was black; (d) there is a divinity in blackness; and (e) the white race was created by a black scientist (Yakub) who had rebelled against Allah.
Upon the death of Elijah Muhammad in February 1975, his son Wallace D. Muhammad (b. 1934) assumed the spiritual leadership of the movement and took the title of Imam. The most significant of the changes he introduced involved a shift in the Black Muslims' attitude towards whites. Under Wallace Muhammad, whites -- Europeans and European Americans -- were permitted to become members. Additionally, under Wallace Muhammad, the movement adopted more orthodox (Sunni) Muslim beliefs and practices, and assumed the title “The World Community of al-Islam in the West.” Today, the Wallace Muhammad group is known as the American Muslim Mission.
In the late 1970s, however, a dissident faction, led by Louis Farrakhan, assumed the original name Nation of Islam and reasserted the principles of black separatism. Since 1978, Louis Farrakhan has been the leader of a reconstituted Nation of Islam, the original organization having been renamed and dissolved by Warith Deen Muhammad. The Nation of Islam's National Center and headquarters is located in Chicago, Illinois, and is also home to its flagship Mosque No. 2, Mosque Maryam.
As of 2005, the Nation of Islam was included in the Southern Poverty Law Center's list of active hate groups in the United States. It is estimated that there are about 20,000 members of the sect.
Noted current and former members and associates of Nation of Islam
* Elijah Muhammad
* Louis Farrakhan
* Khadijah Farrakhan
* Malcolm X - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Betty Shabazz - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Muhammad Ali - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Warith Deen Mohammed - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Ice Cube - Was associated with the Nation of Islam, but never a regular member and became a Sunni Muslim.
* John Allen Muhammad - The Beltway Sniper, Gulf war veteran, former NOI member
* MC Ren - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Mohamed-rashid Abdulle - Spokesperson of the Nation of Islam until 1993
* Snoop Dogg
* Benjamin Chavis Muhammad
The Nation of Islam see Black Muslims
American Muslim Mission see Black Muslims
Black Muslims (The Nation of Islam) (American Muslim Mission). The Nation of Islam -- the Black Muslims -- began in Detroit during the Depression. Its founder, W. D. Fard, gathered followers from among the poverty stricken African Americans of Detroit and organized the Detroit Temple. Fard’s teachings included “the deceptive character of the white man and the glorious history of the black race.” Illiterate followers were taught to read so that they could read for themselves the history of their great race. Fard wrote two manuals which are now the basic documents for the movement: The Secret Ritual of the Nation of Islam and Teaching for the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way. Fard established the ritual and worship of the temple and founded the University of Islam to provide elementary and secondary education. The Fruit of Islam, a paramilitary organization for men, was established to deal with unbelievers. Members were taught military tactics, including the use of weapons.
As the movement developed, Fard established a hierarchy under a minister of Islam, Elijah Muhammad. Upon Fard’s disappearance in June 1934, Elijah Muhammad ran into difficulty with the moderate element of the movement which gained control of the Detroit Temple. He moved to Chicago and took charge of Temple No. 2. There he began to reshape the movement and to make it more militant. Through the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, Fard was identified with Allah, which made it possible for prayer and sacrifice to be made to him. Muhammad assumed the titles “Prophet” and “Messenger of Allah.”
Under Elijah Muhammad, the movement gained international prominence. Mosques were started in most major cities of the United States. Schools, apartment complexes, stores, and farms owned by the Nation of Islam came to be commonplace. The publication Muhammad Speaks (now Bilalian News) came to be read by Americans of all races.
The Black Muslims have had phenomenal success with converting convicts, criminals, and dope users. An excellent example of this transformation is the life of Malcolm Little -- Malcolm X. There is a strict morality among the Black Muslims. A devout member prays five times daily. Before prayer, the proper ablution must be made. Cleanliness of body and spirit is essential. Dietary laws are rigidly enforced, fasting is encouraged, and tobacco and alcohol are forbidden. There is a strict sexual code.
Traditionally, the Nation of Islam has taught that Christianity is a European religion and that it is a disgrace for persons of African descent to call themselves Christians. Central to the traditional teachings are: (a) the black man has a manifest destiny; (b) whites are the personification of evil -- a hindrance to black freedom and moral development; (c) the original man was black; (d) there is a divinity in blackness; and (e) the white race was created by a black scientist (Yakub) who had rebelled against Allah.
Upon the death of Elijah Muhammad in February 1975, his son Wallace D. Muhammad (b. 1934) assumed the spiritual leadership of the movement and took the title of Imam. The most significant of the changes he introduced involved a shift in the Black Muslims' attitude towards whites. Under Wallace Muhammad, whites -- Europeans and European Americans -- were permitted to become members. Additionally, under Wallace Muhammad, the movement adopted more orthodox (Sunni) Muslim beliefs and practices, and assumed the title “The World Community of al-Islam in the West.” Today, the Wallace Muhammad group is known as the American Muslim Mission.
In the late 1970s, however, a dissident faction, led by Louis Farrakhan, assumed the original name Nation of Islam and reasserted the principles of black separatism. Since 1978, Louis Farrakhan has been the leader of a reconstituted Nation of Islam, the original organization having been renamed and dissolved by Warith Deen Muhammad. The Nation of Islam's National Center and headquarters is located in Chicago, Illinois, and is also home to its flagship Mosque No. 2, Mosque Maryam.
As of 2005, the Nation of Islam was included in the Southern Poverty Law Center's list of active hate groups in the United States. It is estimated that there are about 20,000 members of the sect.
Noted current and former members and associates of Nation of Islam
* Elijah Muhammad
* Louis Farrakhan
* Khadijah Farrakhan
* Malcolm X - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Betty Shabazz - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Muhammad Ali - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Warith Deen Mohammed - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Ice Cube - Was associated with the Nation of Islam, but never a regular member and became a Sunni Muslim.
* John Allen Muhammad - The Beltway Sniper, Gulf war veteran, former NOI member
* MC Ren - Later converted to Sunni Islam
* Mohamed-rashid Abdulle - Spokesperson of the Nation of Islam until 1993
* Snoop Dogg
* Benjamin Chavis Muhammad
The Nation of Islam see Black Muslims
American Muslim Mission see Black Muslims
Black Sheep Turcomen
Black Sheep Turcomen. Shi‘a Turkish dynasty ruling in Iran (1378-1469).
Kara Koyunlu see Black Sheep Turcomen.
Qara Qoyunlu see Black Sheep Turcomen.
Black Sheep Turcomen. Shi‘a Turkish dynasty ruling in Iran (1378-1469).
Kara Koyunlu see Black Sheep Turcomen.
Qara Qoyunlu see Black Sheep Turcomen.
No comments:
Post a Comment