Hakam I
Hakam I (al-Hakam I ibn Hisham) (Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman) (770-822). Umayyad amir of Cordoba (r.796-822). After one of the numerous rebellions by the neo-Muslims in Cordoba, he banished over 20,000 families from the country. About two thirds of them went to Egypt and later to Crete, the remainder going to Fez.
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman I was Umayyad Emir of Cordoba from 796 until 822 in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). During his reign he crushed a rebellion led by clerics in a suburb called al-Ribad on the south bank of the Guadalquivir river. He punished the inhabitants by exiling them by ship. They eventually reached Alexandria and dominated the city until 827, after which they were expelled. They sailed on to Crete, where they founded an independent emirate that survived until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.
Al-Hakam I died in 822 C.E. after having ruled for 26 years. He was a controversial figure. Some hailed him as a great warrior, and bestowed on him the title of Al-Muzaffar. Some regarded him as a ruthless tyrant and inconsiderate ruler. He used force where force was necessary and resorted to a policy of peace and conciliation where such a course was in the public interest. He was against the monopolization of power by the theologians and strove to maintain a proper equation between the State and the theologians. He consolidated Muslim rule in Spain and during his long reign the Muslims extended their conquests.
al-Hakam I ibn Hisham see Hakam I
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman see Hakam I
Hakam I (al-Hakam I ibn Hisham) (Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman) (770-822). Umayyad amir of Cordoba (r.796-822). After one of the numerous rebellions by the neo-Muslims in Cordoba, he banished over 20,000 families from the country. About two thirds of them went to Egypt and later to Crete, the remainder going to Fez.
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman I was Umayyad Emir of Cordoba from 796 until 822 in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). During his reign he crushed a rebellion led by clerics in a suburb called al-Ribad on the south bank of the Guadalquivir river. He punished the inhabitants by exiling them by ship. They eventually reached Alexandria and dominated the city until 827, after which they were expelled. They sailed on to Crete, where they founded an independent emirate that survived until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.
Al-Hakam I died in 822 C.E. after having ruled for 26 years. He was a controversial figure. Some hailed him as a great warrior, and bestowed on him the title of Al-Muzaffar. Some regarded him as a ruthless tyrant and inconsiderate ruler. He used force where force was necessary and resorted to a policy of peace and conciliation where such a course was in the public interest. He was against the monopolization of power by the theologians and strove to maintain a proper equation between the State and the theologians. He consolidated Muslim rule in Spain and during his long reign the Muslims extended their conquests.
al-Hakam I ibn Hisham see Hakam I
Al-Hakam ibn Hisham ibn Abd-ar-Rahman see Hakam I
Hakam II
Hakam II ( al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III) (Al-Hakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III) (January 13, 915 - October 16, 976). Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba (r.961-976). He enlarged and embellished the Great Mosque of Cordoba, and gradually became the suzerain of all the Christian princes of the north. In 966, the Normans made a new attempt to land in Spain. Al-Hakam’s reign was one of the most peaceful and fruitful of the Cordoban dynasty.
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets.
He was fond of books and learning, and amassed a vast library with 400,000 books (this was sacked in the Berber siege of Cordoba in 1100). He even sent his agents to purchase 'first edition' books from the Muslim east, such as Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs) by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.
During his reign, a massive translation effort was undertaken, and many books were translated from Latin and Greek into Arabic. He formed a joint committee of Arab Muslims and Iberian Mozarab Christians for this task.
His building works included an expansion of the main mosque of Cordoba (962-966), the Mezquita, and the completion of the Royal residence Medina Azahara (976), which Abd ar-Rahman III had begun in 936.
As well, the famous physician, scientist, and surgeon Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) was active in Al-Hakam's court during his reign.
Whilst the internal administration was left increasingly to the Vizir Al-Mushafi, General Ghalib was gradually gaining influence as leader of the army. He was chiefly pre-occupied with repulsing the last Norman attacks (966, 971), and with the struggle against the Zirids and the Fatimids in northern Morocco. The Fatimids were defeated in Morocco in 974, while Al-Hakam II was able to maintain the supremacy of the Caliphate over the Christian states of Navarre, Castile and Leon.
In his youth his loves seem to have been entirely homosexual. He was known to have openly kept a male harem. This exclusivity was a problem, since it was essential to produce an heir. A resolution was reached by his taking a concubine who dressed in boys' clothes and was give the masculine name of Jafar.
He was succeeded by his son, Hisham II al-Mu'ayad, who was a nominal ruler under the Hajib (Grand Vizier) al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir.
al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Al-Hakam II ibn 'Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets.
He was fond of books and learning, and amassed a vast library with 400,000 books (this was sacked in the Berber siege of Cordoba in 1100). He even sent his agents to purchase 'first edition' books from the Muslim east, such as Kitab al-Aghani (Book of Songs) by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.
During his reign, a massive translation effort was undertaken, and many books were translated from Latin and Greek into Arabic. He formed a joint committee of Arab Muslims and Iberian Mozarab Christians for this task.
His building works included an expansion of the main mosque of Cordoba (962-966), the Mezquita, and the completion of the Royal residence Medina Azahara (976), which Abd ar-Rahman III had begun in 936.
As well, the famous physician, scientist, and surgeon Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) was active in Al-Hakam's court during his reign.
Whilst the internal administration was left increasingly to the Vizir Al-Mushafi, General Ghalib was gradually gaining influence as leader of the army. He was chiefly pre-occupied with repulsing the last Norman attacks (966, 971), and with the struggle against the Zirids and the Fatimids in northern Morocco. The Fatimids were defeated in Morocco in 974, while Al-Hakam II was able to maintain the supremacy of the Caliphate over the Christian states of Navarre, Castile and Leon.
In his youth his loves seem to have been entirely homosexual. He was known to have openly kept a male harem. This exclusivity was a problem, since it was essential to produce an heir. A resolution was reached by his taking a concubine who dressed in boys' clothes and was give the masculine name of Jafar.
He was succeeded by his son, Hisham II al-Mu'ayad, who was a nominal ruler under the Hajib (Grand Vizier) al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir.
al-Hakam II al-Mustansir ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Al-Hakam II ibn 'Abd al-Rahman III see Hakam II
Hakim Ata
Hakim Ata (d. 1186). Turkish saint of Khwarazm and author of popular poems on mystic life. His works are very popular down to modern times in Turkestan and in the Volga basin.
Ata, Hakim see Hakim Ata
Hakim Ata (d. 1186). Turkish saint of Khwarazm and author of popular poems on mystic life. His works are very popular down to modern times in Turkestan and in the Volga basin.
Ata, Hakim see Hakim Ata
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al- (Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim) (Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh - literally "Ruler by Allah's Command") (b.985 - February 12/13, 1021). Fatimid caliph (r. 996-1021). He was famous because of his excesses, his cruelty and his persecutions, particularly of the Christians. The divine character which certain of his supporters attributed to him is an article of faith with the Druzes. His end has always been a mystery. {See also Caliphs; Druze; and Fatimids.}
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-Azīz (975–996) at the age of eleven on October 14, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim’s Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim’s caliphate.
Initially, Barjawan, his wasita (the equivalent of a vizier, as intermediary between ruler and subjects) acted as the virtual head of the Fatimid state. However, after the latter’s removal in 1000, Hakim held the reins of power in his own hands limiting the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Also Al-Hakim is a central figure in the history of the Druze religious sect. For much of his reign, Hakim was hostile to religious minorities, most notably demonstrated in his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Al-Ḥākim was born in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah (d. 995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily.
Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this woman was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named Ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.
Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.
In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son.
On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His father's body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter. They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz. Al-Ḥākim was sworn in by Barjawan, a "white eunuch whom al-‘Azīz had appointed as Ustad's tutor.
Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, Ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of wasīta "chief minister" from ‘Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time, the office of sifāra "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amīn ad-Dawla - "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.
Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from ‘Alī.
Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī da‘wah "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called wasītas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-Ḥākim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to al-Ḥākim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity."
Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the ‘Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine Ali and Fatima related ancestry. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the ‘Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry also because of Al-Hakim’s alleged Christian mother he was accused of over sympathizing with non-Muslims and that he gave them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule such accusations where manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids and that eventually led to the persecution of non-Muslims from 1007 till 1012. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including that written by the Mu‘tazili ‘Ali b. Sa‘id al-Istakri (1013).
Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da‘wa (preaching) centered in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da‘is concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da‘is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da‘is soon led to concrete results in Iraq. In 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim.
In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim’s most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the Dar al-‘ilm (House of Knowledge), sometimes also called Dar al-hikma. A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur’an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dar al-‘ilm, which was equipped with a vast library. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da‘is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da‘wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.
In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Hākim "Hākim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar".
Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da‘is a priority. In his time, various study sessions (majalis) were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private ‘wisdom sessions’ (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still adopted by the Druze as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried. It is often abbreviated as Majlis (session).
Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-Ḥākim. This re-established diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.
From 996 to 1006, when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax.
In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abū Bakr, ‘Umār and ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān) and against ‘Ā'isha (wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law ‘Alī, who had demanded the position of Caliph for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad caliphate, Mu‘awiyah I, and others among the Ṣaḥābah of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase as-salāh khayr min an-nawm - "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed the morning prayer be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that ḥayyi ‘alā khayr al-‘amal - "come to the best of deeds" - should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – Salāt at-Tarāwih and Salāt ad-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.
Al-Hakim disliked the influence of the Christian Church in Jerusalem. He ordered random arrests, executions, and the destruction of churches as early as 1001. His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. In 1004 he decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
In 1005, following the tradition of the caliphate, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyār - "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the mintaq or zunnar "belt" and ‘imāmah "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews were to wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews were to replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the Ahl al-Kitab had to wear two different colored shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.
Al-Ḥākim engaged in other erratic behavior in 1005: he ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and had them discarded in the desert. He also forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and go to bed in the mornings and severely punished anyone caught violating his orders.
Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.
From 1007 to 1012, there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile. On October 18, 1009, al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the permission of Al-Hakim's successor.
From 1012 to 1021, al-Ḥākim became more tolerant toward the Jews and Christians and hostile toward the Sunnis. Ironically, he developed a particularly hostile attitude with regard to the Muslim Shiites. It was during this period, in the year 1017, that the unique religion of the Druze began to develop as an independent religion based on the revelation (Kashf) of al-Ḥākim as divine.
While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief dāʿī, there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity.
Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for shirk. Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the Muwahhidun movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.
The Druze find this assertion offensive; they hold ad-Darazi as the first apostate of the sect and their beliefs regarding al-Ḥākim are complex. Following a typical Isma'ili pattern, they place a preeminent teacher at the innermost circle of divinely inspired persons. For the Druze, the exoteric is taught by the Prophet, the esoteric by his secret assistants, and the esoteric of the esoteric by Imām al-Ḥākim.
Confusion and slander by opponents of the Druze were generally left uncorrected as the teachings of the sect are secret and the Druze preferred taqiyya when independence was impossible.
In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 and at the age of 36, Hakim left for one of his night journeys to the al-Muqattam hills outside of Cairo, and never returned. A search found only his donkey and bloodstained garments. The disappearance has remained a mystery.
Al-Ḥākim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
"Ruler by Allah's Command" see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim bi-amr Allah, al- (Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim) (Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh - literally "Ruler by Allah's Command") (b.985 - February 12/13, 1021). Fatimid caliph (r. 996-1021). He was famous because of his excesses, his cruelty and his persecutions, particularly of the Christians. The divine character which certain of his supporters attributed to him is an article of faith with the Druzes. His end has always been a mystery. {See also Caliphs; Druze; and Fatimids.}
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Born in 985, Abu ‘Ali “Mansur” succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-Azīz (975–996) at the age of eleven on October 14, 996 with the caliphal title of al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah. He was the first Fatimid ruler to be born in Egypt.
Arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty, Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim’s Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim’s caliphate.
Initially, Barjawan, his wasita (the equivalent of a vizier, as intermediary between ruler and subjects) acted as the virtual head of the Fatimid state. However, after the latter’s removal in 1000, Hakim held the reins of power in his own hands limiting the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Also Al-Hakim is a central figure in the history of the Druze religious sect. For much of his reign, Hakim was hostile to religious minorities, most notably demonstrated in his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
Al-Ḥākim was born in 985. His father, Caliph Abū Mansūr al-‘Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title as-Sayyidah al-‘Azīziyyah or al-‘Azīzah (d. 995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-‘Azīz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-‘Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily.
Al-‘Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this woman was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named Ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.
Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.
In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-‘Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu‘man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn ‘Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son.
On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His father's body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter. They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor al-Mu‘īzz. Al-Ḥākim was sworn in by Barjawan, a "white eunuch whom al-‘Azīz had appointed as Ustad's tutor.
Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, Ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of wasīta "chief minister" from ‘Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time, the office of sifāra "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amīn ad-Dawla - "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.
Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from ‘Alī.
Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī da‘wah "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called wasītas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-Ḥākim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to al-Ḥākim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity."
Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the ‘Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine Ali and Fatima related ancestry. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the ‘Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry also because of Al-Hakim’s alleged Christian mother he was accused of over sympathizing with non-Muslims and that he gave them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule such accusations where manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids and that eventually led to the persecution of non-Muslims from 1007 till 1012. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including that written by the Mu‘tazili ‘Ali b. Sa‘id al-Istakri (1013).
Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da‘wa (preaching) centered in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da‘is concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da‘is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da‘is soon led to concrete results in Iraq. In 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim.
In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim’s most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the Dar al-‘ilm (House of Knowledge), sometimes also called Dar al-hikma. A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur’an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dar al-‘ilm, which was equipped with a vast library. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da‘is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da‘wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.
In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Hākim "Hākim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar".
Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da‘is a priority. In his time, various study sessions (majalis) were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private ‘wisdom sessions’ (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still adopted by the Druze as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried. It is often abbreviated as Majlis (session).
Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-Ḥākim. This re-established diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.
From 996 to 1006, when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax.
In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abū Bakr, ‘Umār and ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān) and against ‘Ā'isha (wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law ‘Alī, who had demanded the position of Caliph for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad caliphate, Mu‘awiyah I, and others among the Ṣaḥābah of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase as-salāh khayr min an-nawm - "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed the morning prayer be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that ḥayyi ‘alā khayr al-‘amal - "come to the best of deeds" - should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – Salāt at-Tarāwih and Salāt ad-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.
Al-Hakim disliked the influence of the Christian Church in Jerusalem. He ordered random arrests, executions, and the destruction of churches as early as 1001. His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. In 1004 he decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
In 1005, following the tradition of the caliphate, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyār - "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the mintaq or zunnar "belt" and ‘imāmah "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews were to wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews were to replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the Ahl al-Kitab had to wear two different colored shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.
Al-Ḥākim engaged in other erratic behavior in 1005: he ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and had them discarded in the desert. He also forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and go to bed in the mornings and severely punished anyone caught violating his orders.
Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.
From 1007 to 1012, there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile. On October 18, 1009, al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the permission of Al-Hakim's successor.
From 1012 to 1021, al-Ḥākim became more tolerant toward the Jews and Christians and hostile toward the Sunnis. Ironically, he developed a particularly hostile attitude with regard to the Muslim Shiites. It was during this period, in the year 1017, that the unique religion of the Druze began to develop as an independent religion based on the revelation (Kashf) of al-Ḥākim as divine.
While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief dāʿī, there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity.
Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for shirk. Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the Muwahhidun movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.
The Druze find this assertion offensive; they hold ad-Darazi as the first apostate of the sect and their beliefs regarding al-Ḥākim are complex. Following a typical Isma'ili pattern, they place a preeminent teacher at the innermost circle of divinely inspired persons. For the Druze, the exoteric is taught by the Prophet, the esoteric by his secret assistants, and the esoteric of the esoteric by Imām al-Ḥākim.
Confusion and slander by opponents of the Druze were generally left uncorrected as the teachings of the sect are secret and the Druze preferred taqiyya when independence was impossible.
In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 and at the age of 36, Hakim left for one of his night journeys to the al-Muqattam hills outside of Cairo, and never returned. A search found only his donkey and bloodstained garments. The disappearance has remained a mystery.
Al-Ḥākim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
Abu ‘Ali Mansur Tāriqu l-Ḥākim see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Al-Hakim bi Amr al-Lāh see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
"Ruler by Allah's Command" see Hakim bi-amr Allah, al-
Hakim, Muhsin al-
Hakim, Muhsin al- (Muhsin al-Tabataba'i al-Hakim) (1889-1970). Most widely followed Shi ‘a mujtahid (interpreter of Islamic law) of the 1960s. Sayyid al-Hakim was born in Najaf, Iraq, into the religiously prominent Tabataba’i family of Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Pakistan. He was trained in Islamic law and theology in Najaf, studying with Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Yazdi, Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Na’ini, and others. Recognized as the leading teacher at the seminaries in Najaf, he became Shiism’s chief authority when Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Borujerdi of Qom died in 1962. With the tithes of the faithful, forwarded to him by his clerical representatives around the Shi‘a world, Ayatollah al-Hakim administered the hawzah (theological center) of Najaf and provided for the financial needs of educational centers in Iraq and other countries. His hallmark was giving mosques and Islamic centers gifts of books and libraries.
Ayatollah al-Hakim was moderate in his theology. His initiatives were educational, and in his later years, political, as he led Shi‘a clerics in an offensive against communism. His relations with Iraq’s Hashemite government (1923-1958) were amiable, but Iraq’s subsequent governments he deemed to be religiously illegitimate. He sought to meet the challenge of secularism through a series of steps aimed at educating Muslims to the need for Islamic standards in government and society and through cooperation with practicing Sunni Muslims. Among his initiatives were the sponsorship of Jama‘at al-‘Ulama’ (Society of Religious Scholars) and endorsement of Hizb al-Da’wah (Party of the Call [to Islam]), clandestine groups that strove to educate Shi‘as to the need for government that meets minimum Islamic requirements. To this end, he dispatched politically activist clerics to Lebanon and elsewhere and sanctioned political assertiveness by Shi‘as, a major change from traditional Shi‘a quietism and a major contributor to subsequent political ferment in such countries as Iraq.
Ayatollah al-Hakim opposed the Iraqi Government of ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim (1958-1963) because it was secular and because its land reform involved confiscation of private property, considered to be protected by Islamic law. Alarmed by the appeal of “atheistic” communism to Muslims, he issued a fatwa (religious proclamation) in 1960 forbidding Shi‘is to have any connection with the Communist Party. He lent his name to a joint Shi‘a-Sunni political party during the brief period in 1960 when the Iraqi government allowed organized opposition. He also led the Shi‘a clergy in opposition to the Iraqi governments of ‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif and ‘Abd al-Rahman ‘Arif (1963-1968), judging them to be sectarian, as well as secular and socialistic.
During the last two years of his life, Ayatollah al-Hakim was tormented by Iraq’s Ba‘thist Government. In 1969, when he declined to side with the government in its quarrel with the shah of Iran, he was placed under house arrest. His son Mahdi was sentenced to death and funds belonging to the hawzah were confiscated by the government. Ayatollah al-Hakim responded with a fatwa forbidding practicing Shi‘as from membership in the Ba‘th party.
Ayatollah al-Hakim fathered ten sons, many of whom, along with their sons, were executed by the Ba‘th government of Saddam Hussein during the 1980s.
Hakim, Muhsin al- (Muhsin al-Tabataba'i al-Hakim) (1889-1970). Most widely followed Shi ‘a mujtahid (interpreter of Islamic law) of the 1960s. Sayyid al-Hakim was born in Najaf, Iraq, into the religiously prominent Tabataba’i family of Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Pakistan. He was trained in Islamic law and theology in Najaf, studying with Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Yazdi, Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Na’ini, and others. Recognized as the leading teacher at the seminaries in Najaf, he became Shiism’s chief authority when Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Borujerdi of Qom died in 1962. With the tithes of the faithful, forwarded to him by his clerical representatives around the Shi‘a world, Ayatollah al-Hakim administered the hawzah (theological center) of Najaf and provided for the financial needs of educational centers in Iraq and other countries. His hallmark was giving mosques and Islamic centers gifts of books and libraries.
Ayatollah al-Hakim was moderate in his theology. His initiatives were educational, and in his later years, political, as he led Shi‘a clerics in an offensive against communism. His relations with Iraq’s Hashemite government (1923-1958) were amiable, but Iraq’s subsequent governments he deemed to be religiously illegitimate. He sought to meet the challenge of secularism through a series of steps aimed at educating Muslims to the need for Islamic standards in government and society and through cooperation with practicing Sunni Muslims. Among his initiatives were the sponsorship of Jama‘at al-‘Ulama’ (Society of Religious Scholars) and endorsement of Hizb al-Da’wah (Party of the Call [to Islam]), clandestine groups that strove to educate Shi‘as to the need for government that meets minimum Islamic requirements. To this end, he dispatched politically activist clerics to Lebanon and elsewhere and sanctioned political assertiveness by Shi‘as, a major change from traditional Shi‘a quietism and a major contributor to subsequent political ferment in such countries as Iraq.
Ayatollah al-Hakim opposed the Iraqi Government of ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim (1958-1963) because it was secular and because its land reform involved confiscation of private property, considered to be protected by Islamic law. Alarmed by the appeal of “atheistic” communism to Muslims, he issued a fatwa (religious proclamation) in 1960 forbidding Shi‘is to have any connection with the Communist Party. He lent his name to a joint Shi‘a-Sunni political party during the brief period in 1960 when the Iraqi government allowed organized opposition. He also led the Shi‘a clergy in opposition to the Iraqi governments of ‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif and ‘Abd al-Rahman ‘Arif (1963-1968), judging them to be sectarian, as well as secular and socialistic.
During the last two years of his life, Ayatollah al-Hakim was tormented by Iraq’s Ba‘thist Government. In 1969, when he declined to side with the government in its quarrel with the shah of Iran, he was placed under house arrest. His son Mahdi was sentenced to death and funds belonging to the hawzah were confiscated by the government. Ayatollah al-Hakim responded with a fatwa forbidding practicing Shi‘as from membership in the Ba‘th party.
Ayatollah al-Hakim fathered ten sons, many of whom, along with their sons, were executed by the Ba‘th government of Saddam Hussein during the 1980s.
Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakim, Tawfiq al- (Tawfiq el-Hakim) (Tawfik el-Hakim) (Aduu al Mar'a - "Enemy of woman") (October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987). Egyptian dramatist and novelist. Hakim was born in Alexandria. He was principally a dramatist, but he also exercised a great deal of influence on the development of the Egyptian novel. As a dramatist, he was influenced by Europeans like Ibsen and Shaw. He was a master of lines. He dealt with problems in his dramas and was concerned with identity. In his early writings, the Pharaonism movement was prevailing in the cultural life of Egypt, claiming that there was an eternal Egypt which did not change even in difficult times. Hakim dealt with Egyptians, relations and attitudes towards the West, the conflict between the spiritual East and the material West. Of Hakim’s novels, Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, is considered to be the best. It is based upon Hakim’s own experiences in public administration. Hakim’s most famous literary works include: The Return of the Spirit (1933 novel); The People of the Cave (1933 drama); Sharazad (Sherazade - 1934 novel); Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces (1937 novel); Pact with Satan (1938 short stories); and A Sparrow from the East (Bird from the East - 1938 novel).
Hakim was viewed as something of a misogynist in his younger years, having written a few misogynistic articles and remaining a bachelor for an unusually long period of time; he was given the laqab (i.e. epithet) of ('Aduu al Mar'a), meaning "Enemy of woman." However, he eventually married and had two children, a son and a daughter. His wife died in 1977; his son died in 1978 in a car accident. He was survived by his daughter after his death in 1987.
A more complete list of his works follows:
* A Bullet in the Heart, 1926 (Plays)
* Leaving Paradise, 1926 (Plays)
* The People of the Cave, 1933 (Play)
* The Return of the Spirit, 1933 (Novel)
* Sharazad, 1934 (Play)
* Muhammad the Prophet, 1936 (Biography)
* A Man without a Soul, 1937 (Play)
* Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, 1937 (Novel)
* Pact with Satan, 1938 (Short stories)
* A Sparrow from the East, 1938 (Novel)
* Ash'ab, 1938 (Novel)
* The Devil's Era, 1938 (Philosophical Stories)
* My Donkey told me, 1938 (Philosophical Essays)
* Braxa/The problem of ruling, 1939 (Play)
* The Dancer of the Temple, 1939 (Short Stories)
* Pygmalion, 1942
* Solomon the Wise, 1943
* Boss Kudrez's Building, 1948
* King Oedipus, 1949
* Soft Hands, 1954
* Isis, 1955
* The Deal, 1956
* The Sultan's Dilemma, 1960
* The Tree Climber, 1966
* The Fate of a Cockroach, 1966
* Anxiety Bank, 1967
* The Return of Consciousness, 1974
Tawfiq el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Tawfik el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
'Aduu al Mar'a see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
"Enemy of woman" see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakim, Tawfiq al- (Tawfiq el-Hakim) (Tawfik el-Hakim) (Aduu al Mar'a - "Enemy of woman") (October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987). Egyptian dramatist and novelist. Hakim was born in Alexandria. He was principally a dramatist, but he also exercised a great deal of influence on the development of the Egyptian novel. As a dramatist, he was influenced by Europeans like Ibsen and Shaw. He was a master of lines. He dealt with problems in his dramas and was concerned with identity. In his early writings, the Pharaonism movement was prevailing in the cultural life of Egypt, claiming that there was an eternal Egypt which did not change even in difficult times. Hakim dealt with Egyptians, relations and attitudes towards the West, the conflict between the spiritual East and the material West. Of Hakim’s novels, Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, is considered to be the best. It is based upon Hakim’s own experiences in public administration. Hakim’s most famous literary works include: The Return of the Spirit (1933 novel); The People of the Cave (1933 drama); Sharazad (Sherazade - 1934 novel); Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces (1937 novel); Pact with Satan (1938 short stories); and A Sparrow from the East (Bird from the East - 1938 novel).
Hakim was viewed as something of a misogynist in his younger years, having written a few misogynistic articles and remaining a bachelor for an unusually long period of time; he was given the laqab (i.e. epithet) of ('Aduu al Mar'a), meaning "Enemy of woman." However, he eventually married and had two children, a son and a daughter. His wife died in 1977; his son died in 1978 in a car accident. He was survived by his daughter after his death in 1987.
A more complete list of his works follows:
* A Bullet in the Heart, 1926 (Plays)
* Leaving Paradise, 1926 (Plays)
* The People of the Cave, 1933 (Play)
* The Return of the Spirit, 1933 (Novel)
* Sharazad, 1934 (Play)
* Muhammad the Prophet, 1936 (Biography)
* A Man without a Soul, 1937 (Play)
* Diary of a Prosecutor in the Provinces, 1937 (Novel)
* Pact with Satan, 1938 (Short stories)
* A Sparrow from the East, 1938 (Novel)
* Ash'ab, 1938 (Novel)
* The Devil's Era, 1938 (Philosophical Stories)
* My Donkey told me, 1938 (Philosophical Essays)
* Braxa/The problem of ruling, 1939 (Play)
* The Dancer of the Temple, 1939 (Short Stories)
* Pygmalion, 1942
* Solomon the Wise, 1943
* Boss Kudrez's Building, 1948
* King Oedipus, 1949
* Soft Hands, 1954
* Isis, 1955
* The Deal, 1956
* The Sultan's Dilemma, 1960
* The Tree Climber, 1966
* The Fate of a Cockroach, 1966
* Anxiety Bank, 1967
* The Return of Consciousness, 1974
Tawfiq el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Tawfik el-Hakim see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
'Aduu al Mar'a see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
"Enemy of woman" see Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Hakkari
Hakkari. Name of a Kurdish tribe and of a Turkish province in the extreme southeast of Turkey.
Hakkari. Name of a Kurdish tribe and of a Turkish province in the extreme southeast of Turkey.
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