2023: Aimaq - 'A'isha

 

Aimaq
Aimaq (Aimak).  Aimaq means “tribal people” or “nomad” in Turkic or “administrative district” in Mongol.  The term “Aimaq” is used in Afghanistan and Iran to distinguish the Aimaq from the Persians and the Tajik.  The Aimaq tend to be Sunni Muslims living amongst Shi‘a majority populations.  The Aimaq speak Dari (Afghan Persian -- Afghan Farsi) with some Turkic admixture.  The Aimaq are also called Chaha Aimaq and include the Jamshidis, Firuzkuhis, Taimanis, and the Sunni Hazaras of Qala-i Nau.  They were at times independent or allied with a Durrani prince ruling in Herat.  Amir 'Abdul Rahman severely curbed the power of their chiefs and put them under the control of the governor of Herat.  The tribes are semi-nomadic and dwell in conical felt yurts.  They raise sheep and cattle and are concentrated primarily in Herat, Ghor, and Badghis Provinces.

The term “Aimaq” is not an ethnic denomination.  Its contemporary meaning in western Afghanistan and adjacent Iranian Khorasan is “tribal people,” in juxtaposition to the non-tribal population in the area, the Persians (Fariswan) and Tajik.  Linguistically, there is no difference between the Aimaq and the majority of Persians surrounding them.  The local dialects of the Aimaq tribes are very close either to eastern Khorasan Farsi or to Dari, the Herati dialect of Farsi.  In Afghanistan, all of the Aimaq are Sunni (Hanafi school), in contrast to the Shi‘a Aimaq of Iran.  Most numerous among the 20 Aimaq groups is the Char Aimaq (chahar -- four), an administrative grouping of four semi-nomadic or semi-sedentary tribes. 

The Char Aimaq include Jamshidi, Aimaq-Hazara (Sunni Hazara or Qala-e nau), Firuzkuhi and Taimani.  The tribes of Char Aimaq are ethnic formations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were invested some 300 years ago in Badghis as Wardens of the Marches by the Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas II.  Taiman, a Kakar Pushtun from Baluchistan, built a coalition in the mountains of Ghor around 1650.  In this case, the tribe bears the name of the de facto founder.  The Zai Haki, traditional rulers of the northern Firuzkuhi, claim descent from Durrani Pushtun ancestors.  This tribe takes its name from Firuzkuhi -- Mountain of Turquoise -- the twelfth to thirteenth century capital of the Ghorid dynasty on the upper Heri-rud River. 

After the downfall of Safavid power in Persia in the eighteenth century, Badghis became the prey of marauding Sunni Turkmen hunting for Persian Shi‘a slaves in Khorasan, whom they sold on the markets of the Uzbek khanates of Khiva and Bukhara.  The Jamshidi joined them, whereas the Aimaq-Hazara retreated farther to the east.  Jamshidi fought Hazaras, and the three contending factions of the Firuzkuhi took part in these conflicts. 

As far as history can be traced, the Char Aimaq have never been politically united.  In the nineteenth century, the situation in Khorasan and Badghis provoked more than one international crisis.  The Persian quest for Herat was backed by czarist Russia, which intended to incorporate Badghis into the newly acquired Central Asian territories.  The British were anxious to maintain their influence in Afghanistan, where two branches of the reigning Durrani Pushtun clan were fighting for supremacy.  Herat, the traditional economic, political and spiritual center for all the Aimaq, was the focus of activities in all these affairs.  The Aimaq leaders sided, at one time or another, with either of the contending parties in order to retain their power and to secure the homesteads of their people. 

During the second half of the nineteenth century and early in this century, the Jamshidi were forced to lead a nomadic life.  All of the tribe or greater parts of it had been exiled in Persia, in Khiva and in northeast Afghanistan.  Thousands of Taimani and Tajik of Ghor were forcibly transplanted to the north of Herat, and the most populous of the other Aimaq tribes, the Timuri, suffered a virtual diaspora.  The situation calmed down only after the delineation of Afghanistan’s northwestern border in 1886. 

Amir Abdur Rahman (1879-1901) cruelly, but successfully, had gained power even in the most outlying areas.  The power of the traditional tribal leaders had been weakened, if not smashed.  A new type of tribal chief supplanted the hereditary aristocrats.  Leaders of the patrilineal lineages started to compete.  The segmented structure of contemporary Aimaq tribes is a consequence of their ethnogenesis. 
“tribal people” see Aimaq
“nomad” see Aimaq
Aimak see Aimaq

AIS
AIS.  See Arme Islamique du Salut.
Arme Islamique du Salut see AIS.

Aisa Kili Ngirmaramma
Aisa Kili Ngirmaramma (Aissa Koli).  Ruler of the Kanuri empire of Bornu (r. 1563-1570).  A daughter of the previous ruler, Dunama (r.c. 1545-1562/3), she is not mentioned in Arabic sources, which would be due to a tendency of Muslim sources to ignore a woman sovereign.  However, local tradition makes no attempt to conceal her rule.  It is said that she preserved the throne until the famous Idris Aloma was able to assume it, and then stepped down. 

Aisa Kili Ngirmaramma, also called Aissa Koli, was a queen regnant in the Kanem-Bornu Empire from 1563 to 1570.

There are some discrepancies about the parentage and dates of her rule. The Arabic historians did not record her rule, but they are noted to have ignored female rulers.  It is also noted that her successor Idris Aloma, imposed a Muslim bureaucracy on the pagan population and that later Islamic records ignored her because of her sex. She is, however, preserved in local African tradition as are her male counterparts.

Aissa Koli was reportedly the daughter of King Ali Gaji Zanani.  Her father ruled for one year and was succeeded by a relative, Dunama, who died the year of his succession. During Dunama's reign, he had declared that all the sons of his predecessor should be killed, and Aissa's five-year-old half-brother Idris was therefore sent away to Bulala in secret by his mother. When Dunama died, Aissa succeeded him as ruler in the absence of any male heir, as she was unaware that her half-brother was still alive. According to another version, Aissa was instead the daughter of King Dunama.

Queen Aissa ruled for seven years, which was the stipulated term for all rulers, as the custom was not that a monarch reign for life, but only for a fixed period and she thereby fulfilled a full term. When her term was up, she was informed of the existence of her half-brother, who was by then twelve years of age, named Idris. She called him back and had him crowned as her successor, and continued as his adviser for the first years of his reign.

Ngirmaramma, Aisa Kili see Aisa Kili Ngirmaramma

Aissa Koli see Aisa Kili Ngirmaramma

‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr (‘A’isha) (Aishah) (Ayeshah)  (c.614-678).  Abu Bakr’s daughter and one of Muhammad’s wives.  ‘A’isha was born in Mecca and became the third and favorite wife of the Prophet Muhammad after the death of Muhammad’s first wife, Khadija (c.555-619).  In order to strengthen ties with Abu Bakr, his chief legal adviser, Muhammad married ‘A’isha, Abu Bakr’s daughter, when she was about nine years old, shortly after the hijra.  When ‘A’isha went to live in an apartment in Muhammad’s house, she took her toys and games.  This childhood innocence coupled with her charm and beauty made her Muhammad’s favorite.   Even after subsequent marriages of the Prophet, ‘A’isha remained devoted to Muhammad. 

‘A’isha became the leader in the harem, but her relations with Muhammad were marked by an incident in which she was accused of infidelity.  In 627, while waiting in a camp from which the caravan had moved off, ‘A’isha was found by a young man who escorted her to Medina.  This led to gossip concerning possible infidelity which was countered by a revelation to the Prophet.  ‘A’isha’s innocence was proved by the Qur’an in Sura 24:11-20, but 'Ali ibn Abi Talib was among those who advised Muhammad to send ‘A’isha back to her father to avoid even the hint of impropriety.  This advice earned 'Ali, ‘A’isha’s bitter enmity.

Nevertheless, for her faithfulness, ‘A’isha is known among Muslims as “Mother of the Believers.”  After the death of Muhammad in 632, ‘A’isha, a childless widow of 18, helped her father become the first caliph, or ruler, of the Muslims.

‘A’isha was always loyal to Muhammad and to her father, but seems to have played no major role in politics until the caliphate of ‘Uthman, whom she opposed on moral grounds.  ‘A’isha was not implicated in ‘Uthman’s death, being in Mecca at the time, but she may have been there organizing her own party, for shortly after the murder she was found in Basra with an army of a thousand, including Talha and Zubayr, who were, while claiming to seek vengeance for ‘Uthman, also opposed the caliphate of 'Ali. 

‘A’isha’s forces were defeated by the forces of 'Ali at the Battle of the Camel in December of 656. However, after the defeat, ‘A’isha herself was well treated and lived until July of 678. 

Because of her unique stature in Islam, ‘A’isha is the source of many hadith. 

Aisha (Aisha meaning "she who lives"), was the third wife of Muhammad. In Islamic writings, she is thus often referred to by the title "Mother of the Believers" (in Arabic: umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives as "Mothers of Believers" in the Qur'an (33.6), and later, as the "Mother of Believers", as in Qutb's Ma'alim fi al-Tariq. She is quoted as the source for many hadith, sacred traditions about Muhammad's life, with Muhammad's personal life being the topic of most narrations. She narrated 2210 hadiths out of which 316 hadiths are mentioned in both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.

Aisha was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Abu Bakr belonged to the Banu Taym sub-clan of the tribe of Quraysh, the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 615.  A number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions.

According to the early Islamic historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubayr ibn Mut'im, son of Mut‘im ibn ‘Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad.
 
Aisha was initially betrothed to Jubayr ibn Mut'im, a Muslim whose father, though pagan, was friendly to the Muslims. When Khawla bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad marry Aisha after the death of Muhammad's first wife (Khadijah bint Khuwaylid), the previous agreement regarding marriage of Aisha with ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent.  It is suggested that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr, and that the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.

According to the traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad. She stayed in her parents' home until the age of nine, when the marriage was consummated. The marriage was delayed until after the Hijra, or migration to Medina, in 622. Aisha and her older sister Asma bint Abu Bakr only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already migrated there. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply. The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years, but mention that after the wedding, she continued to play with her toys, and Muhammad entered into the spirit of these games.

Most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife, and it was in her company that Muhammad reportedly received the most revelations. Some accounts claim it was the curtain from her tent that Muhammad used as his battle standard.

Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. Aisha claimed that she had left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace, but when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan ibn Al-Muattal and taken to rejoin the caravan. This led to speculation that she had committed adultery with Safwan. Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah defended Aisha's reputation. Shortly after this, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses. These verses also rebuked Aisha's accusers, whom Muhammad ordered to receive forty lashes.

Ibn Kathir wrote in his biography of Muhammad that Muhammad's wife Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. Muhammad was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya.  At least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife Hafsa bint Umar. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God.

Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were taking advantage of their husband, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they had admitted their wrongdoing, and harmony was restored.

Ibn Ishaq, in his Sirah Rasul Allah, states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. It highlighted Muhammad's fondness for Aisha. Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. Indeed, a passage in the Qur'an (Sura 33:53) forbade any Muslim to marry a widow of Muhammad.

After Muhammad's death in 632, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph, or leader of the Muslims. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shi'a. The Shi'a believe that 'Ali had been chosen to lead by Muhammad, but the Sunni maintain that the Muslim community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes.

Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 he was succeeded by Umar, as caliph. Umar reigned for ten years, and was then followed by Uthman Ibn Affan in 644 AD. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns. Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca.

In 656, Aisha took part in provoking the people to kill Uthman. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. Ali is reported to have refused the caliphate. He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted.

Aisha raised an army which confronted Ali's army outside the city of Basra.  It was during this engagement that Muslim slaughtered Muslim for the first time.  A battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel.  Accordingly, this 656 battle is called the Battle of the Camel.

Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (a brother of Aisha), who was one of the commanders in Ali's army

Historians see Aisha as a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age with some historians accrediting up to one-quarter of the Islamic Sharia (Islamic religious law), based on the collection of hadiths, to have stemmed from her narrations. Aisha became the most prominent of Muhammad’s wives and is revered as a role model by millions of women.

After Khadijah al-Kubra (the Great) and Fatimah az-Zahra (the Resplendent), Aishah as-Siddiqah (the one who affirms the Truth) is regarded as the best woman in Islam by Sunni Muslims. She often regretted her involvement in war but lived long enough to regain status and position. She died peacefully in the year 678 in the month of Ramadan. As she instructed, she was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi -- in the City of Light -- beside other companions of Muhammad.

The Sunnis' view of 'A'isha is a positive one. Many believe that she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the Ahl al-Bayt.

However, the Shi'a view of 'A'isha is generally a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up the fitnah of the time. Her participation in the Battle of the Camel is widely considered her most significant sign of such contempt. They also do not believe that she conducted herself in an appropriate manner in her role as Muhammad's wife .

‘A’isha see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Aishah see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Ayeshah see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
“Mother of the Believers”   see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr
"She Who Lives" see ‘A’isha bint Abu Bakr