Abu Nasr al-Farabi
Abu Nasr al-Farabi (c.872-950). One of the most outstanding and renowned Muslim philosophers. Of Turkish origin, he was known as “the second teacher”, the first being Aristotle. He was influenced by the Aristotelian teaching in Baghdad and the late Alexandrian interpretation of Greek philosophy. He had a great impact on authors such as Ikhwan al-Safa’, al-Mas‘udi and Miskawayh. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Maymun (Maimonides) appreciated him greatly. {See Farabi.}
Abu Nasr al-Farabi (c.872-950). One of the most outstanding and renowned Muslim philosophers. Of Turkish origin, he was known as “the second teacher”, the first being Aristotle. He was influenced by the Aristotelian teaching in Baghdad and the late Alexandrian interpretation of Greek philosophy. He had a great impact on authors such as Ikhwan al-Safa’, al-Mas‘udi and Miskawayh. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Maymun (Maimonides) appreciated him greatly. {See Farabi.}
Abu Nidal
Abu Nidal (Sabri Khalil al-Banna) (May 1937 - August 16, 2002). Palestinian politician and guerilla leader. He was the founder of Fatah -- The Revolutionary Council, more commonly known as the Abu Nidal Organization (ANO). At the height of his power in the 1970s and 1980s, Abu Nidal, or "father of the struggle," was widely regarded as the world's most dangerous terrorist leader.
Abu Nidal, whose real name is Sabri Khalil al-Banna, was born in Jaffa in may 1937. His father, Hajj Khalil al-Banna, was a wealthy merchant who made his money from the 6,000 acres of orange groves he owned that extended from the south of Jaffa to Majdal, today Ashkelon in Israel. He raised his large family in luxury in a three story stone house with a large porch overlooking the beach.
Khalil's money meant that he could afford to take several wives. Khalil had 13 wives who gave birth to 16 sons and eight daughters. Abu Nidal's mother had been one of the family's maids. The young Alawite girl was just 16 years old when Khalil married her against the wishes of his family. She gave birth to Sabri, Khalil's 12th child. Because the family disapproved of the marriage, Abu Nidal was allegedly scorned from an early age by his older half-brothers and half-sisters.
Khalil sent Abu Nidal to the College des Freres, a French Roman Catholic mission school in the Old Jaffa quarter. However, when Khalil died in 1945, when Abu Nidal was seven years old, the family turned his mother out of the house. The older brothers, more devout Muslims than the father had been, took Abu Nidal out of the mission school and enrolled him in a Muslim school in Jerusalem, now known as al-Umaria, at the time one of the most prestigious private schools in the country. He attended the school for about two years. It is theorized that Abu Nidal's unhappy formative years created a psychopathic and paranoid Abu Nidal.
At the outset of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Jaffa found itself under siege. Life became difficult, and the disruption of the citrus business hit the family's income. Booby-trapped cars were exploding in the center of Jaffa and there were food shortages. In 1948, Abu Nidal's family fled Jaffa and moved into their house near Majdal, intending to be away from Jaffa for only a few days. However, the Jewish militias arrived in Majdal too, and they had to flee again. This time they ended up in the al-Burj refugee camp in Gaza, then under the control of Egypt. There the family spent nine months living in tents, dependent on the United Nations Relief and Work Agency for their weekly allowane of oil, rice, and potatoes. The experience had a powerful effect on Abu Nidal, wha was accustomed to wealth and servants, but who then found himself living in abject poverty.
Later the al-Banna family moved to Nablus on the West Bank, where Abu Nidal spent his teenage years. He completed elementary school and graduated from high school in 1955.
In 1955, Abu Nidal joined the Ba’ath party of Jordan. In 1957, when the Ba’ath Party was suppressed, Abu Nidal moved to Saudi Arabia and became a secret member of Al Fatah. In 1960, he set himself up as a painter and electrician in Riyadh, and later went on to work as a casual laborer for Aramco.
Abu Nidal remained very close to his mother and returned to Nablus from Saudi Arabia every year to visit her. During one of those visits in 1962, he met his future wife, Hiyam al-Bitar, whose family had also fled from Jaffa. They had a son, Nidal, and two daughters, Bisan and Na'ifa. Decades later, in the 1980s, he boasted that his daughter Bisan had no idea he was Abu Nidal.
In Saudi Arabia, Abu Nidal helped found a small group of young Palestinians who called themselves the Palestine Secret Organization. His political activism and vocal denunciation of Israel drew the attention of his employer, Aramco, which fired him, and then the Saudi government, which imprisoned, tortured, and expelled him as an unwelcome radical. Abu Nidal returned to Nablus with his wife and young family, and it was around this time that he joined Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction of the PLO.
Abu Nidal worked as an odd job man in Nablus until June 1967. He was committed to Palestinian politics but was not particularly active. All that changed after Israel won the 1967 Six Day War, capturing the Golan Heights, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. The sight of Israeli tanks rolling into Nablus, after he had already been forced to flee from Jaffa because of the war, and from Saudi Arabia because of his activism, was a traumatic and pivotal experience for Abu Nidal. Afterwards, his passive involvement in Palestinian politics was transformed into a deadly hatred of Israel.
Abu Nidal moved to Amman, Jordan, setting up a trading company called Impex, and joining the Fatah underground, where he was asked to choose a nom de guerre. He chose Abu Nidal, in part after his son, Nidal, since it is a custom in the Arab world for men to call themselves Abu ("father of"), followed by their first son's name; and in other part because the name means "father of the struggle."
Impex soon became a front for Fatah activities, serving as a meeting place for members and as a conduit for funds with which to pay them. This was to become a hallmark of Abu Nidal's business career. Companies controlled by the ANO served to make him a rich man by engaging in legitimate business deals, while acting as cover for his political violence and his multi-million dollar arms deals, mercenary activities, and protection rackets.
In 1969, Abu Nidal was selected Al Fatah’s representative in Sudan and, in July 1970, he was sent to Baghdad as Al Fatah’s representative, where he was strongly influenced by Iraqi political views. Abu Nidal arrived in Iraq just two months before Black September when Hussein's army drove the fedayeen out of Jordan, with the loss of between 5,000 and 10,000 Palestinian lives in just ten days. Abu Nidal's absence from Jordan during this period, where it was clear that King Hussein was about to act against the Palestinian, raised the suspicion within the movement that he had acted only to save himself.
Just before the PLO expulsion from Jordan, and during the three years that followed it, several radical Palestinian and other Arab factions split from the PLO and began to launch their own military or terrorist attacks against Israeli military and civilian targets as well as civilian targets overseas. These included George Habash's PFLP, DFLP, Arab Liberation Front, as-Sa'iqa, Palestine Liberation Front (at the time headed by Ahmed Jibril who went on to set up the radical PFLP-GC), and Black September, a group of radical fedayeen associated with Arafat's Fatah, who carried out operations using Black September as a cover.
Shortly after King Hussein expelled the fedayeen, Abu Nidal began broadcasting criticism of the PLO over Voice of Palestine, the PLO's own radio station in Iraq, accusing them of cowardice for having agreed to a ceasefire with Hussein, and during Fatah's Third Congress in Damascus in 1971, Abu Nidal emerged as the leader of a leftist alliance against Arafat. Together with Abu Daoud (one of Fatah's most ruthless commanders, who was later involved in the 1972 Black September kidnapping and killing of 11 Israeli athletes at the Olympic Village in Munich) and Palestinian intellectual Naji Allush, Abu Nidal called for Arafat to be overthrown as an enemy of the Palestinian people, and demanded more democracy within Fatah, as well as violent revenge against King Hussein.
In 1974, Abu Nidal was expelled from Al Fatah after criticizing Al Fatah’s establishment of a national authority for a liberated Palestine. Abu Nidal responded to this expulsion by building his own group, called Fatah Revolutionary Council, which received financial support from Iraq. Abu Nidal also used Baghdad as his base. In November of 1974, Al Fatah accused Abu Nidal of murder plots, and sentenced him to death. In 1983, Abu Nidal was thrown out of Baghdad because Iraq needed United States support in its war against Iran. Abu Nidal then moved to Syria where he started to cooperate with the government.
In 1985, Abu Nidal was employed to hinder an agreement between Jordan, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Abu Nidal’s operatives were used to attack international airlines in Vienna and Rome, and a Pan-Am flight was hijacked in Karachi. In September 1986, after Western accusations of Syrian participation in international terrorism, Abu Nidal’s training camps there were closed down. It is believed that Abu Nidal then moved to Libya. In 1991, one of the PLO’s highest officers, Salah Khalaf, was killed in Tunis by attack of Abu Nidal’s men.
Abu Nidal is believed to have ordered attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring over 900 people. The group's most notorious attacks were on the El Al ticket counters at Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985, when Arab gunmen doped on amphetamines opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings, killing 18 and wounding 120.
Abu Nidal died of between one and four gunshot wounds in Baghdad in August 2002, believed by Palestinian sources to have been killed on the orders of Saddam Hussein, although the Iraqi government claimed that he committed suicide.
Sabri Khalil al-Banna see Abu Nidal
Nidal, Abu see Abu Nidal
Banna, Sabri Khalil al- see Abu Nidal
Father of the Struggle see Abu Nidal
Abu Nidal Organization
Abu Nidal Organization (ANO). Anti-Western and anti-Israel international terrorist organization led by Sabri al-Banna (Abu Nidal) which left the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1974. Its organizational struture was composed of various functional committees, including political, military and financial. The ANO carried out terrorist attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 900 people. Targets included the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, and various Arab countries. Major attacks included the Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985, the Never Shalom synagogue in Istanbul, the Pan Am flight 73 hijacking in Karachi in September 1986, and the City of Poros day excursion ship attack in Greece in July 1988. The ANO is suspected of assassinating PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security chief Abu Hul in Tunis in January 1991. The ANO assassinated a Jordanian diplomat in Lebanon in January 1994, but has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s. Al-Banna relocated to Iraq in December 1998, where the group maintained a presence. Financial problems and internal disorganization reduced the group’s capabilities, activities shut down in Libya and Egypt in 1999.
By all accounts, the ANO reflected its founder's personality and was more a mercenary group willing to act on behalf of diverse interests, than one guided by political principle. A variety of names were used as cover for different operations: Fatah (the Revolutionary Council); the Palestinian National Liberation Movement; Black June; Black September; The Revolutionary Arab Brigades; the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims; the Egyptian Revolution; Revolutionary Egypt; Al-Asifa (The Storm), a name also used by Fatah; Al-Iqab (The Punishment); and The Arab Nationalist Youth Organization.
Abu Nidal originally chose the name Black June for the group, in order to mark his disapproval of the 1976 Syrian intervention in Lebanon in support of the Christians, but changed it to Fatah-Revolutionary Council when he switched bases from Iraq to Syria in 1981. In later years, the group was most commonly referred to as the Abu Nidal Organization or Abu Nidal group.
The group was based on terror and intimidation, with members not being allowed to leave once recruited, and everyone living under suspicion of being a double agent. The ANO's official newspaper Filastin al-Thawra regularly carried stories announcing the execution of traitors within the movement. Each new recruit was given several days to write out his entire life story by hand, including names and addresses of family members, friends, and lovers, then was required to sign a paper saying he agreed to be executed if anything was found to be untrue. Every so often, the recruit would be asked to rewrite the whole thing; any discrepancies were taken as evidence that he was a spy, probably for Israel or Arafat, and he would be asked to write it out again, often after days of being beaten and nights spent forced to sleep standing up.
By 1987, Abu Nidal had turned the full force of his terror tactics inwards on the ANO itself. Members were tortured until they confessed to betrayal and disloyalty. There were also a number of mass purges.
Abu Nidal died on August 19, 2002.
ANO see Abu Nidal Organization
Abu Nidal Organization (ANO). Anti-Western and anti-Israel international terrorist organization led by Sabri al-Banna (Abu Nidal) which left the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1974. Its organizational struture was composed of various functional committees, including political, military and financial. The ANO carried out terrorist attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 900 people. Targets included the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, and various Arab countries. Major attacks included the Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985, the Never Shalom synagogue in Istanbul, the Pan Am flight 73 hijacking in Karachi in September 1986, and the City of Poros day excursion ship attack in Greece in July 1988. The ANO is suspected of assassinating PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security chief Abu Hul in Tunis in January 1991. The ANO assassinated a Jordanian diplomat in Lebanon in January 1994, but has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s. Al-Banna relocated to Iraq in December 1998, where the group maintained a presence. Financial problems and internal disorganization reduced the group’s capabilities, activities shut down in Libya and Egypt in 1999.
By all accounts, the ANO reflected its founder's personality and was more a mercenary group willing to act on behalf of diverse interests, than one guided by political principle. A variety of names were used as cover for different operations: Fatah (the Revolutionary Council); the Palestinian National Liberation Movement; Black June; Black September; The Revolutionary Arab Brigades; the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims; the Egyptian Revolution; Revolutionary Egypt; Al-Asifa (The Storm), a name also used by Fatah; Al-Iqab (The Punishment); and The Arab Nationalist Youth Organization.
Abu Nidal originally chose the name Black June for the group, in order to mark his disapproval of the 1976 Syrian intervention in Lebanon in support of the Christians, but changed it to Fatah-Revolutionary Council when he switched bases from Iraq to Syria in 1981. In later years, the group was most commonly referred to as the Abu Nidal Organization or Abu Nidal group.
The group was based on terror and intimidation, with members not being allowed to leave once recruited, and everyone living under suspicion of being a double agent. The ANO's official newspaper Filastin al-Thawra regularly carried stories announcing the execution of traitors within the movement. Each new recruit was given several days to write out his entire life story by hand, including names and addresses of family members, friends, and lovers, then was required to sign a paper saying he agreed to be executed if anything was found to be untrue. Every so often, the recruit would be asked to rewrite the whole thing; any discrepancies were taken as evidence that he was a spy, probably for Israel or Arafat, and he would be asked to write it out again, often after days of being beaten and nights spent forced to sleep standing up.
By 1987, Abu Nidal had turned the full force of his terror tactics inwards on the ANO itself. Members were tortured until they confessed to betrayal and disloyalty. There were also a number of mass purges.
Abu Nidal died on August 19, 2002.
ANO see Abu Nidal Organization
Abu Nuwas
Abu Nuwas (Hasan ibn Hani Abu Nuwas) (Abu Nuwas al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami) (c.747 - c.813). Arab poet who is known for his poems on wine and pederasty, his panegyrics and hunting poems. He was connected with the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, and his name appears in the Thousand and One Nights (The Arabian Nights). Abu Nuwas was actually of half Persian heritage. He became a favorite of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, but was constantly on the verge of imprisonment or execution on account of his tendency to speak his mind.
Abu Nuwas was born in the city of Ahvaz in Persia. He was born to a father whom he never knew, Hani, who was a soldier in the army of Marwan II. His Persian mother, named Golban ("Rose"), worked as a weaver. His given name was al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami. The name "Abu Nuwas" is actually a nickname meaning "Father of the Lock of Hair" or "Father of Curls," a reference ot the two long sidelocks that hung down to his shoulders.
When Abu Nuwas was still a boy, his mother sold him to a grocer from Basra, Sa'ad al-Yashira. Sa'ad took Abu Nuwas from Ahvaz, the townof his birth to his home in Basra, in those days a great seaport, and the abode of the mythical Sinbad the Sailor.
In Basra, Abu Nuwas studied the Qur'an and grammar at the mosque. His grace and beauty attracted the attention of his older cousin, the handsome blond poet Waliba ibn al-Hubab. Having been granted his freedom by Sa'ad, Waliba became Abu Nuwas' lover and teacher, taking his student to live with him in Kufa. A couple of years later, the adolescent Abu Nuwas returned to Basra to study under Khalaf al-Ahmar, a master of pre-Islamic poetry. He then spent a year among the Bedouin (desert nomads) to gain purity of language. However, the young man, already a lover of the finer things in life, was not enamored of the primitive life of the ascetic nomads.
Abu Nuwas set aside older, traditional writing forms for drinking songs and witty, erotic lyrics on male love that resonate with an authenticity born of experience, soon becoming famous, if not notorious. His love poems celebrate love for a beautiful boy, often embodied in the figure of the saqi, the Christian wine boy at the tavern. The theme was picked up time and again over the ensuing centuries by the best poets of Iran and Arabia, such as Omar al-Khayyam, Hafiz, and countless others who shared his tastes.
Abu Nuwas migrated to Baghdad, possibly in the company of Walibah ibn al-Hubab, and soon became renowned for his witty and humorous poetry, which dealt not with the traditional desert themes, but with urban life and the joys of wine and drinking (khamriyyat), and ribald humor (mujuniyyat). Abu Nuwas arrived in Baghdad around the time that the young Harun al-Rashid ascended to the throne. In those days, Baghdad was the capital of both Arabia and Persia. The time was a golden age of Arab culture and learning, and the city was the biggest in the world of its day. Perhaps he was hoping to curry favor with the new caliph, a more enlightened ruler than his brutal predecessor. However, being a court poet exposed Abu Nuwas to the whims and vagaries of an absolute monarch. Though not as capricious as some, Harun al-Rashid was conscious of having to maintain the aura of propriety incumbent upon the Defender of the Faith, and more than once threw Abu Nuwas into prison for his drinking and his impertinent verse.
His commissioned work includes poems on hunting, the love of women, and panegyrics to his patrons. He was infamous for his mockery and satire, two of his favorite themes being the sexual passivity of men and the sexual intemperance of women. Despite his celebration of male sexual freedom, he was less than sympathetic towards lesbianism, and often mocked what he perceived as its inanity. Abu Nuwas liked to shock society by openly writing about things which Islam forbade. He may have been the first Arab poet to write about masturbation.
Abu Nuwas was forced to flee to Egypt for a time, after he wrote an elegiac poem praising the Barmakis, the powerful family which had been toppled and massacred by the caliph, Harun al-Rashid. He returned to Baghdad in 809 upon the death of Harun al-Rashid. The subsequent ascension of Muhammad al-Amin, Harun al-Rashid's twenty-two year old libertine son (and former student of Abu Nuwas) was a mighty stroke of luck for Abu Nuwas. In fact, most scholars believe that Abu Nuwas wrote most of his poems during the reign of Al-Amin. His most famous royal commission was a poem which he composed in praise of al-Amin. Al-Amin shared the poet's tastes for hunting, wine and boys, and was famous in his own right for his affair with his eunuch. However, even he grew impatient with the poet, and had him thrown in jail for his exploits at the tavern table.
However, Abu Nuwas outlived caliph al-Amin as well, who lost his life in a war over the succession waged by his brother only four years after ascending to the throne. Amin was overthrown by his puritanical brother, al-Ma'mun, who had no tolerance for Abu Nuwas.
Some later accounts claim that fear of prison made Abu Nuwas repent his old ways and become deeply religious, while others believe his later, penitent poems were simply written in hopes of winning the caliph's pardon. It was said that al-Ma'mun's secretary Zonbor tricked Abu Nuwas into writing a satire against Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet, while Nuwas was drunk. Zonbor then deliberately read the poem aloud in public, and ensured Nuwas' continuing imprisonment.
Abu Nuwas either died in prison or was poisoned by Ismail bin Abu Sehl, or both.
Abu Nuwas is considered one of the greats of classical Arabic literature. He influenced many later writers, to mention only Omar Khayyam, and Hafiz -- both of them Persian poets. A hedonistic caricature of Abu Nuwas appears in several of the Thousand and One Nights tales. Among his best known poems are the ones ridiculing the "Olde Arabia" nostalgia for the life of the Bedouin, and enthusiastically praising the up-to-date life in Baghdad as a vivid contrast.
Abu Nuwas’ poetry represents an intermediate stage between the Traditional and Modern styles. Abu Nuwas broke away from the traditional themes and language of the pre-Islamic poets. He abandoned the qasida-- the long ode -- which was then regarded as the real test of a poet’s mastery. Instead, Abu Nuwas turned to more lyrical love poetry, wine songs, panegyric and satire.
Abu Nuwas achieved a spectacular success with his revival of the Bedouin hunting song as an art form. Many of these genres had been used in the preceding century, but Abu Nuwas was regarded as the greatest exponent of them who had yet appeared. Abu Nuwas was one of the last poets to learn his craft by association with his predecessors and with desert Arabs. The successors of Abu Nuwas were generally trained in schools of philology and, therefore, were more concerned with linguistic innovations and survivals than with the subject matter of their poetry.
Abu Nuwas also appeared frequently in the Arabian Nights as a salacious member of Harun al-Rashid’s court rather than as a poet. Many anecdotes are told about him in Arabic literature. In most of these anecdotes, Abu Nuwas appears unfavorably. However, it would be unjust to judge him by such anecdotes.
Abu Nuwas' freedom of expression especially on matters forbidden by Islamic norms continue to excite the animus of censors. While his works were freely in circulation until the early years of the twentieth century, in 1932, the first modern censored edition of his work appeared in Cairo.
In East Africa's Swahili culture, the name of Abu Nuwas is quite popular as "Abunuwasi." There it is connected to a number of stories which otherwise go by names like Nasreddin, Guba or "the Mullah" in folktale and literature of Islamic societies.
Nuwas, Abu see Abu Nuwas
Hasan ibn Hani Abu Nuwas see Abu Nuwas
Abu Nuwas al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami see Abu Nuwas
Father of the Lock of Hair see Abu Nuwas
Father of Curls see Abu Nuwas
Abu Nuwas (Hasan ibn Hani Abu Nuwas) (Abu Nuwas al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami) (c.747 - c.813). Arab poet who is known for his poems on wine and pederasty, his panegyrics and hunting poems. He was connected with the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, and his name appears in the Thousand and One Nights (The Arabian Nights). Abu Nuwas was actually of half Persian heritage. He became a favorite of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, but was constantly on the verge of imprisonment or execution on account of his tendency to speak his mind.
Abu Nuwas was born in the city of Ahvaz in Persia. He was born to a father whom he never knew, Hani, who was a soldier in the army of Marwan II. His Persian mother, named Golban ("Rose"), worked as a weaver. His given name was al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami. The name "Abu Nuwas" is actually a nickname meaning "Father of the Lock of Hair" or "Father of Curls," a reference ot the two long sidelocks that hung down to his shoulders.
When Abu Nuwas was still a boy, his mother sold him to a grocer from Basra, Sa'ad al-Yashira. Sa'ad took Abu Nuwas from Ahvaz, the townof his birth to his home in Basra, in those days a great seaport, and the abode of the mythical Sinbad the Sailor.
In Basra, Abu Nuwas studied the Qur'an and grammar at the mosque. His grace and beauty attracted the attention of his older cousin, the handsome blond poet Waliba ibn al-Hubab. Having been granted his freedom by Sa'ad, Waliba became Abu Nuwas' lover and teacher, taking his student to live with him in Kufa. A couple of years later, the adolescent Abu Nuwas returned to Basra to study under Khalaf al-Ahmar, a master of pre-Islamic poetry. He then spent a year among the Bedouin (desert nomads) to gain purity of language. However, the young man, already a lover of the finer things in life, was not enamored of the primitive life of the ascetic nomads.
Abu Nuwas set aside older, traditional writing forms for drinking songs and witty, erotic lyrics on male love that resonate with an authenticity born of experience, soon becoming famous, if not notorious. His love poems celebrate love for a beautiful boy, often embodied in the figure of the saqi, the Christian wine boy at the tavern. The theme was picked up time and again over the ensuing centuries by the best poets of Iran and Arabia, such as Omar al-Khayyam, Hafiz, and countless others who shared his tastes.
Abu Nuwas migrated to Baghdad, possibly in the company of Walibah ibn al-Hubab, and soon became renowned for his witty and humorous poetry, which dealt not with the traditional desert themes, but with urban life and the joys of wine and drinking (khamriyyat), and ribald humor (mujuniyyat). Abu Nuwas arrived in Baghdad around the time that the young Harun al-Rashid ascended to the throne. In those days, Baghdad was the capital of both Arabia and Persia. The time was a golden age of Arab culture and learning, and the city was the biggest in the world of its day. Perhaps he was hoping to curry favor with the new caliph, a more enlightened ruler than his brutal predecessor. However, being a court poet exposed Abu Nuwas to the whims and vagaries of an absolute monarch. Though not as capricious as some, Harun al-Rashid was conscious of having to maintain the aura of propriety incumbent upon the Defender of the Faith, and more than once threw Abu Nuwas into prison for his drinking and his impertinent verse.
His commissioned work includes poems on hunting, the love of women, and panegyrics to his patrons. He was infamous for his mockery and satire, two of his favorite themes being the sexual passivity of men and the sexual intemperance of women. Despite his celebration of male sexual freedom, he was less than sympathetic towards lesbianism, and often mocked what he perceived as its inanity. Abu Nuwas liked to shock society by openly writing about things which Islam forbade. He may have been the first Arab poet to write about masturbation.
Abu Nuwas was forced to flee to Egypt for a time, after he wrote an elegiac poem praising the Barmakis, the powerful family which had been toppled and massacred by the caliph, Harun al-Rashid. He returned to Baghdad in 809 upon the death of Harun al-Rashid. The subsequent ascension of Muhammad al-Amin, Harun al-Rashid's twenty-two year old libertine son (and former student of Abu Nuwas) was a mighty stroke of luck for Abu Nuwas. In fact, most scholars believe that Abu Nuwas wrote most of his poems during the reign of Al-Amin. His most famous royal commission was a poem which he composed in praise of al-Amin. Al-Amin shared the poet's tastes for hunting, wine and boys, and was famous in his own right for his affair with his eunuch. However, even he grew impatient with the poet, and had him thrown in jail for his exploits at the tavern table.
However, Abu Nuwas outlived caliph al-Amin as well, who lost his life in a war over the succession waged by his brother only four years after ascending to the throne. Amin was overthrown by his puritanical brother, al-Ma'mun, who had no tolerance for Abu Nuwas.
Some later accounts claim that fear of prison made Abu Nuwas repent his old ways and become deeply religious, while others believe his later, penitent poems were simply written in hopes of winning the caliph's pardon. It was said that al-Ma'mun's secretary Zonbor tricked Abu Nuwas into writing a satire against Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet, while Nuwas was drunk. Zonbor then deliberately read the poem aloud in public, and ensured Nuwas' continuing imprisonment.
Abu Nuwas either died in prison or was poisoned by Ismail bin Abu Sehl, or both.
Abu Nuwas is considered one of the greats of classical Arabic literature. He influenced many later writers, to mention only Omar Khayyam, and Hafiz -- both of them Persian poets. A hedonistic caricature of Abu Nuwas appears in several of the Thousand and One Nights tales. Among his best known poems are the ones ridiculing the "Olde Arabia" nostalgia for the life of the Bedouin, and enthusiastically praising the up-to-date life in Baghdad as a vivid contrast.
Abu Nuwas’ poetry represents an intermediate stage between the Traditional and Modern styles. Abu Nuwas broke away from the traditional themes and language of the pre-Islamic poets. He abandoned the qasida-- the long ode -- which was then regarded as the real test of a poet’s mastery. Instead, Abu Nuwas turned to more lyrical love poetry, wine songs, panegyric and satire.
Abu Nuwas achieved a spectacular success with his revival of the Bedouin hunting song as an art form. Many of these genres had been used in the preceding century, but Abu Nuwas was regarded as the greatest exponent of them who had yet appeared. Abu Nuwas was one of the last poets to learn his craft by association with his predecessors and with desert Arabs. The successors of Abu Nuwas were generally trained in schools of philology and, therefore, were more concerned with linguistic innovations and survivals than with the subject matter of their poetry.
Abu Nuwas also appeared frequently in the Arabian Nights as a salacious member of Harun al-Rashid’s court rather than as a poet. Many anecdotes are told about him in Arabic literature. In most of these anecdotes, Abu Nuwas appears unfavorably. However, it would be unjust to judge him by such anecdotes.
Abu Nuwas' freedom of expression especially on matters forbidden by Islamic norms continue to excite the animus of censors. While his works were freely in circulation until the early years of the twentieth century, in 1932, the first modern censored edition of his work appeared in Cairo.
In East Africa's Swahili culture, the name of Abu Nuwas is quite popular as "Abunuwasi." There it is connected to a number of stories which otherwise go by names like Nasreddin, Guba or "the Mullah" in folktale and literature of Islamic societies.
Nuwas, Abu see Abu Nuwas
Hasan ibn Hani Abu Nuwas see Abu Nuwas
Abu Nuwas al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami see Abu Nuwas
Father of the Lock of Hair see Abu Nuwas
Father of Curls see Abu Nuwas
Abu Qurra, Theodore
Abu Qurra, Theodore (c. 740-c. 820). Melkite bishop of Harran who is known for his polemic writings against Islam.
Qurra, Theodore Abu see Abu Qurra, Theodore
Abu Qurra, Theodore (c. 740-c. 820). Melkite bishop of Harran who is known for his polemic writings against Islam.
Qurra, Theodore Abu see Abu Qurra, Theodore
Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr (Abu Sa‘id Abu ’l Khayr) (Abu Sa'id Abu al-Khayr) (967-[1048?] 1049). Persian mystic and poet who is known for his extreme ascetic practices and his service to the poor.
Abu Sa‘id Abu ’l Khayr see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Khayr, Abu Sa'id Abu 'l see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Abu Sa'id Abu al-Khayr see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Khayr, Abu Sa'id Abu al- see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr (Abu Sa‘id Abu ’l Khayr) (Abu Sa'id Abu al-Khayr) (967-[1048?] 1049). Persian mystic and poet who is known for his extreme ascetic practices and his service to the poor.
Abu Sa‘id Abu ’l Khayr see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Khayr, Abu Sa'id Abu 'l see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Abu Sa'id Abu al-Khayr see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Khayr, Abu Sa'id Abu al- see Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr
Abu Sa‘id ibn Timur
Abu Sa‘id ibn Timur (Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad ibn Miranshah ibn Timur) (1424-1469). Sultan of the Timurid dynasty (r. 1449-1469). Taking advantage of the desperate situation of Ulugh Beg, he succeeded in extending his power, but was unable to prevent the Ozbegs from raiding the south of the Oxus. His campaign of 1468 to help the Qara Qoyunlu against the Aq Qoyunlu ended in disaster. Abu Sa‘id had a great interest in agriculture.
Abu Sa'id was a Timurid Empire ruler in what is today parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Iran and Afghanistan and member of the Timurid dynasty. Abu Sa'id was the great grandson of Timur, the grandson of Miran Shah, and the nephew of Ulugh Beg. He was the grandfather of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. As a young man, his ancestry made him a principal in the century long struggle for the remnants of Timur's empire waged between Timur's descendants, the Black Sheep Turkomans, and the White Sheep Turkomans.
Abu Sa'id raised an army but failed to gain a foothold in Samarkand or Bukhara (1448-1449); established his base at Yasi and conquered much of Turkestan in 1450. In June of 1451, he captured Samarkand with the aid of the Uzbek Turks under Abu'l-Khayr Shaybani Khan, thus securing rulership of the eastern part of Timur's Empire, Transoxiana. He fought an inconclusive war with Babur ibn-Baysunkur of Khorasan in 1454; and took advantage of his cousin Jahan Shah's capture of Herat late in 1457 to capture for himself in 1458, thus acquiring the rest of Timur's heartland and becoming the most powerful of the Timurid princes in central Asia. He defeated an alliance of three other Timurid princes at the Battle of Sarakhs in March 1459, and conquered eastern Iran and most of Afghanistan by 1461, agreeing with Jahan Shah to divide Iran between them. When the White Sheep Turkoman chieftain Uzun Hasan attacked and killed Jahan Shah, Abu Sa'id spurned Uzun Hasan's peace offer and answered Jahan Shah's son's request for aid.
Captured with a small force in the mountains of Azerbaijan during a campaign against the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) Turkomans, he was executed by Uzun Hasan in 1469.
A capable and conscientious ruler, Abu Sa'id tried to re-capture the glory and prosperity of Miran Shah. He did much to restore economic prosperity in his kingdom, by promoting well-planned irrigation, and a reasonable tax system for peasants. He was also a Sufi disciple, and worked closely with the Naqshbandi order, under Shaykh Khwafa Ubaydallah Ahrar. He was also linked to Mawlana Muhammad Qadi, a shaykh in the Khwajagan, linked to the Naqshbandiyya.
Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad ibn Miranshah ibn Timur see Abu Sa‘id ibn Timur
Abu Sa‘id ibn Timur (Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad ibn Miranshah ibn Timur) (1424-1469). Sultan of the Timurid dynasty (r. 1449-1469). Taking advantage of the desperate situation of Ulugh Beg, he succeeded in extending his power, but was unable to prevent the Ozbegs from raiding the south of the Oxus. His campaign of 1468 to help the Qara Qoyunlu against the Aq Qoyunlu ended in disaster. Abu Sa‘id had a great interest in agriculture.
Abu Sa'id was a Timurid Empire ruler in what is today parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Iran and Afghanistan and member of the Timurid dynasty. Abu Sa'id was the great grandson of Timur, the grandson of Miran Shah, and the nephew of Ulugh Beg. He was the grandfather of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. As a young man, his ancestry made him a principal in the century long struggle for the remnants of Timur's empire waged between Timur's descendants, the Black Sheep Turkomans, and the White Sheep Turkomans.
Abu Sa'id raised an army but failed to gain a foothold in Samarkand or Bukhara (1448-1449); established his base at Yasi and conquered much of Turkestan in 1450. In June of 1451, he captured Samarkand with the aid of the Uzbek Turks under Abu'l-Khayr Shaybani Khan, thus securing rulership of the eastern part of Timur's Empire, Transoxiana. He fought an inconclusive war with Babur ibn-Baysunkur of Khorasan in 1454; and took advantage of his cousin Jahan Shah's capture of Herat late in 1457 to capture for himself in 1458, thus acquiring the rest of Timur's heartland and becoming the most powerful of the Timurid princes in central Asia. He defeated an alliance of three other Timurid princes at the Battle of Sarakhs in March 1459, and conquered eastern Iran and most of Afghanistan by 1461, agreeing with Jahan Shah to divide Iran between them. When the White Sheep Turkoman chieftain Uzun Hasan attacked and killed Jahan Shah, Abu Sa'id spurned Uzun Hasan's peace offer and answered Jahan Shah's son's request for aid.
Captured with a small force in the mountains of Azerbaijan during a campaign against the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) Turkomans, he was executed by Uzun Hasan in 1469.
A capable and conscientious ruler, Abu Sa'id tried to re-capture the glory and prosperity of Miran Shah. He did much to restore economic prosperity in his kingdom, by promoting well-planned irrigation, and a reasonable tax system for peasants. He was also a Sufi disciple, and worked closely with the Naqshbandi order, under Shaykh Khwafa Ubaydallah Ahrar. He was also linked to Mawlana Muhammad Qadi, a shaykh in the Khwajagan, linked to the Naqshbandiyya.
Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad ibn Miranshah ibn Timur see Abu Sa‘id ibn Timur
Abu Shama
Abu Shama (Shihab ad-Din Abu'l-Qasim Abu Shama) (1203-1268). Arab historian in Damascus. Among other works, he wrote the histories of the Zangid Nur al-Din Mahmud and of Saladin.
Abu Shama was a teacher and philologist from Damascus whose surviving works provide valuable information on the dynasties of Nur-ad Din and Saladin. His Kitab ar-Raudatain, or The Book of the Two Gardens, cites the works of previous Islamic sources for the Crusades including Imad al-Din and Ibn al-Qalanisi.
The patchwork of sources found in Abu Shama's work include valuable selections of the account of Saladin's administrator, Al-Qadi al-Fadil, and his description of the Templar's castle at Jacob's Ford. Additionally, a source by Ibn Ali Tayy, only survives in the selections incorporated into Abu Shama's work. In it, Saladin is recorded as offering the Franks first 60,000 dinars, then 100,000 dinars to destroy the castle.
Abu Shama also claims to record an interesting early appeal of Saladin to other Muslims for action against the Crusaders. In his appeal, Saladin calls for God's help to end the suffering of Muslims at the hands of the Franks and mentions the strategic necessity of shutting off the Crusaders' ability to re-supply by sea. He also attacks the lack of zeal shown among Muslims in responding to the Crusaders' threat and contrasts it with all the Crusaders accomplished because of their unity of purpose.
Shama, Abu see Abu Shama
Shihab ad-Din Abu'l-Qasim Abu Shama see Abu Shama
Abu Shama (Shihab ad-Din Abu'l-Qasim Abu Shama) (1203-1268). Arab historian in Damascus. Among other works, he wrote the histories of the Zangid Nur al-Din Mahmud and of Saladin.
Abu Shama was a teacher and philologist from Damascus whose surviving works provide valuable information on the dynasties of Nur-ad Din and Saladin. His Kitab ar-Raudatain, or The Book of the Two Gardens, cites the works of previous Islamic sources for the Crusades including Imad al-Din and Ibn al-Qalanisi.
The patchwork of sources found in Abu Shama's work include valuable selections of the account of Saladin's administrator, Al-Qadi al-Fadil, and his description of the Templar's castle at Jacob's Ford. Additionally, a source by Ibn Ali Tayy, only survives in the selections incorporated into Abu Shama's work. In it, Saladin is recorded as offering the Franks first 60,000 dinars, then 100,000 dinars to destroy the castle.
Abu Shama also claims to record an interesting early appeal of Saladin to other Muslims for action against the Crusaders. In his appeal, Saladin calls for God's help to end the suffering of Muslims at the hands of the Franks and mentions the strategic necessity of shutting off the Crusaders' ability to re-supply by sea. He also attacks the lack of zeal shown among Muslims in responding to the Crusaders' threat and contrasts it with all the Crusaders accomplished because of their unity of purpose.
Shama, Abu see Abu Shama
Shihab ad-Din Abu'l-Qasim Abu Shama see Abu Shama
Abushiri bin Salimu
Abushiri bin Salimu (Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al-Harthi) (Abushiri bin Salim) (Bushiri) (c.1845-1889). Leader of the coastal East African resistance movement against German occupation. Abushiri was the son of an African mother and an Arab father. His father was a member of one of the oldest Arab families in East Africa. As a young man, Abushiri organized and led trade caravans from the coast to Lake Tanganyika. The principal commodities that he traded for were ivory and slaves. By the 1870s, Abushiri was operating a sugar plantation near Pangani. On this plantation, Abushiri commanded thousands of free men and slaves. During the late 1870s, Abushiri led a division of the Zanzibari ruler Barghash’s troops against the Nyamwezi chief Mirambo. However, while acting in this capacity, Abushiri never recognized Zanzibar’s sovereignty over the mainland. In 1882, Abushiri repelled a force sent by Barghash to punish him for defaulting on some commercial loans. The defeat suffered by Barghash at the hands of Abushiri dissuaded Barghash from attempting to administer the mainland region.
German interest in mainland Tanzania began in 1884. In 1885, Barghash virtually ceded the coast to the Germans -- a move not recognized by Abushiri and other coastal peoples -- other Swahili. In mid-1888, the Germans occupied the coastal towns and attempted to collect customs duties. Faced with economic ruin, Abushiri and other Swahili townsmen spontaneously drove the Germans away. The Germans then launched a counter-offensive under Hermann von Wissmann. Over the next year, Abushiri rallied the Swahili between Pangani and Dar es Salaam and waged a see-saw war with the Germans. Eventually, Abushiri’s support began to wane as his followers tired of German naval bombardment and costly battles. Additionally, his followers had become suspicious of Abushiri’s own political motives.
By December of 1889, Abushiri was a lone fugitive. He attempted to flee north to join forces with the Zigua leader Bwana Heri, but was captured. Abushiri was subsequently executed.
Bushiri see Abushiri bin Salimu
Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al-Harthi see Abushiri bin Salimu
Harthi, Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al- see Abushiri bin Salimu
Abushiri bin Salimu (Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al-Harthi) (Abushiri bin Salim) (Bushiri) (c.1845-1889). Leader of the coastal East African resistance movement against German occupation. Abushiri was the son of an African mother and an Arab father. His father was a member of one of the oldest Arab families in East Africa. As a young man, Abushiri organized and led trade caravans from the coast to Lake Tanganyika. The principal commodities that he traded for were ivory and slaves. By the 1870s, Abushiri was operating a sugar plantation near Pangani. On this plantation, Abushiri commanded thousands of free men and slaves. During the late 1870s, Abushiri led a division of the Zanzibari ruler Barghash’s troops against the Nyamwezi chief Mirambo. However, while acting in this capacity, Abushiri never recognized Zanzibar’s sovereignty over the mainland. In 1882, Abushiri repelled a force sent by Barghash to punish him for defaulting on some commercial loans. The defeat suffered by Barghash at the hands of Abushiri dissuaded Barghash from attempting to administer the mainland region.
German interest in mainland Tanzania began in 1884. In 1885, Barghash virtually ceded the coast to the Germans -- a move not recognized by Abushiri and other coastal peoples -- other Swahili. In mid-1888, the Germans occupied the coastal towns and attempted to collect customs duties. Faced with economic ruin, Abushiri and other Swahili townsmen spontaneously drove the Germans away. The Germans then launched a counter-offensive under Hermann von Wissmann. Over the next year, Abushiri rallied the Swahili between Pangani and Dar es Salaam and waged a see-saw war with the Germans. Eventually, Abushiri’s support began to wane as his followers tired of German naval bombardment and costly battles. Additionally, his followers had become suspicious of Abushiri’s own political motives.
By December of 1889, Abushiri was a lone fugitive. He attempted to flee north to join forces with the Zigua leader Bwana Heri, but was captured. Abushiri was subsequently executed.
Bushiri see Abushiri bin Salimu
Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al-Harthi see Abushiri bin Salimu
Harthi, Abushiri bin Salimu bin Abushiri al- see Abushiri bin Salimu
Abu Shuja’, Ahmad ibn Hasan
Abu Shuja’, Ahmad ibn Hasan (1042-c.1106). Shafi‘ite jurisconsult who was the author of a short compendium of Shafi‘ite law, which acquired a considerable number of commentaries.
Ahmad ibn Hasan Abu Shuja' see Abu Shuja’, Ahmad ibn Hasan
Abu Shuja’, Ahmad ibn Hasan (1042-c.1106). Shafi‘ite jurisconsult who was the author of a short compendium of Shafi‘ite law, which acquired a considerable number of commentaries.
Ahmad ibn Hasan Abu Shuja' see Abu Shuja’, Ahmad ibn Hasan
Abu Sufyan
Abu Sufyan (Abu Sufyan ibn Harb) (Sakhr ibn Harb) (560-650). Meccan merchant who, having at first resisted the Prophet, submitted to Islam in 630. His daughter Umm Habiba was married to the Prophet. The first Umayyad Caliph Mu‘awiya was one of his sons.
Abu Sufyan was a leading man of the Quraysh of Mecca. He was a staunch opponent of the Arabian Prophet Muhammad before converting to Islam later in his life.
Abu Sufyan was born in 560 as a son of Harb ibn Umayya. Abu Sufyan's grandfather was Umayya, after whom the Umayyad dynasty was named, and his great-grand father was Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf, brother to Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim.
Abu Sufyan was married to Hind bint Utbah, who in 602, gave birth to Muawiyah I, who would later establish the Umayyad dynasty. Abu Sufyan also had relations with his kinswoman Saffya bint abi al-A'as, who bore him a daughter called Ramlah. Ramlah was married to Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh and both husband and wife converted to Islam against the wishes of Abu Sufyan. When the first Muslims migrated to Abyssinia, Ramlah and Ubayd-Allah, were among them.
Abu Sufyan was the chieftain of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraish tribe, which made him one of the most powerful and hated men in Mecca. Abu Sufyan viewed Muhammad as a threat to Mecca's social order, a man aiming for political power and a blasphemer of the Quraysh gods.
When several Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia to escape harassment in Mecca, Abu Sufyan's daughter Ramlah was among those emigrating to Abyssinia for refuge.
After Muhammad had migrated to Medina in 622, the Quraysh confiscated the belongings they had left behind. From Medina, the Muslims attacked several of the Quraysh's caravans coming from Syria to Mecca. In 624, Abu Sufyan was the leader of such a caravan and as a Muslim force moved to intercept him, he called for help from the Quraysh. This resulted in the Battle of Badr, which ended in a Muslim victory. Abu Sufyan however managed to bring his caravan home to Mecca. The death of most Quraysh leaders in the battle left him the leader of Mecca.
Subsequently, Abu Sufyan was the military leader in the Meccan campaigns against Medina, such as the Battle of Uhud in 625 and the Battle of the Trench in 627, but could not attain final victory. Eventually the two parties would agree to an armistice, the Treaty of Hudaybiyya in 628, which allowed Muslims to make the pilgrimage to the Kaaba.
When the armistice was violated in 630 by allies of the Quraysh, Muhammad moved towards conquering Mecca. Abu Sufyan, sensing that the balance was tilted in Muhammad's favor and that the Quraysh were not strong enough to prevent the Muslims from conquering the city, travelled to Medina, trying to restore the treaty. No agreement was reached between the two parties and Abu Sufyan returned to Mecca empty handed. These efforts ultimately ensured that the conquest occurred without battle or bloodshed.
Abu Sufyan travelled back and forth between Mecca and Medina, still trying to reach a settlement. According to the sources, he found assistance in Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, though some scholars consider that historians writing under the rule of Abbas's descendants, the 'Abbasid dynasty, had exaggerated Abbas's role and downplayed the role of Sufyan, who was the ancestor of the Abbasids' enemies.
After the conquest of Mecca, Abu Sufyan fought as one of Muhammad's lieutenants in the subsequent wars. During the Siege of Taif, he lost an eye.
When Muhammad died in 632, Abu Sufyan was in charge of Najran.
Abu Sufyan also fought in the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, in which he lost his second eye.
Abu Sufyan died in 650 at Medina. His kinsman Uthman ibn Affan, who had become the third caliph in 644 led the prayer over his grave.
Abu Sufyan's son Muawiyah became the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, the first Muslim dynasty which ruled the Islamic realm for a century from 661 to 750. Muawiyah fought a war against Ali ibn Abi Talib and his son, Yasid, was involved in the military conflict that led to the death of Husayn ibn Ali. The Shi'a view Abu Sufyan as a hypocrite, who converted only after Muslims had conquered Mecca and who managed to infiltrate Islamic ranks and be included among the Muslims. This viewpoint also accounts for some of the Shi'a hatred of most of Abu Sufyan's lineage especially Uthman and Yazid.
Sufyan, Abu see Abu Sufyan
Abu Sufyan ibn Harb see Abu Sufyan
Sakhr ibn Harb see Abu Sufyan
Abu Sufyan (Abu Sufyan ibn Harb) (Sakhr ibn Harb) (560-650). Meccan merchant who, having at first resisted the Prophet, submitted to Islam in 630. His daughter Umm Habiba was married to the Prophet. The first Umayyad Caliph Mu‘awiya was one of his sons.
Abu Sufyan was a leading man of the Quraysh of Mecca. He was a staunch opponent of the Arabian Prophet Muhammad before converting to Islam later in his life.
Abu Sufyan was born in 560 as a son of Harb ibn Umayya. Abu Sufyan's grandfather was Umayya, after whom the Umayyad dynasty was named, and his great-grand father was Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf, brother to Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim.
Abu Sufyan was married to Hind bint Utbah, who in 602, gave birth to Muawiyah I, who would later establish the Umayyad dynasty. Abu Sufyan also had relations with his kinswoman Saffya bint abi al-A'as, who bore him a daughter called Ramlah. Ramlah was married to Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh and both husband and wife converted to Islam against the wishes of Abu Sufyan. When the first Muslims migrated to Abyssinia, Ramlah and Ubayd-Allah, were among them.
Abu Sufyan was the chieftain of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraish tribe, which made him one of the most powerful and hated men in Mecca. Abu Sufyan viewed Muhammad as a threat to Mecca's social order, a man aiming for political power and a blasphemer of the Quraysh gods.
When several Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia to escape harassment in Mecca, Abu Sufyan's daughter Ramlah was among those emigrating to Abyssinia for refuge.
After Muhammad had migrated to Medina in 622, the Quraysh confiscated the belongings they had left behind. From Medina, the Muslims attacked several of the Quraysh's caravans coming from Syria to Mecca. In 624, Abu Sufyan was the leader of such a caravan and as a Muslim force moved to intercept him, he called for help from the Quraysh. This resulted in the Battle of Badr, which ended in a Muslim victory. Abu Sufyan however managed to bring his caravan home to Mecca. The death of most Quraysh leaders in the battle left him the leader of Mecca.
Subsequently, Abu Sufyan was the military leader in the Meccan campaigns against Medina, such as the Battle of Uhud in 625 and the Battle of the Trench in 627, but could not attain final victory. Eventually the two parties would agree to an armistice, the Treaty of Hudaybiyya in 628, which allowed Muslims to make the pilgrimage to the Kaaba.
When the armistice was violated in 630 by allies of the Quraysh, Muhammad moved towards conquering Mecca. Abu Sufyan, sensing that the balance was tilted in Muhammad's favor and that the Quraysh were not strong enough to prevent the Muslims from conquering the city, travelled to Medina, trying to restore the treaty. No agreement was reached between the two parties and Abu Sufyan returned to Mecca empty handed. These efforts ultimately ensured that the conquest occurred without battle or bloodshed.
Abu Sufyan travelled back and forth between Mecca and Medina, still trying to reach a settlement. According to the sources, he found assistance in Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, though some scholars consider that historians writing under the rule of Abbas's descendants, the 'Abbasid dynasty, had exaggerated Abbas's role and downplayed the role of Sufyan, who was the ancestor of the Abbasids' enemies.
After the conquest of Mecca, Abu Sufyan fought as one of Muhammad's lieutenants in the subsequent wars. During the Siege of Taif, he lost an eye.
When Muhammad died in 632, Abu Sufyan was in charge of Najran.
Abu Sufyan also fought in the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, in which he lost his second eye.
Abu Sufyan died in 650 at Medina. His kinsman Uthman ibn Affan, who had become the third caliph in 644 led the prayer over his grave.
Abu Sufyan's son Muawiyah became the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, the first Muslim dynasty which ruled the Islamic realm for a century from 661 to 750. Muawiyah fought a war against Ali ibn Abi Talib and his son, Yasid, was involved in the military conflict that led to the death of Husayn ibn Ali. The Shi'a view Abu Sufyan as a hypocrite, who converted only after Muslims had conquered Mecca and who managed to infiltrate Islamic ranks and be included among the Muslims. This viewpoint also accounts for some of the Shi'a hatred of most of Abu Sufyan's lineage especially Uthman and Yazid.
Sufyan, Abu see Abu Sufyan
Abu Sufyan ibn Harb see Abu Sufyan
Sakhr ibn Harb see Abu Sufyan
Abu Talib
Abu Talib (Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib) (549-619). The name by which ‘Abd Manaf ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was known. Abu Talib was Muhammad’s uncle and protector and head of the Hashimite clan after the death of Muhammad’s grandfather. While it seems certain that he did not convert to Islam, Abu Talib remained a loyal supporter of Muhammad and protected him against Meccan persecutions, even at the expense of having to lead his clan into confinement during an economic boycott. Abu Talib died three years before the Hijra. As the father of 'Ali, Abu Talib is held in higher regard by the Shi‘a than by the Sunni.
Abu Talib was a full brother of Muhammad's father 'Abdullah ibn 'Abdul Muttalib, who died before Muhammad's birth. He was a scion of the noble Banu Hashim clan. As such, he held high status and respect among the Meccans, and owned a prosperous trading caravan business.
After the death of Muhammad's mother Aminah bint Walab, Muhammad was taken into the care of Abdul Muttalib (father of Abu Talib, grandfather of Muhammad). When Muhammad reached 8 years of age, Abu Talib inherited his care as well as the chiefdom of the Banu Hashim as a result of the death of Abdul Muttalib. Abu Talib treated Muhammad as his very own son, and raised the young Muhammad with overwhelming love. Once Muhammad grew older, he began to work for his uncle, and he took responsibility for Abu Talib's son Ali ibn Abu Talib. 'Ali was among the first to accept the call to Islam.
The business sense Muhammad displayed while working for Abu Talib was one of the catalyst for his first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid's interest in him.
Abu Talib died in 619 at around the same time as Muhammad's wife Khadijah. This year was known as the saddest year in life of the Prophet, the Year of Sorrow.
Talib, Abu see Abu Talib
‘Abd Manaf ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Talib
Abi Talib see Abu Talib
Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Talib
Abu Talib (Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib) (549-619). The name by which ‘Abd Manaf ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was known. Abu Talib was Muhammad’s uncle and protector and head of the Hashimite clan after the death of Muhammad’s grandfather. While it seems certain that he did not convert to Islam, Abu Talib remained a loyal supporter of Muhammad and protected him against Meccan persecutions, even at the expense of having to lead his clan into confinement during an economic boycott. Abu Talib died three years before the Hijra. As the father of 'Ali, Abu Talib is held in higher regard by the Shi‘a than by the Sunni.
Abu Talib was a full brother of Muhammad's father 'Abdullah ibn 'Abdul Muttalib, who died before Muhammad's birth. He was a scion of the noble Banu Hashim clan. As such, he held high status and respect among the Meccans, and owned a prosperous trading caravan business.
After the death of Muhammad's mother Aminah bint Walab, Muhammad was taken into the care of Abdul Muttalib (father of Abu Talib, grandfather of Muhammad). When Muhammad reached 8 years of age, Abu Talib inherited his care as well as the chiefdom of the Banu Hashim as a result of the death of Abdul Muttalib. Abu Talib treated Muhammad as his very own son, and raised the young Muhammad with overwhelming love. Once Muhammad grew older, he began to work for his uncle, and he took responsibility for Abu Talib's son Ali ibn Abu Talib. 'Ali was among the first to accept the call to Islam.
The business sense Muhammad displayed while working for Abu Talib was one of the catalyst for his first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid's interest in him.
Abu Talib died in 619 at around the same time as Muhammad's wife Khadijah. This year was known as the saddest year in life of the Prophet, the Year of Sorrow.
Talib, Abu see Abu Talib
‘Abd Manaf ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Talib
Abi Talib see Abu Talib
Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib see Abu Talib
Abu Tammam
Abu Tammam (Habib ibn Aus) (804-845). Arabic poet and anthologist who collected fragments by lesser known poets in a work called Hamasa. He was the most celebrated panegyrist of his time.
Abu Tammam was born in Jasim (Josem), Syria, a place to the north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Hierapolis Bambyce. He seems to have spent his youth in Homs, though, according to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went ot Damascus, and then to Mosul. From there he made a visit to the governor of Armenia, who rewarded him richly. After 833, he lived mostly in Baghdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim. From Baghdad, he visited Khorasan, where he enjoyed the favour of Abdallah ibn Tahir. About 845, he was in Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, where he met the poet al-Buhturi (820-897). He died in Mosul.
Abu Tammam is best known in literature for his 9th century compilation of early poems known as the Hamasa (Hamasah). The Hamasa (Arabic, "exhortation") is one of the greatest anthologies of Arabic literature ever written. Abu Tammam gathered these works together when he was snowbound in Hamadan, where he had access to an excellent library. There are ten books of poems in the Hamasa, all classified by subject. Some of them are selections from long poems. This is one of the treasuries of early Arabic poetry, and the poems are of exceptional beauty. A later anthology by the same name was compiled by the poet al-Buhturi, and the term has been used in modern times to mean "heroic epic."
Two other collections of a similar nature are ascribed to abu Tammam. His own poems have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his compilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime. His poems of valor, often describing historical events, are important as source material. They were distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse, and the excellent manner of treating subjects.
Tammam, Abu see Abu Tammam
Habib ibn Aus see Abu Tammam
Abu Tammam (Habib ibn Aus) (804-845). Arabic poet and anthologist who collected fragments by lesser known poets in a work called Hamasa. He was the most celebrated panegyrist of his time.
Abu Tammam was born in Jasim (Josem), Syria, a place to the north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Hierapolis Bambyce. He seems to have spent his youth in Homs, though, according to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went ot Damascus, and then to Mosul. From there he made a visit to the governor of Armenia, who rewarded him richly. After 833, he lived mostly in Baghdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim. From Baghdad, he visited Khorasan, where he enjoyed the favour of Abdallah ibn Tahir. About 845, he was in Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, where he met the poet al-Buhturi (820-897). He died in Mosul.
Abu Tammam is best known in literature for his 9th century compilation of early poems known as the Hamasa (Hamasah). The Hamasa (Arabic, "exhortation") is one of the greatest anthologies of Arabic literature ever written. Abu Tammam gathered these works together when he was snowbound in Hamadan, where he had access to an excellent library. There are ten books of poems in the Hamasa, all classified by subject. Some of them are selections from long poems. This is one of the treasuries of early Arabic poetry, and the poems are of exceptional beauty. A later anthology by the same name was compiled by the poet al-Buhturi, and the term has been used in modern times to mean "heroic epic."
Two other collections of a similar nature are ascribed to abu Tammam. His own poems have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his compilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime. His poems of valor, often describing historical events, are important as source material. They were distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse, and the excellent manner of treating subjects.
Tammam, Abu see Abu Tammam
Habib ibn Aus see Abu Tammam
Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri
Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri (Abu 'Ubayd 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Muhammad al-Bakri) (1014-1094). The greatest geographer of the Muslim West. He was also a theologian, philologist and botanist who became one of the most characteristic representatives of Arab Andalusian erudition in the eleventh century.
Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri was a Spanish-Arab geographer and historian. He was born in Huelva, the son of the governor of the province. Al-Bakri spent his entire life in Spain, living in Cordoba, and never travelling to the location of which he wrote.
Al-Bakri wrote about Europe, North Africa, and the Arabian peninsula. His primary works were Kitab al-Masalik wa-al-Mamalik ("Book of Highways and of Kingdoms") and Mu'jam. The first mentioned work was composed in 1068, based on literature and the reports of merchants and travellers, including Yusuf al-Warraq and Abraham ben Jacob. His works are noted for the relative objectiveness with which they are presented. For each area, he describes the people, their customs, as well as the geography, climate, and main cities. That information was also contained in his written geography of the Arabian Peninsula, and in the encyclopedia of the world in which he wrote. He also presents various anecdotes about each area. Unfortunately, parts of his main work have been lost.
The crater Al-Bakri on the Moon is named after Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri.
Bakri, Abu 'Ubayd al- see Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri
Abu 'Ubayd 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Muhammad al-Bakri see Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri
Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri (Abu 'Ubayd 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Muhammad al-Bakri) (1014-1094). The greatest geographer of the Muslim West. He was also a theologian, philologist and botanist who became one of the most characteristic representatives of Arab Andalusian erudition in the eleventh century.
Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri was a Spanish-Arab geographer and historian. He was born in Huelva, the son of the governor of the province. Al-Bakri spent his entire life in Spain, living in Cordoba, and never travelling to the location of which he wrote.
Al-Bakri wrote about Europe, North Africa, and the Arabian peninsula. His primary works were Kitab al-Masalik wa-al-Mamalik ("Book of Highways and of Kingdoms") and Mu'jam. The first mentioned work was composed in 1068, based on literature and the reports of merchants and travellers, including Yusuf al-Warraq and Abraham ben Jacob. His works are noted for the relative objectiveness with which they are presented. For each area, he describes the people, their customs, as well as the geography, climate, and main cities. That information was also contained in his written geography of the Arabian Peninsula, and in the encyclopedia of the world in which he wrote. He also presents various anecdotes about each area. Unfortunately, parts of his main work have been lost.
The crater Al-Bakri on the Moon is named after Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri.
Bakri, Abu 'Ubayd al- see Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri
Abu 'Ubayd 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Muhammad al-Bakri see Abu ‘Ubayd al-Bakri
Abu ‘Ubayda Ma‘mar ibn al-Muthanna
Abu ‘Ubayda Ma‘mar ibn al-Muthanna (728-824). Arabic philologist in Basra. He composed dozens of treatises on points of Arab and Islamic history, and on tribal traditions. Abu 'Ubayda also was one of the most prolific compilers in the golden age of classical Arabic literature. Indeed, some scholars estimte that half of the information on pre-Islamic Arabia transmitted by later authors is derived from the work of Abu 'Ubayda.
Abu 'Ubayda was a mawla -- a convert. He thrived thanks to the open-minded approach of the Islamic society at its inceptive stages towards non-Arab converts, for all the prejudice against them, and the Muslims' preparedness to acknowledge their contributions and talents. Conversion to Islam was, of course, a fundamental requirement. Together with his new religion, the convert adopted the emerging civilization which accompanied it. Through the vehicle of Arabic, the mawla who possessed the necessary intellectual gifts and the right disposition could compete with other mawali, and with the Arabs in the field of historical and linguistic studies.
Abu 'Ubayda was one of the major contributors to Arab and Islamic civilization in the eighth century of the Christian calendar. Although he was probably not an attractive figure, it was his character and presumably his Jewish origin which made him extremely unpopular among many of his Basran contemporaries. The sources abound with anecdotes about this unusual intellectual who devoted his life to scholarship and aroused both feelings of admiration and rancour.
Abu ‘Ubayda Ma‘mar ibn al-Muthanna (728-824). Arabic philologist in Basra. He composed dozens of treatises on points of Arab and Islamic history, and on tribal traditions. Abu 'Ubayda also was one of the most prolific compilers in the golden age of classical Arabic literature. Indeed, some scholars estimte that half of the information on pre-Islamic Arabia transmitted by later authors is derived from the work of Abu 'Ubayda.
Abu 'Ubayda was a mawla -- a convert. He thrived thanks to the open-minded approach of the Islamic society at its inceptive stages towards non-Arab converts, for all the prejudice against them, and the Muslims' preparedness to acknowledge their contributions and talents. Conversion to Islam was, of course, a fundamental requirement. Together with his new religion, the convert adopted the emerging civilization which accompanied it. Through the vehicle of Arabic, the mawla who possessed the necessary intellectual gifts and the right disposition could compete with other mawali, and with the Arabs in the field of historical and linguistic studies.
Abu 'Ubayda was one of the major contributors to Arab and Islamic civilization in the eighth century of the Christian calendar. Although he was probably not an attractive figure, it was his character and presumably his Jewish origin which made him extremely unpopular among many of his Basran contemporaries. The sources abound with anecdotes about this unusual intellectual who devoted his life to scholarship and aroused both feelings of admiration and rancour.
Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf
Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf (Yusuf I) (d. July 29, 1184). Ruler of the Almohad dynasty (r. 1163-1184). He was the second Almohad Amir. Considered the most gifted of the Almohad rulers, he was a friend of scholarship. He had the Giralda in Seville constructed. He perished before Santarem.
Yusuf, Abu Ya'qub see Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf
Yusuf I see Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf
Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf (Yusuf I) (d. July 29, 1184). Ruler of the Almohad dynasty (r. 1163-1184). He was the second Almohad Amir. Considered the most gifted of the Almohad rulers, he was a friend of scholarship. He had the Giralda in Seville constructed. He perished before Santarem.
Yusuf, Abu Ya'qub see Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf
Yusuf I see Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf
Abu Yazid
Abu Yazid (Abu Yazid Bistami) (Bayazid Bastami) (Tayfur Abu Yazid al-Bustami) (804-874). One of the most celebrated Islamic mystics. Some five hundred of his sayings have been handed down.
Abu Yazid (Bayazid) Bastami was a Persian Sufi born in Bastam, Iran. The name Bastami means "from the city of Bastam." Bayazid's grandfather was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam. His grandfather had three sons, Adam, Tayfur and 'Ali. All of them were ascetics. Abayazid was born to Tayfur.
Bastami's predecessor Dhu'l-Nun al-Misri had formulated the doctrine of ma'rifa (gnosis), presenting a system which helped the murid (initiate) and the shaykh (guide) to communicate. Bayazid Bastami took this another step and emphasized the importance of ecstasy, referred to in his words as drunkenness (sukr or wajd), a means of annihilation in the Divine Presence. Before Bastami, Sufism was mainly based on piety and obedience. Bastami played a major role in placing the concept of divine love at the core of Sufism.
Bastami was truly the first to speak openly of "annihilation of the self in God" (fana fi 'Allah') and "subsistence through God" (baqa' bi 'Allah). Bastami's paradoxical sayings gained a wide circulation and soon exerted a captivating influence over the minds of students who aspired to understand the meaning of the wahdat al-wujud, -- unity of being.
When Bayazid died, he was over seventy years old. Before he died, someone asked him his age. He said: "I am four years old. For seventy years, I was veiled. I got rid of my veils only four years ago."
Bastami died in 874 and is buried either in the city of Bistam in north central Iran, or in Semnan, Iran. However, interestingly enough, there is a shrine in Chittagong, Bangladesh, that local people believe to be Bastami's tomb as well. This seems unlikely to be true, as Bastami was never known to have visited Bangladesh. However, Sufi teachers were greatly influential in the spread of Islam in Bengal and this might explain the belief. The Islamic scholars of Bangladesh usually regard the tomb at Chittagong attributed to Bastami to be a jawab, or imitation.
One explanation is the local legend that Bayazid did indeed visit Chittagong. At the time of his return, he found that his local followers did not want to leave. Overwhelmed by the love of his local followers, Bastami is supposed to have pierced his finger and dropped a few drops of his blood on the ground and allowed his followers to build a shrine in his name where his blood drops fell.
This is also explained by the traditional Sufi masters as a mash-had, or site of witnessing, where the spiritual presence of the saint has been witnessed, and is known to appear. This is explained through the Sufi concept of the power of the saint's soul to travel in its spiritual form, even after death, to appear to the living. The Qur'an mentions that some of those who have proven their sincerity have achieved a life beyond the grave, and it is posited that Bastami made such spiritual appearance at Chittagong.
Yazid, Abu see Abu Yazid
Bayazid Bastami see Abu Yazid
Bistami, Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid
Tayfur Abu Yazid al-Bustami see Abu Yazid
Bustami, Tayfur Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid
Abu Yazid (Abu Yazid Bistami) (Bayazid Bastami) (Tayfur Abu Yazid al-Bustami) (804-874). One of the most celebrated Islamic mystics. Some five hundred of his sayings have been handed down.
Abu Yazid (Bayazid) Bastami was a Persian Sufi born in Bastam, Iran. The name Bastami means "from the city of Bastam." Bayazid's grandfather was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam. His grandfather had three sons, Adam, Tayfur and 'Ali. All of them were ascetics. Abayazid was born to Tayfur.
Bastami's predecessor Dhu'l-Nun al-Misri had formulated the doctrine of ma'rifa (gnosis), presenting a system which helped the murid (initiate) and the shaykh (guide) to communicate. Bayazid Bastami took this another step and emphasized the importance of ecstasy, referred to in his words as drunkenness (sukr or wajd), a means of annihilation in the Divine Presence. Before Bastami, Sufism was mainly based on piety and obedience. Bastami played a major role in placing the concept of divine love at the core of Sufism.
Bastami was truly the first to speak openly of "annihilation of the self in God" (fana fi 'Allah') and "subsistence through God" (baqa' bi 'Allah). Bastami's paradoxical sayings gained a wide circulation and soon exerted a captivating influence over the minds of students who aspired to understand the meaning of the wahdat al-wujud, -- unity of being.
When Bayazid died, he was over seventy years old. Before he died, someone asked him his age. He said: "I am four years old. For seventy years, I was veiled. I got rid of my veils only four years ago."
Bastami died in 874 and is buried either in the city of Bistam in north central Iran, or in Semnan, Iran. However, interestingly enough, there is a shrine in Chittagong, Bangladesh, that local people believe to be Bastami's tomb as well. This seems unlikely to be true, as Bastami was never known to have visited Bangladesh. However, Sufi teachers were greatly influential in the spread of Islam in Bengal and this might explain the belief. The Islamic scholars of Bangladesh usually regard the tomb at Chittagong attributed to Bastami to be a jawab, or imitation.
One explanation is the local legend that Bayazid did indeed visit Chittagong. At the time of his return, he found that his local followers did not want to leave. Overwhelmed by the love of his local followers, Bastami is supposed to have pierced his finger and dropped a few drops of his blood on the ground and allowed his followers to build a shrine in his name where his blood drops fell.
This is also explained by the traditional Sufi masters as a mash-had, or site of witnessing, where the spiritual presence of the saint has been witnessed, and is known to appear. This is explained through the Sufi concept of the power of the saint's soul to travel in its spiritual form, even after death, to appear to the living. The Qur'an mentions that some of those who have proven their sincerity have achieved a life beyond the grave, and it is posited that Bastami made such spiritual appearance at Chittagong.
Yazid, Abu see Abu Yazid
Bayazid Bastami see Abu Yazid
Bistami, Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid
Tayfur Abu Yazid al-Bustami see Abu Yazid
Bustami, Tayfur Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid
Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Abu Yazid al-Nukkari (Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrad) (Abu Yazid Makhlad ben Kaydad al-Nukkari) (883-947). Kharijite leader who shook the Fatimid realm in North Africa to its foundations.
Nicknamed "Sahib al-Himar" or "Owner of the Donkey", Abu Yazid was a member of the Banu Ifran tribe. He was a Kharijite Berber who led a rebellion against the Fatimids in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria) starting in 944. He conquered Kairouan for a time, but was eventually driven back and defeated by the Fatimid caliph al-Mansur.
Abu Yazid's father Kayrad was a trans-Saharan trader from Qastilia, where he was born. He grew up in Tozeur. He inclined towards the Nakkariyya brance of Sufri Kharijism. After he grew up, he went to Tahert, the Rustamid capital and the main center of (Ibadi) Kharijism in the Maghreb of the time, and took up teaching. In 909, however, the Shia Fatimids conquered the Rustamids, and soon after the Sufri state of Sijilmassa to the west. He moved to Tiqyus, and in 928 began agitating against Fatimid rule. When the Fatimid "Mahdi" died in 944, he launched a rebellion in the Aures mountains and declared himself Shaykh al-Mu'min ("Elder of the Believers"), seeking aid from the Umayyads of Andalus. Early in his rebellion Abu Yazid was given a gray donkey which he would ride, and for which he received his nickname "Owner of the Donkey". He is said to have habitually worn a short woolen jubla cloak. In this conspicuous frugality, he recalled the Kharijite imams of Tahert and Sijilmassa.
Abu Yazid was initially successful. He took Baghai, then Tebessa, then Medjana, then several Tunisian cities including Beja, where he is said to have massacred the civilizn population. The people of Tunis threw out their governor and let Abu Yazid in. By the end of the year, Abu Yazid had conquered Kairouan itself, dealing several severe defeats to the Fatimid armies.
In 945, as Abu Yazid besieged Sousse, the Fatimid ruler al-Qaim died, and was succeeded by his son al-Mansur. Under al-Mansur's leadership, the Fatimid forces recovered their position, first breaking the siege of Sousse, then driving Abu Yazid's forces out of Kairouan, back into the Aures Mountains. In 947, the Fatimids finally defeated them in the mountains of Kiyana, near what would later become Qalaat Beni Hammad.
Nukkari, Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrad see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Sahib al-Himar see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Owner of the Donkey see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Abu Yazid al-Nukkari (Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrad) (Abu Yazid Makhlad ben Kaydad al-Nukkari) (883-947). Kharijite leader who shook the Fatimid realm in North Africa to its foundations.
Nicknamed "Sahib al-Himar" or "Owner of the Donkey", Abu Yazid was a member of the Banu Ifran tribe. He was a Kharijite Berber who led a rebellion against the Fatimids in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria) starting in 944. He conquered Kairouan for a time, but was eventually driven back and defeated by the Fatimid caliph al-Mansur.
Abu Yazid's father Kayrad was a trans-Saharan trader from Qastilia, where he was born. He grew up in Tozeur. He inclined towards the Nakkariyya brance of Sufri Kharijism. After he grew up, he went to Tahert, the Rustamid capital and the main center of (Ibadi) Kharijism in the Maghreb of the time, and took up teaching. In 909, however, the Shia Fatimids conquered the Rustamids, and soon after the Sufri state of Sijilmassa to the west. He moved to Tiqyus, and in 928 began agitating against Fatimid rule. When the Fatimid "Mahdi" died in 944, he launched a rebellion in the Aures mountains and declared himself Shaykh al-Mu'min ("Elder of the Believers"), seeking aid from the Umayyads of Andalus. Early in his rebellion Abu Yazid was given a gray donkey which he would ride, and for which he received his nickname "Owner of the Donkey". He is said to have habitually worn a short woolen jubla cloak. In this conspicuous frugality, he recalled the Kharijite imams of Tahert and Sijilmassa.
Abu Yazid was initially successful. He took Baghai, then Tebessa, then Medjana, then several Tunisian cities including Beja, where he is said to have massacred the civilizn population. The people of Tunis threw out their governor and let Abu Yazid in. By the end of the year, Abu Yazid had conquered Kairouan itself, dealing several severe defeats to the Fatimid armies.
In 945, as Abu Yazid besieged Sousse, the Fatimid ruler al-Qaim died, and was succeeded by his son al-Mansur. Under al-Mansur's leadership, the Fatimid forces recovered their position, first breaking the siege of Sousse, then driving Abu Yazid's forces out of Kairouan, back into the Aures Mountains. In 947, the Fatimids finally defeated them in the mountains of Kiyana, near what would later become Qalaat Beni Hammad.
Nukkari, Abu Yazid al- see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Abu Yazid Mukhallad ibn Kayrad see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Sahib al-Himar see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Owner of the Donkey see Abu Yazid al-Nukkari
Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Abu Yusuf al-Kufi (Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al-Kufi) (731-798). A religious lawyer who was one of the founders of the Hanafite school of law. He served as a chief religious judge (qadi) under the 'Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. Abu Yusuf wrote Kitab al-Kharaj (Book on Taxation), which is a basic treatise on the issues of public finance in Islamic law.
Kufi, Abu Yusuf al- see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al-Kufi see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Kufi, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al- see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Abu Yusuf al-Kufi (Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al-Kufi) (731-798). A religious lawyer who was one of the founders of the Hanafite school of law. He served as a chief religious judge (qadi) under the 'Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. Abu Yusuf wrote Kitab al-Kharaj (Book on Taxation), which is a basic treatise on the issues of public finance in Islamic law.
Kufi, Abu Yusuf al- see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al-Kufi see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Kufi, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al- see Abu Yusuf al-Kufi
Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur (Moulay Yacoub) (c.1160 - January 23, 1199). Ruler of the Almohad dynasty (r.1184-1199). His reign marked the apogee of the Almohad empire. He finished the minaret of the Kutubiyya mosque in Marrakesh and built the Giralda of Seville and the ensemble of the mosque of Hassan in Rabat.
Succeeding his father, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, Ya'qub al-Mansur reigned from 1184 to 1199 with distinction. During his tenure, trade, architecture, philosophy and the sciences flourished, to say nothing of military conquests. In 1191, Ya'qub al-Mansur repelled the occupation of Paderne Castle and the surrounding territory near Albufeira, in the Algarve which had been controlled by the Christian army of King Sancho I since 1128.
In the Battle of Alarcos, on July 18, 1195, he defeated Castilian King Alfonso VIII. After victory, he took the title al-Mansur Billah ("Made Victorious by God"). The battle is recounted by the historian Abou Mohammed Salah ben Abd el-Halim of Granada in his Roudh el-Kartas in 1326.
Ya'qub al-Mansur died in Marrakech, Morocco. During his reign, he undertook several major projects. He constructed the Koutoubia Mosque and the El Mansouria mosque in Marrakech and a kasbah, accessed by Bab Agnaou and Bab Ksiba in the southern part of its medina. He attempted to build what would have been the world's largest mosque in Rabat. However, construction on the mosque stopped after al-Mansur died. Only the beginnings of the mosque had been completed, including the Hassan Tower. Al-Mansur protected the philosopher Averroes and kept him as a favorite at court.
The town of Moulay, Yacoub, outside of Fez, Morocco, is named after Al-Mansur, and is best known for its therapeutic hot springs.
Mansur, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al- see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Moulay Yacoub see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Yacoub, Moulay see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
al-Mansur Billah see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Made Victorious by God see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur (Moulay Yacoub) (c.1160 - January 23, 1199). Ruler of the Almohad dynasty (r.1184-1199). His reign marked the apogee of the Almohad empire. He finished the minaret of the Kutubiyya mosque in Marrakesh and built the Giralda of Seville and the ensemble of the mosque of Hassan in Rabat.
Succeeding his father, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, Ya'qub al-Mansur reigned from 1184 to 1199 with distinction. During his tenure, trade, architecture, philosophy and the sciences flourished, to say nothing of military conquests. In 1191, Ya'qub al-Mansur repelled the occupation of Paderne Castle and the surrounding territory near Albufeira, in the Algarve which had been controlled by the Christian army of King Sancho I since 1128.
In the Battle of Alarcos, on July 18, 1195, he defeated Castilian King Alfonso VIII. After victory, he took the title al-Mansur Billah ("Made Victorious by God"). The battle is recounted by the historian Abou Mohammed Salah ben Abd el-Halim of Granada in his Roudh el-Kartas in 1326.
Ya'qub al-Mansur died in Marrakech, Morocco. During his reign, he undertook several major projects. He constructed the Koutoubia Mosque and the El Mansouria mosque in Marrakech and a kasbah, accessed by Bab Agnaou and Bab Ksiba in the southern part of its medina. He attempted to build what would have been the world's largest mosque in Rabat. However, construction on the mosque stopped after al-Mansur died. Only the beginnings of the mosque had been completed, including the Hassan Tower. Al-Mansur protected the philosopher Averroes and kept him as a favorite at court.
The town of Moulay, Yacoub, outside of Fez, Morocco, is named after Al-Mansur, and is best known for its therapeutic hot springs.
Mansur, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al- see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Moulay Yacoub see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Yacoub, Moulay see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
al-Mansur Billah see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Made Victorious by God see Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub al-Mansur
Abyssinians
Abyssinians (Ethiopians) (in Arabic, Habash, Habasha, Habesha). The name Habash, said to be of South Arabian origin, is applied in Arabic usage to the land and peoples of Ethiopia, and at times to the adjoining areas in the Horn of Africa. Muslim traditions mention friendly relations between the Prophet and the Negus (in Arabic, al-Najashi), but the Muslim conquests severed Christian Ethiopia from its ally Byzantium and from the Patriarchate of Alexandria, its spiritual source. Islam was established gradually in the ports on the Red Sea and the lowlands, and the nomadic groups living between the sea and eastern slopes of the escarpment became Islamicized. The slave trade accelerated conversion to Islam because a Muslim could not be enslaved by another Muslim.
Islam in Ethiopia dates back to 615. During that year, a group of Muslims were counseled ty the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia, which was ruled by, in the Prophet Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king (al-Najashi). The Prophet Muhammad's followers crossed the Red Sea into Ethiopia and sought refuge in the Kingdom of Axum, possibly settling at Negash, a place in Northern Ethiopia, Tigray region. Moreover, Islamic tradition states that Bilal, one of the foremost companions of the Prophet Muhammad, was from Ethiopia. Ethiopia was thus the earliest home outside of Arabia for the dispersal of the Islamic world faith.
Between the fourteenth and sixteenth century, a war of attrition was waged between the sultanates of Adal, Ifat, Dawaro, Harar, Bali, Hadya, Arababni, Sharkha and the Christian kingdom on the high plateau. The Ethiopian king Amda Tsion defeated Hadya and Ifat, and his victories caused mass conversions to Christianity. In the sixteenth century Ahmad ibn Ibrahim (nicknamed “Gran” -- “the left-handed one”) almost brought Ethiopia to its knees. With the help of Portuguese troops under Christovao da Gama, he was defeated and slain in 1543.
Despite some isolated Muslim successes, Ethiopia was not confronted with Islamization until the nineteenth century. In 1875, Egyptian troops invaded the country but were defeated by Emperor Yohannes. The Sudanese Mahdists were defeated in the battle of Metemma in 1889, in which the emperor lost his life. Since then religious toleration has prevailed in general between the Christians and the important minority of Muslims. Islam is spreading slowly in the southwestern lowlands. Of the four law schools, the Hanafites, the Malikites, and the Shafi‘ites are represented.
After the revolution of 1974, which brought an end to imperial power, Ethiopia was officially laicized. At that date, the number of Muslims was estimated at 35% of the population.
Ethiopians see Abyssinians
Habash see Abyssinians
Habasha see Abyssinians
Habesha see Abyssinians
Abyssinians (Ethiopians) (in Arabic, Habash, Habasha, Habesha). The name Habash, said to be of South Arabian origin, is applied in Arabic usage to the land and peoples of Ethiopia, and at times to the adjoining areas in the Horn of Africa. Muslim traditions mention friendly relations between the Prophet and the Negus (in Arabic, al-Najashi), but the Muslim conquests severed Christian Ethiopia from its ally Byzantium and from the Patriarchate of Alexandria, its spiritual source. Islam was established gradually in the ports on the Red Sea and the lowlands, and the nomadic groups living between the sea and eastern slopes of the escarpment became Islamicized. The slave trade accelerated conversion to Islam because a Muslim could not be enslaved by another Muslim.
Islam in Ethiopia dates back to 615. During that year, a group of Muslims were counseled ty the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia, which was ruled by, in the Prophet Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king (al-Najashi). The Prophet Muhammad's followers crossed the Red Sea into Ethiopia and sought refuge in the Kingdom of Axum, possibly settling at Negash, a place in Northern Ethiopia, Tigray region. Moreover, Islamic tradition states that Bilal, one of the foremost companions of the Prophet Muhammad, was from Ethiopia. Ethiopia was thus the earliest home outside of Arabia for the dispersal of the Islamic world faith.
Between the fourteenth and sixteenth century, a war of attrition was waged between the sultanates of Adal, Ifat, Dawaro, Harar, Bali, Hadya, Arababni, Sharkha and the Christian kingdom on the high plateau. The Ethiopian king Amda Tsion defeated Hadya and Ifat, and his victories caused mass conversions to Christianity. In the sixteenth century Ahmad ibn Ibrahim (nicknamed “Gran” -- “the left-handed one”) almost brought Ethiopia to its knees. With the help of Portuguese troops under Christovao da Gama, he was defeated and slain in 1543.
Despite some isolated Muslim successes, Ethiopia was not confronted with Islamization until the nineteenth century. In 1875, Egyptian troops invaded the country but were defeated by Emperor Yohannes. The Sudanese Mahdists were defeated in the battle of Metemma in 1889, in which the emperor lost his life. Since then religious toleration has prevailed in general between the Christians and the important minority of Muslims. Islam is spreading slowly in the southwestern lowlands. Of the four law schools, the Hanafites, the Malikites, and the Shafi‘ites are represented.
After the revolution of 1974, which brought an end to imperial power, Ethiopia was officially laicized. At that date, the number of Muslims was estimated at 35% of the population.
Ethiopians see Abyssinians
Habash see Abyssinians
Habasha see Abyssinians
Habesha see Abyssinians
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