Roestam Effendi
Roestam Effendi (b. 1903). Indonesian lyric poet and literary pioneer. Roestam Effendi’s collection of poems, Pertjikan Permenungan (“Thoughts at Random”) was published in 1924. Always an innovator and rebel, Roestam Effendi was once a Communist Deputy in the Dutch Parliament. Roestam Effendi experimented extensively with new forms of verse and successfully adapted European forms to the natural rhythms of the Malay language. Roestam Effendi’s meaning is often obscured by his use of unusual words from his native Minangkabau dialect. He also wrote a play called Bebasari which was published in 1928.
Roestam Effendi (b. 1903). Indonesian lyric poet and literary pioneer. Roestam Effendi’s collection of poems, Pertjikan Permenungan (“Thoughts at Random”) was published in 1924. Always an innovator and rebel, Roestam Effendi was once a Communist Deputy in the Dutch Parliament. Roestam Effendi experimented extensively with new forms of verse and successfully adapted European forms to the natural rhythms of the Malay language. Roestam Effendi’s meaning is often obscured by his use of unusual words from his native Minangkabau dialect. He also wrote a play called Bebasari which was published in 1928.
Rohillas
Rohillas. Originally from the region of Roh in Afghanistan, the Rohillas ruled Rohilkhand in India (territory now including Moradabad, Bijnor, and Bareilly, in western Uttar Pradesh) from approximately 1740 to 1785. The founder, Ali Muhammad Khan (d. 1749), a soldier whom the Mughal emperor recognized as nawab of Rohilkhand, rose to power amid the unsettled conditions of invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Rohillas had an uneasy relationship with neighboring Awadh (Oudh), but became allies under the Maratha threat. Their possessions were repeatedly overrun by the Marathas between about 1750 and 1770, and they were decisively defeated in 1774 by the combined forces of Awadh and the British. In 1801, Rohilkhand became British territory.
The Rohilla are a community of Urdu speaking Pashtun also known as Pathan, historically found in the state of Uttar Pradesh, in North India. Many are now also found in Pakistan. They form one of the largest Pashtun diaspora communities in India, and have given their name to the Rohilkhand region. Many members of Rohilla community migrated to Pakistan after independence and settled in Karachi, Sindh.
Rohillas. Originally from the region of Roh in Afghanistan, the Rohillas ruled Rohilkhand in India (territory now including Moradabad, Bijnor, and Bareilly, in western Uttar Pradesh) from approximately 1740 to 1785. The founder, Ali Muhammad Khan (d. 1749), a soldier whom the Mughal emperor recognized as nawab of Rohilkhand, rose to power amid the unsettled conditions of invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Rohillas had an uneasy relationship with neighboring Awadh (Oudh), but became allies under the Maratha threat. Their possessions were repeatedly overrun by the Marathas between about 1750 and 1770, and they were decisively defeated in 1774 by the combined forces of Awadh and the British. In 1801, Rohilkhand became British territory.
The Rohilla are a community of Urdu speaking Pashtun also known as Pathan, historically found in the state of Uttar Pradesh, in North India. Many are now also found in Pakistan. They form one of the largest Pashtun diaspora communities in India, and have given their name to the Rohilkhand region. Many members of Rohilla community migrated to Pakistan after independence and settled in Karachi, Sindh.
Rohingya
Rohingya. The Rohingya people are Indo-Aryan people from the Rakhine State, Burma, who speak the Rohingya language. According to the Rohingyas, and some scholars, the Rohingya are indigenous to the Rakhine State, while other historians claim that they migrated to Burma from Bengal primarily during the period of British rule in Burma, and to a lesser extent, after the Burmese independence in 1948 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Rohingya. The Rohingya people are Indo-Aryan people from the Rakhine State, Burma, who speak the Rohingya language. According to the Rohingyas, and some scholars, the Rohingya are indigenous to the Rakhine State, while other historians claim that they migrated to Burma from Bengal primarily during the period of British rule in Burma, and to a lesser extent, after the Burmese independence in 1948 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Muslims have settled in the Rakhine State (also known as Arakan) since the 16th century, although the number of Muslim settlers before British rule is unclear. After the first Anglo-Burmese War in 1826, the British annexed Arakan and encouraged migrants from Bengal to work as farm laborers. The Muslim population may have constituted 5% of Arakan's population by 1869, although estimates for earlier years give higher numbers. Successive British censuses of 1872 and 1911 recorded an increase in Muslim population from 58,255 to 178,647 in the Akyab District. During World War II, the Rakhine State massacre in 1942 involved communal violence between the British-armed V Force Rohingya recruits and Buddhist Rakhine people and the region became increasingly ethnically polarized.
In 1982, General Ne Win's government enacted the Burmese nationality law, which denied the Rohingya citizenship. Since the 1990s, the term "Rohingya" has increased in usage among Rohingya communities.
As of 2013, about 735,000 Rohingyas lived in Burma. They resided mainly in the northern Rakhine townships, where they formed 80–98% of the population. International media and human rights organizations have described Rohingyas as one of the most persecuted minorities in the world.
Rohingya (2021 Update)
Rohingya are a stateless Indo-Aryan ethnic group who predominantly follow Islam and reside in Rakhine State, Myanmar (previously known as Burma). Before the displacement (ethnic cleansing) crisis in 2017, when over 740,000 fled to Bangladesh, an estimated 1.4 million Rohingya lived in Myanmar. Described by journalists and news outlets as one of the most persecuted minorities in the world, the Rohingya are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law. There are also restrictions on their freedom of movement, access to state education and civil service jobs. The legal conditions faced by the Rohingya in Myanmar have been compared to the apartheid once practiced in South Africa. by some academics, analysts and political figures, including Nobel laureate Bishop Desmond Tutu, a South African anti-apartheid activist. The most recent mass displacement of Rohingya in 2017 led the International Criminal Court investigating crimes against humanity, and led to the International Court of Justice investigating genocide.
The Rohingya maintain they are indigenous to western Myanmar with a heritage of over a millennium and influence from the Arabs, Mughals, and Portuguese. The community claims it is descended from people in precolonial Arakan and colonial Arakan. Historically, the region was an independent kingdom between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The Myanmar government considers the Rohingya as colonial and postcolonial migrants from neighboring Chittagong East Bengal respectively Bangladesh. It argues that a distinct precolonial Muslim population is recognized as Kaman, and that the Rohingya conflate their history with the history of Arakan Muslims in general to advance a separatist agenda. In addition, Myanmar's government does recognize the term "Rohingya" and prefers to refer to the community as "Bangali". Rohingya campaign groups and human rights organizations demand the right to "self-determination within Myanmar".
Various armed insurrections by the Rohingya have taken place since the 1940s and the population as a whole has faced military crackdowns in 1978, 1991-1992, 2012, 2015, and particularly in 2016-2018, when most of the Rohingya population of Myanmar was driven out of the country, into neighboring Bangladesh. By December 2017, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017. United Nations officials and Human Rights Watch have described Myanmar's persecution of the Rohingya as ethnic cleansing. The United Nations human rights envoy to Myanmar reported "the long history of discrimination and persecution against the Rohingya community... could amount to crimes against humanity". Probes by the United Nations have found evidence of increasing incitement of hatred and religious intolerance by "ultra-nationalist Buddhists" against Rohingyas while the Myanmar security forces had been conducting "summary executions, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and detentions, torture and ill-treatment, and forced labour" against the community.
Before the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis and the military crackdown in 2016 and 2017, the Rohingya population in Myanmar was close to 1.4 million, chiefly in the northern Rakhine townships, which were 80–98% Rohingya. Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to south-eastern Bangladesh alone, and more to other surrounding countries, and major Muslim nations. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons. Shortly before a Rohingya rebel attack that killed 12 security forces on August 25, 2017, the Myanmar military launched "clearance operations" against the Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine state that, according to NGOs, the Bangladeshi government and international news media, left many dead, and many more injured, tortured or raped, with villages burned. The government of Myanmar has denied the allegations.
Roman Catholics
Roman Catholics. Members of the Roman Catholic Church which is headquartered in the Vatican in Rome, Italy. In Southwest Asia and North Africa, the Roman Catholic Church is present on two levels: (1) the Roman Catholic Church and its local churches and (2) the semi-independent churches through the Eastern Rite Churches.
Local churches are administered through the Patriarch in Jerusalem. In three major cities, there are nuncios (apostolic delegates): Baghdad, Beirut and Cairo. About half of all Catholics in Southwest Asia and North Africa are members of the Roman Catholic Church. Many are Catholics as a result of missionary activities, especially in Sudan, while others belong to expatriate population in oil producing countries. In some countries, like Kuwait and United Arab Emirates, Roman Catholics represent a major percentage (up to fifteen percent) of the population.
In North Africa, the Catholics are mainly French, Spanish, and Italian descendants of the colonialists from earlier centuries. These are people that often have retained their European identity, orientation and lifestyles. In Spanish North Africa, the Roman Catholics even represent the majority.
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with more than a billion members. Its leader is the Pope who holds supreme authority in concert with the College of Bishops of which he is the head. A communion of the Western church and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, it comprised a total of 2,795 dioceses in 2008. The Church defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity. It operates social programs and institutions throughout the world including schools, universities, hospitals, missions, shelters and charities.
The Church is the oldest continuous institution in the Western world, and has played a prominent role since the 3rd century of the Christian calendar. It teaches that it is the "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church" founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are consecrated successors of his Apostles and that the Pope as the successor of Saint Peter possesses a universal primacy of jurisdiction and pastoral care. Church doctrines have been defined through 21 ecumenical councils and the Church maintains that it is guided by the Holy Spirit from falling into doctrinal error. Catholic beliefs are based on the Holy Bible and Sacred Tradition interpreted by the Church's teaching authority and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Catholic worship is called the liturgy, the central component of which is the Eucharist.
Roman Catholics. Members of the Roman Catholic Church which is headquartered in the Vatican in Rome, Italy. In Southwest Asia and North Africa, the Roman Catholic Church is present on two levels: (1) the Roman Catholic Church and its local churches and (2) the semi-independent churches through the Eastern Rite Churches.
Local churches are administered through the Patriarch in Jerusalem. In three major cities, there are nuncios (apostolic delegates): Baghdad, Beirut and Cairo. About half of all Catholics in Southwest Asia and North Africa are members of the Roman Catholic Church. Many are Catholics as a result of missionary activities, especially in Sudan, while others belong to expatriate population in oil producing countries. In some countries, like Kuwait and United Arab Emirates, Roman Catholics represent a major percentage (up to fifteen percent) of the population.
In North Africa, the Catholics are mainly French, Spanish, and Italian descendants of the colonialists from earlier centuries. These are people that often have retained their European identity, orientation and lifestyles. In Spanish North Africa, the Roman Catholics even represent the majority.
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with more than a billion members. Its leader is the Pope who holds supreme authority in concert with the College of Bishops of which he is the head. A communion of the Western church and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, it comprised a total of 2,795 dioceses in 2008. The Church defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity. It operates social programs and institutions throughout the world including schools, universities, hospitals, missions, shelters and charities.
The Church is the oldest continuous institution in the Western world, and has played a prominent role since the 3rd century of the Christian calendar. It teaches that it is the "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church" founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are consecrated successors of his Apostles and that the Pope as the successor of Saint Peter possesses a universal primacy of jurisdiction and pastoral care. Church doctrines have been defined through 21 ecumenical councils and the Church maintains that it is guided by the Holy Spirit from falling into doctrinal error. Catholic beliefs are based on the Holy Bible and Sacred Tradition interpreted by the Church's teaching authority and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Catholic worship is called the liturgy, the central component of which is the Eucharist.
Rouhani, Hassan
Hassan Rouhani (Persian: حسن روحانی), born November 12, 1948, became the 7th President of Iran in 2013. He is also a former lawmaker, academic and diplomat. Beginning in 1999, Rouhani became a member of Iran's Assembly of Experts. He was also a member of the Expediency Council since 1991, a member of the Supreme National Security Council since 1989, and head of the Center for Strategic Research since 1992.
Rouhani was deputy speaker of the 4th and 5th terms of the Parliament of Iran (Majlis) and Secretary of the Supreme National Security Council from 1989 to 2005. In the latter capacity, Rouhani was the country's top negotiator with the EU three, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, on nuclear technology in Iran, and has also served as a Shi'ite ijtihadi cleric, and economic trade negotiator. He expressed official support for upholding the rights of ethnic and religious minorities. In 2013, he appointed former miner and Isfahani legislator Eshaq Jahangiri as his vice-president.
On May 7, 2013, Rouhani registered for the presidential election that was held on June 14, 2013. He said that, if elected, he would prepare a "civil rights charter", restore the economy and improve rocky relations with Western nations. Rouhani was viewed as politically moderate. As early vote counts began coming in, he took a large lead. He was elected as President of Iran on June 15, defeating Tehran mayor Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates. He took office on August 3, 2013. In 2013, TIME magazine named him 9th of the Most Influential People in the World. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom and free access to information, improved women's rights by appointing female foreign ministry spokespersons, and was described as a centrist and reformist who improved Iran's diplomatic relations with other countries through exchanging conciliatory letters.
Ru‘ba ibn al-‘Ajjaj al-Tamimi
Ru‘ba ibn al-‘Ajjaj al-Tamimi (c. 685-762). Arab poet of rajaz verses. His poems are among the most difficult in Arabic literature as they are full of words unknown from elsewhere.
Ru‘ba ibn al-‘Ajjaj al-Tamimi (c. 685-762). Arab poet of rajaz verses. His poems are among the most difficult in Arabic literature as they are full of words unknown from elsewhere.
Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far (Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far Rudaki) (Abū ʿAbdollāh Jaʿfar ibn Moḥammad) (Abu Abdullah Jafar ibn Mohammad ibn Hakim ibn Abdurrahman ibn Adam Rudaki Samarghandi) (Ādam ul-Shoara) (Adam of Poets) (Rudagi) (Rudhagi) (b.c. 858/859, Rudak, Khorasan - 940/941). One of the great Persian poets. He was a master of the panegyric, excelled in bacchic poetry, and was remarkable for his original similes and his descriptions of nature.
Rudaki was the first poet of note to compose poems in the “New Persian,” written in Arabic alphabet, widely regarded as the father of Persian poetry.
A talented singer and instrumentalist, Rūdakī served as a court poet to the Sāmānid ruler Naṣr II (914–943) in Bukhara until he fell out of favor in 937. He ended his life in wretched poverty. Approximately 100,000 couplets are attributed to Rūdakī, but of that enormous output, fewer than 1,000 have survived, and these are scattered among many anthologies and biographical works. His poems are written in a simple style, characterized by optimism and charm and, toward the end of his life, by a touching melancholy. In addition to parts of his divan (collection of poems), one of his most important contributions to literature is his translation from Arabic to New Persian of Kalīlah wa Dimnah, a collection of fables of Indian origin. Later re-tellings of these fables owe much to this lost translation of Rūdakī, which further ensured his fame in Perso-Islamic literature.
Rudaki was a Persian poet, and is regarded as the first great literary genius of the Modern Persian, who composed poems in the Perso-Arabic alphabet or "New Persian" script. Rudaki is considered as a founder of the Tajik/Persian classical literature.
Rudaki was born in 858 in Rudak (Panjrud), a village located in Panjakent, Tajikistan. He was the court poet to the Samanid ruler Nasr II (914–943) in Bukhara, although he eventually fell out of favor. His life ended in poverty.
Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far Rudaki see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Abū ʿAbdollāh Jaʿfar ibn Moḥammad see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Abu Abdullah Jafar ibn Mohammad ibn Hakim ibn Abdurrahman ibn Adam Rudaki Samarghandi see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Ādam ul-Shoara see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Adam of Poets see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Rudagi see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far (Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far Rudaki) (Abū ʿAbdollāh Jaʿfar ibn Moḥammad) (Abu Abdullah Jafar ibn Mohammad ibn Hakim ibn Abdurrahman ibn Adam Rudaki Samarghandi) (Ādam ul-Shoara) (Adam of Poets) (Rudagi) (Rudhagi) (b.c. 858/859, Rudak, Khorasan - 940/941). One of the great Persian poets. He was a master of the panegyric, excelled in bacchic poetry, and was remarkable for his original similes and his descriptions of nature.
Rudaki was the first poet of note to compose poems in the “New Persian,” written in Arabic alphabet, widely regarded as the father of Persian poetry.
A talented singer and instrumentalist, Rūdakī served as a court poet to the Sāmānid ruler Naṣr II (914–943) in Bukhara until he fell out of favor in 937. He ended his life in wretched poverty. Approximately 100,000 couplets are attributed to Rūdakī, but of that enormous output, fewer than 1,000 have survived, and these are scattered among many anthologies and biographical works. His poems are written in a simple style, characterized by optimism and charm and, toward the end of his life, by a touching melancholy. In addition to parts of his divan (collection of poems), one of his most important contributions to literature is his translation from Arabic to New Persian of Kalīlah wa Dimnah, a collection of fables of Indian origin. Later re-tellings of these fables owe much to this lost translation of Rūdakī, which further ensured his fame in Perso-Islamic literature.
Rudaki was a Persian poet, and is regarded as the first great literary genius of the Modern Persian, who composed poems in the Perso-Arabic alphabet or "New Persian" script. Rudaki is considered as a founder of the Tajik/Persian classical literature.
Rudaki was born in 858 in Rudak (Panjrud), a village located in Panjakent, Tajikistan. He was the court poet to the Samanid ruler Nasr II (914–943) in Bukhara, although he eventually fell out of favor. His life ended in poverty.
Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far Rudaki see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Abū ʿAbdollāh Jaʿfar ibn Moḥammad see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Abu Abdullah Jafar ibn Mohammad ibn Hakim ibn Abdurrahman ibn Adam Rudaki Samarghandi see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Ādam ul-Shoara see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Adam of Poets see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Rudagi see Rudaki, Abu ‘Abd Allah Ja‘far
Rudhrawar
Rudhrawar. District in Iran between Hamadhan and Nihawand. It produced many kinds of fruit and was widely renowned for its saffron.
Rudhrawar. District in Iran between Hamadhan and Nihawand. It produced many kinds of fruit and was widely renowned for its saffron.
Rudhrawari, Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-
Rudhrawari, Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al- (Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-Rudhrawari) (1045-1095). ‘Abbasid vizier. He is praised for his piety, his eloquence and poetical gifts.
Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-Rudhrawari see Rudhrawari, Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-
Rudhrawari, Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al- (Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-Rudhrawari) (1045-1095). ‘Abbasid vizier. He is praised for his piety, his eloquence and poetical gifts.
Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-Rudhrawari see Rudhrawari, Zahir al-Din Abu Shuja’ al-
Ruete, Emily
Ruete, Emily (Emily Ruete) (Sayyida Salme) (1844-1924). The daughter of Sayyid Said bin Sultan al-Busaid, the Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman.
Emily Ruete was born in Zanzibar as Sayyida Salme, Princess of Zanzibar and Oman. She was a daughter of Sayyid Said bin Sultan Al-Busaid, Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman.
Sayyida Salme was born on August 30, 1844, as daughter of Sultan Said and Jilfidan, a Circassian concubine. Her first years were spent in the huge Bet il Mtoni palace, by the sea about eight kilometers north of Stone Town. (The palace was mostly demolished in 1914). She grew up bilingual in Arabic and Swahili. In 1851 she moved to Bet il Watoro, the house of her brother Majid bin Said of Zanzibar, the later sultan. Her brother taught her to ride and to shoot. In 1853 she moved with her mother to Bet il Tani. She secretly taught herself to write, a skill which was unusual for women at the time.
When her father died in 1856 she was declared of age, twelve years old, and received her paternal inheritance. This consisted of a plantation with a residence, and 5,429 pounds. After her father's death, her brother Sayyid Thuwaini bin Said al-Said became Sultan of Muscat and Oman, while her brother Majid became Sultan of Zanzibar.
In 1859, her mother died and Salme received her maternal inheritance, three plantations. The same year a dispute broke out between her brothers Majid and Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar. Though she favored Majid, her favorite sister Khwala made her side with Barghash. Because she could write she acted (at the age of fifteen) as secretary of Barghash's party. With the help of an English gunboat the insurrection of Barghash was soon brought to an end. Barghash was sent into exile in Bombay for two years and Salme withdrew to Kisimbani, one of her estates.
Salme eventually moved back to Stone Town and made up with Majid. This earned her the lasting enmity from Barghash, as well as a split with her favorite sister Khwala.
While living in Stone Town she became acquainted with her neighbor, a German merchant, Rudolph Heinrich Ruete (b. March 10, 1839 - d. August 6, 1870) and became pregnant by him. In August 1866, after her pregnancy had become obvious, she fled on board the British frigate "H.M.S. Highflyer" commanded by Captain [Thomas] Malcolm Sabine Pasley and was given passage on his ship to Aden. There she took Christian instruction and was baptized prior to her marriage at Aden on May 30, 1867. She had given birth to a son, Heinrich, in Aden in December 1866, and he died in France en route to Germany in the summer of 1867. She and her husband settled in Hamburg, Germany.
The Ruetes settled in Hamburg, where they had another son and two daughters. They were:
* Antonia Thawke Ruete (March 24, 1868-?), who married Eugene Brandeis (1846-1919) in 1898 and had two daughters.
* Rudolf Said-Ruete (April 13, 1869 - May 1, 1946). A journalist and author, with the rise of the Nazi Party, he resigned his German citizenship in 1934 and settled in London, becoming a British subject and dying at Lucerne, Switzerland after World War II. In 1901, he married Mary Therese Matthias (1872-?) and had a son and a daughter, Werner Heinrich (1902-?) and Salme Matilda Benvenuta Olga (1910-?).
* Rosalie Ghuza Ruete (16 April 1870-?), who married Major-General Martin Troemer of the Royal Prussian Army.
Rudolph Ruete died in 1870 after a tram accident, leaving Emily Ruete in difficult economic circumstances because the authorities denied her heritage claims. Partly to alleviate these economic problems she wrote Memoirs of an Arabian Princess from Zanzibar, first published in the German Empire in 1886, later published in the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The book provides the first known autobiography of an Arab woman. The book presents the reader with an intimate picture of life in Zanzibar between 1850 and 1865, and an inside portrait of her brothers Majid bin Said of Zanzibar and Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar, the later sultans of Zanzibar.
After the death of her husband, Emily Ruete was caught up in the colonial plans of Otto von Bismarck. There were speculations that Bismarck wanted to install her son as Sultan of Zanzibar. She revisited Zanzibar in 1885 and in 1888. Between 1889 and 1914 she lived in Beirut, Lebanon and Jaffa. She died in Jena, Germany, at the age of 79, from severe pneumonia.
In 1992 An Arabian Princess Between Two Worlds was published, making her letters home, with her reactions on life in Europe, finally available to the public.
There is a permanent exhibition about Emily Ruete in the People's Palace in Stonetown, the palace constructed by her brother, Sultan Barghash.
Emily Ruete appears as a minor character in M.M. Kaye's novel Trade Wind. The book, set in Zanzibar during the late 1850s, mentions her involvement with her brother Barghash's failed attempt to take the throne from their brother Majid and her subsequent interest in and marriage to Rudolph.
Emily Ruete see Ruete, Emily
Sayyida Salme see Ruete, Emily
Salme, Sayyida see Ruete, Emily
Ruete, Emily (Emily Ruete) (Sayyida Salme) (1844-1924). The daughter of Sayyid Said bin Sultan al-Busaid, the Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman.
Emily Ruete was born in Zanzibar as Sayyida Salme, Princess of Zanzibar and Oman. She was a daughter of Sayyid Said bin Sultan Al-Busaid, Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman.
Sayyida Salme was born on August 30, 1844, as daughter of Sultan Said and Jilfidan, a Circassian concubine. Her first years were spent in the huge Bet il Mtoni palace, by the sea about eight kilometers north of Stone Town. (The palace was mostly demolished in 1914). She grew up bilingual in Arabic and Swahili. In 1851 she moved to Bet il Watoro, the house of her brother Majid bin Said of Zanzibar, the later sultan. Her brother taught her to ride and to shoot. In 1853 she moved with her mother to Bet il Tani. She secretly taught herself to write, a skill which was unusual for women at the time.
When her father died in 1856 she was declared of age, twelve years old, and received her paternal inheritance. This consisted of a plantation with a residence, and 5,429 pounds. After her father's death, her brother Sayyid Thuwaini bin Said al-Said became Sultan of Muscat and Oman, while her brother Majid became Sultan of Zanzibar.
In 1859, her mother died and Salme received her maternal inheritance, three plantations. The same year a dispute broke out between her brothers Majid and Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar. Though she favored Majid, her favorite sister Khwala made her side with Barghash. Because she could write she acted (at the age of fifteen) as secretary of Barghash's party. With the help of an English gunboat the insurrection of Barghash was soon brought to an end. Barghash was sent into exile in Bombay for two years and Salme withdrew to Kisimbani, one of her estates.
Salme eventually moved back to Stone Town and made up with Majid. This earned her the lasting enmity from Barghash, as well as a split with her favorite sister Khwala.
While living in Stone Town she became acquainted with her neighbor, a German merchant, Rudolph Heinrich Ruete (b. March 10, 1839 - d. August 6, 1870) and became pregnant by him. In August 1866, after her pregnancy had become obvious, she fled on board the British frigate "H.M.S. Highflyer" commanded by Captain [Thomas] Malcolm Sabine Pasley and was given passage on his ship to Aden. There she took Christian instruction and was baptized prior to her marriage at Aden on May 30, 1867. She had given birth to a son, Heinrich, in Aden in December 1866, and he died in France en route to Germany in the summer of 1867. She and her husband settled in Hamburg, Germany.
The Ruetes settled in Hamburg, where they had another son and two daughters. They were:
* Antonia Thawke Ruete (March 24, 1868-?), who married Eugene Brandeis (1846-1919) in 1898 and had two daughters.
* Rudolf Said-Ruete (April 13, 1869 - May 1, 1946). A journalist and author, with the rise of the Nazi Party, he resigned his German citizenship in 1934 and settled in London, becoming a British subject and dying at Lucerne, Switzerland after World War II. In 1901, he married Mary Therese Matthias (1872-?) and had a son and a daughter, Werner Heinrich (1902-?) and Salme Matilda Benvenuta Olga (1910-?).
* Rosalie Ghuza Ruete (16 April 1870-?), who married Major-General Martin Troemer of the Royal Prussian Army.
Rudolph Ruete died in 1870 after a tram accident, leaving Emily Ruete in difficult economic circumstances because the authorities denied her heritage claims. Partly to alleviate these economic problems she wrote Memoirs of an Arabian Princess from Zanzibar, first published in the German Empire in 1886, later published in the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The book provides the first known autobiography of an Arab woman. The book presents the reader with an intimate picture of life in Zanzibar between 1850 and 1865, and an inside portrait of her brothers Majid bin Said of Zanzibar and Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar, the later sultans of Zanzibar.
After the death of her husband, Emily Ruete was caught up in the colonial plans of Otto von Bismarck. There were speculations that Bismarck wanted to install her son as Sultan of Zanzibar. She revisited Zanzibar in 1885 and in 1888. Between 1889 and 1914 she lived in Beirut, Lebanon and Jaffa. She died in Jena, Germany, at the age of 79, from severe pneumonia.
In 1992 An Arabian Princess Between Two Worlds was published, making her letters home, with her reactions on life in Europe, finally available to the public.
There is a permanent exhibition about Emily Ruete in the People's Palace in Stonetown, the palace constructed by her brother, Sultan Barghash.
Emily Ruete appears as a minor character in M.M. Kaye's novel Trade Wind. The book, set in Zanzibar during the late 1850s, mentions her involvement with her brother Barghash's failed attempt to take the throne from their brother Majid and her subsequent interest in and marriage to Rudolph.
Emily Ruete see Ruete, Emily
Sayyida Salme see Ruete, Emily
Salme, Sayyida see Ruete, Emily
Ruh
Ruh. The Arabic word ruh means “spirit” or “soul.” The term ruh is sometimes the equivalent of qalb. According to many early Islamic theorists, ruh was identical with nafs. Both terms were thought to refer to a single spiritual substance, with refined material form, light in weight, mobile, and capable of penetrating all parts of the human body. Though created, it was everlasting and at death went to heaven for a preliminary judgment before returning to the grave to await the final Day of Resurrection. Only the spirits of prophets -- nabi -- and martyrs -- shahid -- went straight to heaven at death.
Sufis, however, distinguish between ruh and nafs in terms of function. According to some Sufi theologians, “The spirit is the mine of good and the soul is the mine of evil.” Other Sufis see man as composed of spirit, soul and body, with spirit and soul combatting each other for control of the body and the ultimate destiny of man.
Spirit see Ruh.
Soul see Ruh.
Ruh. The Arabic word ruh means “spirit” or “soul.” The term ruh is sometimes the equivalent of qalb. According to many early Islamic theorists, ruh was identical with nafs. Both terms were thought to refer to a single spiritual substance, with refined material form, light in weight, mobile, and capable of penetrating all parts of the human body. Though created, it was everlasting and at death went to heaven for a preliminary judgment before returning to the grave to await the final Day of Resurrection. Only the spirits of prophets -- nabi -- and martyrs -- shahid -- went straight to heaven at death.
Sufis, however, distinguish between ruh and nafs in terms of function. According to some Sufi theologians, “The spirit is the mine of good and the soul is the mine of evil.” Other Sufis see man as composed of spirit, soul and body, with spirit and soul combatting each other for control of the body and the ultimate destiny of man.
Spirit see Ruh.
Soul see Ruh.
Ruhi
Ruhi (1548-1605). Ottoman historian and poet of the sixteenth century. His history of the Ottomans ends in 1511.
Ruhi (1548-1605). Ottoman historian and poet of the sixteenth century. His history of the Ottomans ends in 1511.
Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya
Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya (Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya Rukn al-Dawla) (Rukn al-Daula) (d. September 976). Second in age of the three brothers who founded the Buyid dynasty. When his elder brother ‘Ali, later ‘Imad al-Dawla, occupied Fars in 934, he was given the governorship of Kazarun. But shortly afterwards ‘Imad al-Dawla sent him as a hostage to the Ziyarid Mardawij, their former overlord, whom he wanted to conciliate. On Mardawij’s assassination in 935, Rukn escaped, took Isfahan but was ejected from this city in 939 by Washmgir, Mardawij’s brother. Soon afterwards, however, he succeeded in recovering Isfahan and, when the Samanid Nasr ibn Ahmad died in 943, he was able to drive Washmgir out of Rayy, and so gained control of the whole Jibal. His contest with Washmgir lasted until the latter’s death in 965. In 949, at ‘Imad al-Din’s death, he became the head of the family. The remarkable Abu’l-Fadl ibn al-‘Amid was Rukn al-Dawla’s vizier for thirty years.
Rukn al-Dawla (Hasan), was the first Buyid amir of northern and central Iran (c. 935-976). He was the son of Buya.
In around 928, Hasan's brother 'Ali joined the services of Makan, who was the Samanid governor of Ray. 'Ali then managed to gain military positions for Hasan and another brother named Ahmad. At the time, Hasan was about thirty years old. When Makan attacked his Samanid overlords and was subsequently defeated by the Ziyarid prince Mardavij, the brothers transferred their allegiance to the latter.
In the following years, 'Ali repudiated his subservience to Mardavij and, after some time, managed to create an empire in Fars. During this time, Hasan distinguished himself in the battles over that province. Mardavij, however, marched south and forced 'Ali to recognize his authority in around 934. Hasan was sent to Madavij's court as a hostage. The death of Mardavij in 935 allowed Hasan to escape, and also provided an opportunity for the Buyids to expand into central Iran. 'Ali therefore sent Hasan to take Isfahan. The Ziyarids, now under Vushmgir, were busy dealing with the Samanids, allowing the Buyid to easily take the city. This success did not last, however. Internal disruptions, combined with an invasion by Vushmgir, forced Hasan to abandon Isfahan to the Ziyarids three years later.
Although he did not receive much support from 'Ali, Hasan continued to be involved in central Iran. In 940 he recaptured Isfahan, then defeated Vushmgir in battle and occupied Ray, which had been taken by the Samanids, in 943. Meanwhile, in 945, Hasan's brother Ahmad had managed to capture Baghdad, occupying the Caliphate. The caliph gave Ahmad the title of "Mu'izz al-Daula", while Ali' received the title of "'Imad al-Daula". Hasan himself was bestowed with the title "Rukn al-Daula".
That same year, 945, saw Rukn al-Daula expelled from all of central Iran by Ibn Muhtaj, the governor of Samanid Khurasan. Only in 946 or 947 was he able to make his return to Ray. He was, however, able to expand his territory after doing so, stripping Vushmgir of Gurgan and Tabaristan.
In 948 or 949, the Sallarid ruler of Azerbaijan, al-Marzuban, became angry over a diplomatic insult sent to him by Mu'izz al-Daula. He sought revenge against the Buyids by attempting to seize Ray from Rukn al-Daula. The amir, however, convinced al-Marzuban by diplomatic measures to delay his expedition until his brothers sent him additional armies. He then defeated al-Marzuban near Qazvin and imprisoned him.
In around 948, 'Imad al-Daula named Rukn al-Daula's eldest son, Fana Khusrau ('Adud al-Daula) as his successor. In September 949 he died, and Rukn al-Daula claimed the title of senior amir for himself. He traveled to Shiraz and stayed there for at least nine months in order to secure his son's succession there, despite the fact that the Samanids were threatening his own possessions. Mu'izz al-Daula, meanwhile, accepted Rukn al-Daula's position of senior amir and also sent troops to Shiraz to assist 'Adud al-Daula.
With his substantial territories in central Iran, as well as pledges to respect his authority by both Mu'izz al-Daula and 'Adud al-Daula, Rukn al-Daula was now the most powerful ruler in the Buyid empire. The center of power therefore shifted from Shiraz to Ray. As a consequence of this, Rukn al-Daula was able to request troops from the other Buyid rulers. His own position was not secure; during his time in Shiraz the governor of Samanid Khurasan seized Jibal for a time.
Following his defeat of the Sallarids, Rukn al-Daula sent Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Razzaq, who was formerly the governor of Samanid Tus, to Azerbaijan with orders to take control of the province. The latter suffered difficulties, however, and returned in 949 or 950 to Ray. In 952 or 953 al-Marzuban escaped, and after some fighting retook control of Azerbaijan. By 955, Rukn al-Daula made peace with him, and married his daughter.
The fight between the Buyids and the Ziyarids, along with their Samanid overlords over Gurgan and Tabaristan also continued until 955, with control of the provinces switching hands several times. Rukn al-Daula was forced to sign a treaty with the Samanids, in which he promised to respect the independence of the Ziyarids in exchange for peace. The peace did not last long, however; in 958 Vushmgir occupied Ray for a short time, while in 960 Rukn al-Daula briefly gained control of Gurgan. In 962, the Buyid managed to take both Gurgan and Tabaristan for a short time. Eventually, this fighting began to work in Rukn al-Daula's favor, and he was able to sign a less humiliating treaty with the Samanids in 971 or 972, though he continued to pay tribute.
In 974 Rukn al-Daula sent 'Adud al-Daula to suppress a large revolt against 'Izz al-Daula, who had succeeded Mu'izz al-Daula in Iraq in 967. 'Izz al-Daula had also recognized Rukn al-Daula as senior amir, but he and 'Adud al-Daula had a dislike of each other. 'Adud al-Daula successfully destroyed the rebellion, but ended up deposing his cousin as well and proclaimed himself the ruler of Iraq. Rukn al-Daula, however, vehemently protested this, claiming that the line of Mu'izz al-Daula could not be removed from power. 'Adud al-Daula's offer to his father to pay tribute for his possession of Iraq was rejected, and he reluctantly reinstated 'Izz al-Daula and returned to Fars.
'Adud al-Daula began to grow concerned that his father would deny him the succession as senior amir. Although he had never been explicitly designated as successor, it was assumed that as the eldest son that the position would be his upon Rukn al-Daula's death. The fiasco in Iraq, however, cooled the relationship between the two. At this point, Abu'l-Fath ibn al-'Amid, Rukn al-Daula's vizier, attempted to reconcile them by arranging a meeting in Isfahan in January of 976.
The meeting proved to be a success, at least for 'Adud al-Daula. Rukn al-Daula may have been pressured to give in to his son's demands; in any case he agreed to name 'Adud al-Daula as his successor to the senior amirate. All he asked for in exchange was that Ray would go to his second son, Fakhr al-Daula, while Hamadan would go to a third son, Mu'ayyad al-Daula. Both sons would recognize 'Adud al-Daula as senior amir. The issue of Iraq was not discussed.
Only a few months later, Rukn al-Daula died. He was succeeded by his two younger sons in Ray and Hamadan, while 'Adud al-Daula claimed the senior amirate. 'Izz al-Daula, however, refused to recognize this, paving the way for conflict between the two sides.
Rukn al-Daula's campaigns in central Iran were done almost entirely without the support of 'Imad al-Daula. As a result of this, Rukn al-Daula was in nearly all aspects independent of his brother. His coins bear only his name after that of the caliph's, and he was considered by contemporary sources to be an independent ruler. For the remainder of the Buyid presence in central Iran, the amirs there were either independent of the rest of the empire, or were the senior amirs that ruled the empire.
The failure of 'Imad al-Daula to extend his authority over the Buyids of central Iran was later to present problems for the Buyid state, as the descendants of both brothers each considered themselves to be the best candidate for the senior amirate. This led to multiple independent rulers, destroying the unity of the Buyid state and allowing for internal dissent.
In terms of a capital, Isfahan at first served as Rukn al-Daula's city of choice, and continued to be a favorite even after Ray was captured and the court was moved there. His successors would continue to use Ray as the capital. Like the other Buyids, Rukn al-Daula was a Shi'ite. While he recognized the authority of the caliph on his coins and allowed the caliph's name to be said in the Friday prayers, in all other aspects he ruled as a Shi'ite. On the other hand, he was no fanatic; he recognized that the Sunni citizens of his empire had to be protected in order to prevent internal discord.
Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya Rukn al-Dawla see Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya
Rukn al-Daula see Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya
Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya (Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya Rukn al-Dawla) (Rukn al-Daula) (d. September 976). Second in age of the three brothers who founded the Buyid dynasty. When his elder brother ‘Ali, later ‘Imad al-Dawla, occupied Fars in 934, he was given the governorship of Kazarun. But shortly afterwards ‘Imad al-Dawla sent him as a hostage to the Ziyarid Mardawij, their former overlord, whom he wanted to conciliate. On Mardawij’s assassination in 935, Rukn escaped, took Isfahan but was ejected from this city in 939 by Washmgir, Mardawij’s brother. Soon afterwards, however, he succeeded in recovering Isfahan and, when the Samanid Nasr ibn Ahmad died in 943, he was able to drive Washmgir out of Rayy, and so gained control of the whole Jibal. His contest with Washmgir lasted until the latter’s death in 965. In 949, at ‘Imad al-Din’s death, he became the head of the family. The remarkable Abu’l-Fadl ibn al-‘Amid was Rukn al-Dawla’s vizier for thirty years.
Rukn al-Dawla (Hasan), was the first Buyid amir of northern and central Iran (c. 935-976). He was the son of Buya.
In around 928, Hasan's brother 'Ali joined the services of Makan, who was the Samanid governor of Ray. 'Ali then managed to gain military positions for Hasan and another brother named Ahmad. At the time, Hasan was about thirty years old. When Makan attacked his Samanid overlords and was subsequently defeated by the Ziyarid prince Mardavij, the brothers transferred their allegiance to the latter.
In the following years, 'Ali repudiated his subservience to Mardavij and, after some time, managed to create an empire in Fars. During this time, Hasan distinguished himself in the battles over that province. Mardavij, however, marched south and forced 'Ali to recognize his authority in around 934. Hasan was sent to Madavij's court as a hostage. The death of Mardavij in 935 allowed Hasan to escape, and also provided an opportunity for the Buyids to expand into central Iran. 'Ali therefore sent Hasan to take Isfahan. The Ziyarids, now under Vushmgir, were busy dealing with the Samanids, allowing the Buyid to easily take the city. This success did not last, however. Internal disruptions, combined with an invasion by Vushmgir, forced Hasan to abandon Isfahan to the Ziyarids three years later.
Although he did not receive much support from 'Ali, Hasan continued to be involved in central Iran. In 940 he recaptured Isfahan, then defeated Vushmgir in battle and occupied Ray, which had been taken by the Samanids, in 943. Meanwhile, in 945, Hasan's brother Ahmad had managed to capture Baghdad, occupying the Caliphate. The caliph gave Ahmad the title of "Mu'izz al-Daula", while Ali' received the title of "'Imad al-Daula". Hasan himself was bestowed with the title "Rukn al-Daula".
That same year, 945, saw Rukn al-Daula expelled from all of central Iran by Ibn Muhtaj, the governor of Samanid Khurasan. Only in 946 or 947 was he able to make his return to Ray. He was, however, able to expand his territory after doing so, stripping Vushmgir of Gurgan and Tabaristan.
In 948 or 949, the Sallarid ruler of Azerbaijan, al-Marzuban, became angry over a diplomatic insult sent to him by Mu'izz al-Daula. He sought revenge against the Buyids by attempting to seize Ray from Rukn al-Daula. The amir, however, convinced al-Marzuban by diplomatic measures to delay his expedition until his brothers sent him additional armies. He then defeated al-Marzuban near Qazvin and imprisoned him.
In around 948, 'Imad al-Daula named Rukn al-Daula's eldest son, Fana Khusrau ('Adud al-Daula) as his successor. In September 949 he died, and Rukn al-Daula claimed the title of senior amir for himself. He traveled to Shiraz and stayed there for at least nine months in order to secure his son's succession there, despite the fact that the Samanids were threatening his own possessions. Mu'izz al-Daula, meanwhile, accepted Rukn al-Daula's position of senior amir and also sent troops to Shiraz to assist 'Adud al-Daula.
With his substantial territories in central Iran, as well as pledges to respect his authority by both Mu'izz al-Daula and 'Adud al-Daula, Rukn al-Daula was now the most powerful ruler in the Buyid empire. The center of power therefore shifted from Shiraz to Ray. As a consequence of this, Rukn al-Daula was able to request troops from the other Buyid rulers. His own position was not secure; during his time in Shiraz the governor of Samanid Khurasan seized Jibal for a time.
Following his defeat of the Sallarids, Rukn al-Daula sent Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Razzaq, who was formerly the governor of Samanid Tus, to Azerbaijan with orders to take control of the province. The latter suffered difficulties, however, and returned in 949 or 950 to Ray. In 952 or 953 al-Marzuban escaped, and after some fighting retook control of Azerbaijan. By 955, Rukn al-Daula made peace with him, and married his daughter.
The fight between the Buyids and the Ziyarids, along with their Samanid overlords over Gurgan and Tabaristan also continued until 955, with control of the provinces switching hands several times. Rukn al-Daula was forced to sign a treaty with the Samanids, in which he promised to respect the independence of the Ziyarids in exchange for peace. The peace did not last long, however; in 958 Vushmgir occupied Ray for a short time, while in 960 Rukn al-Daula briefly gained control of Gurgan. In 962, the Buyid managed to take both Gurgan and Tabaristan for a short time. Eventually, this fighting began to work in Rukn al-Daula's favor, and he was able to sign a less humiliating treaty with the Samanids in 971 or 972, though he continued to pay tribute.
In 974 Rukn al-Daula sent 'Adud al-Daula to suppress a large revolt against 'Izz al-Daula, who had succeeded Mu'izz al-Daula in Iraq in 967. 'Izz al-Daula had also recognized Rukn al-Daula as senior amir, but he and 'Adud al-Daula had a dislike of each other. 'Adud al-Daula successfully destroyed the rebellion, but ended up deposing his cousin as well and proclaimed himself the ruler of Iraq. Rukn al-Daula, however, vehemently protested this, claiming that the line of Mu'izz al-Daula could not be removed from power. 'Adud al-Daula's offer to his father to pay tribute for his possession of Iraq was rejected, and he reluctantly reinstated 'Izz al-Daula and returned to Fars.
'Adud al-Daula began to grow concerned that his father would deny him the succession as senior amir. Although he had never been explicitly designated as successor, it was assumed that as the eldest son that the position would be his upon Rukn al-Daula's death. The fiasco in Iraq, however, cooled the relationship between the two. At this point, Abu'l-Fath ibn al-'Amid, Rukn al-Daula's vizier, attempted to reconcile them by arranging a meeting in Isfahan in January of 976.
The meeting proved to be a success, at least for 'Adud al-Daula. Rukn al-Daula may have been pressured to give in to his son's demands; in any case he agreed to name 'Adud al-Daula as his successor to the senior amirate. All he asked for in exchange was that Ray would go to his second son, Fakhr al-Daula, while Hamadan would go to a third son, Mu'ayyad al-Daula. Both sons would recognize 'Adud al-Daula as senior amir. The issue of Iraq was not discussed.
Only a few months later, Rukn al-Daula died. He was succeeded by his two younger sons in Ray and Hamadan, while 'Adud al-Daula claimed the senior amirate. 'Izz al-Daula, however, refused to recognize this, paving the way for conflict between the two sides.
Rukn al-Daula's campaigns in central Iran were done almost entirely without the support of 'Imad al-Daula. As a result of this, Rukn al-Daula was in nearly all aspects independent of his brother. His coins bear only his name after that of the caliph's, and he was considered by contemporary sources to be an independent ruler. For the remainder of the Buyid presence in central Iran, the amirs there were either independent of the rest of the empire, or were the senior amirs that ruled the empire.
The failure of 'Imad al-Daula to extend his authority over the Buyids of central Iran was later to present problems for the Buyid state, as the descendants of both brothers each considered themselves to be the best candidate for the senior amirate. This led to multiple independent rulers, destroying the unity of the Buyid state and allowing for internal dissent.
In terms of a capital, Isfahan at first served as Rukn al-Daula's city of choice, and continued to be a favorite even after Ray was captured and the court was moved there. His successors would continue to use Ray as the capital. Like the other Buyids, Rukn al-Daula was a Shi'ite. While he recognized the authority of the caliph on his coins and allowed the caliph's name to be said in the Friday prayers, in all other aspects he ruled as a Shi'ite. On the other hand, he was no fanatic; he recognized that the Sunni citizens of his empire had to be protected in order to prevent internal discord.
Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya Rukn al-Dawla see Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya
Rukn al-Daula see Rukn al-Dawla, Abu ‘Ali al-Hasan ibn Buya
Rukn al-Din Mas‘ud I
Rukn al-Din Mas‘ud I. Rum Saljuq ruler (r. 1116-1156). He was a son of Qilij Arslan I and succeeded in founding a securely established dominion in Konya, which he gradually extended.
Rukn al-Din Mas‘ud I. Rum Saljuq ruler (r. 1116-1156). He was a son of Qilij Arslan I and succeeded in founding a securely established dominion in Konya, which he gradually extended.
Rukn al-Din Sulayman II ibn Qilij Arslan II
Rukn al-Din Sulayman II ibn Qilij Arslan II. Rum Saljuq ruler (r. 1196-1204). In his old age, Qilij Arslan II divided his kingdom among his many sons, who set up as independent rulers. In the course of time, Rukn al-Din was able to bring the whole kingdom under his sway.
Rukn al-Din Sulayman II ibn Qilij Arslan II. Rum Saljuq ruler (r. 1196-1204). In his old age, Qilij Arslan II divided his kingdom among his many sons, who set up as independent rulers. In the course of time, Rukn al-Din was able to bring the whole kingdom under his sway.
Rum
Rum (Roum) (Rhum) (Rum, ar-). Name used in Arabic, Persian and Turkish for the Byzantine Empire (or for Anatolia), and later for Europeans in general, and collectively to refer to Greek Orthodox Christians. The term means the land and people of the Rhomaeans (Romaioi). A branch of the Saljuqs, ruling from Konya, are known as Rum Saljuqs.
Rûm is a very indefinite term used at different times in the Muslim world to refer to the Balkans and Anatolia generally, and for the Byzantine Empire in particular, for the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in Asia Minor, and for Greeks inhabiting Ottoman or modern Turkish territory as well as for Greek Cypriots. The name is loaned from the Byzantine Greek self-designation "Romans". The city of Rome itself, by contrast, is known in Arabic as Rūmā.
Already the Qur'an includes Surat Ar-Rum (i.e., the Sura dealing with "The Romans" or "The Byzantines"). The Byzantine Greeks, as the continuation of the Roman Empire, called themselves Rhomaioi, Romans, and the Arabs, therefore, called them "the Rûm", their territory "the land of the Rûm", and the Mediterranean "the Sea of the Rûm." They called ancient Greece by the name "Yūnān" (Ionia) and ancient Greeks "Yūnānī" (similar with Hebrew "Yavan" for the country and "Yevanim" for the people). The ancient Romans were called either "Rūm" or sometimes "Latin'yun" (Latins).
Later, because Muslim contact with the Byzantine Greeks most often took place in Asia Minor, the term Rûm became fixed there geographically and remained even after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks, so that their territory was called the land of the Seljuks of Rûm, or the Sultanate of Rûm. But as the Mediterranean was "the Sea of the Rûm", so all peoples on its north coast were called sweepingly "the Rûm".
After the Fall of Constantinople, Mehmed II declared himself Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of the Romans". However, later Ottoman Sultans abandoned this title and did not persist in claiming it. During the 16th century the Portuguese used "rume" and "rumes" (plural) as a generic term to refer to the Mamluk-Ottoman forces they faced then in the Indian Ocean.
Under the Ottoman Empire's Millet system, Greeks were in the "Rum Millet" (Millet-i Rum). The term "Urums", also derived from the same origin, is still used in contemporary ethnography to denote Turkic-speaking Greek populations. "Rumaiic" is a Greek dialect identified mainly with the Ottoman Greeks.
In Al-Andalus any Christian slave girl who had embraced Islam was named Roumiya. Also the legendary lover of King Roderic and daughter of Count Julian is named La Cava Rumía — her affair being the putative cause of the Moorish invasion of Hispania in 711. The crusades introduced the Franks (Ifranja), and later Arabic writers recognize them and their civilization on the north shore of the Mediterranean west from Rome; so Ibn Khaldun wrote in the latter part of the 14th century.
Al-Rūmī is a nisbah designating people originating in the Byzantine empire. Historical people so designated include:
* Suhayb ar-Rumi, a companion of Muhammad
* Mawlānā Jalāl-ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī (Rumi), the 13th century Persian poet
* Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī, 14th century mathematician
* Tadj ol-Molouk Ayrumlu, Former Queen of Iran
Roum see Rum
Rhum see Rum
Rum, ar- see Rum
Rum (Roum) (Rhum) (Rum, ar-). Name used in Arabic, Persian and Turkish for the Byzantine Empire (or for Anatolia), and later for Europeans in general, and collectively to refer to Greek Orthodox Christians. The term means the land and people of the Rhomaeans (Romaioi). A branch of the Saljuqs, ruling from Konya, are known as Rum Saljuqs.
Rûm is a very indefinite term used at different times in the Muslim world to refer to the Balkans and Anatolia generally, and for the Byzantine Empire in particular, for the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in Asia Minor, and for Greeks inhabiting Ottoman or modern Turkish territory as well as for Greek Cypriots. The name is loaned from the Byzantine Greek self-designation "Romans". The city of Rome itself, by contrast, is known in Arabic as Rūmā.
Already the Qur'an includes Surat Ar-Rum (i.e., the Sura dealing with "The Romans" or "The Byzantines"). The Byzantine Greeks, as the continuation of the Roman Empire, called themselves Rhomaioi, Romans, and the Arabs, therefore, called them "the Rûm", their territory "the land of the Rûm", and the Mediterranean "the Sea of the Rûm." They called ancient Greece by the name "Yūnān" (Ionia) and ancient Greeks "Yūnānī" (similar with Hebrew "Yavan" for the country and "Yevanim" for the people). The ancient Romans were called either "Rūm" or sometimes "Latin'yun" (Latins).
Later, because Muslim contact with the Byzantine Greeks most often took place in Asia Minor, the term Rûm became fixed there geographically and remained even after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks, so that their territory was called the land of the Seljuks of Rûm, or the Sultanate of Rûm. But as the Mediterranean was "the Sea of the Rûm", so all peoples on its north coast were called sweepingly "the Rûm".
After the Fall of Constantinople, Mehmed II declared himself Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of the Romans". However, later Ottoman Sultans abandoned this title and did not persist in claiming it. During the 16th century the Portuguese used "rume" and "rumes" (plural) as a generic term to refer to the Mamluk-Ottoman forces they faced then in the Indian Ocean.
Under the Ottoman Empire's Millet system, Greeks were in the "Rum Millet" (Millet-i Rum). The term "Urums", also derived from the same origin, is still used in contemporary ethnography to denote Turkic-speaking Greek populations. "Rumaiic" is a Greek dialect identified mainly with the Ottoman Greeks.
In Al-Andalus any Christian slave girl who had embraced Islam was named Roumiya. Also the legendary lover of King Roderic and daughter of Count Julian is named La Cava Rumía — her affair being the putative cause of the Moorish invasion of Hispania in 711. The crusades introduced the Franks (Ifranja), and later Arabic writers recognize them and their civilization on the north shore of the Mediterranean west from Rome; so Ibn Khaldun wrote in the latter part of the 14th century.
Al-Rūmī is a nisbah designating people originating in the Byzantine empire. Historical people so designated include:
* Suhayb ar-Rumi, a companion of Muhammad
* Mawlānā Jalāl-ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhī (Rumi), the 13th century Persian poet
* Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī, 14th century mathematician
* Tadj ol-Molouk Ayrumlu, Former Queen of Iran
Roum see Rum
Rhum see Rum
Rum, ar- see Rum
Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Rumi, Jalal ad-Din (Jalal ad-Din Rumi) (Jalal al-Din Rumi) (Mawlana) (Jelaluddin Balkhi) (Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Balkhī) (Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī) (Mowlānā) (b. c. September 30, 1207, Balkh [now in Afghanistan] — d. December 17, 1273). Paramount mystical poet of Islam in the Persian language and the founder of the Mevlevi Order (the “Dancing Dervishes” or the “Whirling Dervishes”).
Persians and Afghanis call Rumi “Jelaluddin Balkhi.” He was born on September 30, 1207, in Balkh, in north Afghanistan, which was then part of the Persian Empire. The name Rumi means “from Roman Anatolia.” He was not known by that name, of course, until after his family, fleeing the threat of the invading Mongol armies, emigrated to Konya, Turkey, sometime between 1215 and 1220. His father, Bahauddin Walad, was a theologian and jurist and a mystic of uncertain lineage. Bahauddin Walad’s Maarif, a collection of notes, diarylike remarks, sermons, and strange accounts of visionary experiences, has shocked most of the conventional scholars who have tried to understand them. He shows a startlingly sensual freedom in stating his union with God. Rumi was instructed in his father’s secret inner life by a former student of his father, Burhanuddin Mahaqqiq. Burhan and Rumi also studied Sanai and Attar. At his father’s death, Rumi took over the position of sheikh in the dervish learning community in Konya.
Jalal ad-Din, who had been partially trained in mystical and traditional scholarship by his father, succeeded Baha ad-Din and remained at Konya, except for one brief journey, until his own death.
The life of Jalal ad-Din turns on a dramatic meeting in 1244 with the itinerant Dervish Shams ad-Din Tabrizi (Shams al-Din of Tabriz). Shams moved into Rumi’s home and so dominated his life and thought that many of his writings, including a vast collection of poems, were dedicated to Shams and written under the pen name Shams. Shams disappeared from Rumi’s life in 1248 as mysteriously as he had entered it, but, by that time, Rumi had begun an irreversible spiritual odyssey.
With regards to the initial meeting with Shams, Rumi’s life seems to have been a fairly normal one for a religious scholar -- teaching, meditating, helping the poor -- until in the late fall of 1244 when he met a stranger who put a question to him. That stranger was the wandering dervish, Shams of Tabriz, who had traveled throughout the Middle East searching and praying for someone who could “endure my company.” A voice came, “What will you give in return?” “My head!” “The one you seek is Jelaluddin of Konya.”
The question Shams spoke made the learned professor faint to the ground. We cannot be entirely certain of the question, but according to the most reliable account Shams asked who was greater, Muhammad or Bestami, for Bestami had said, “How great is my glory,” whereas Muhammad had acknowledged in his prayer to God, “We do not know You as we should.”
Rumi heard the depth out of which the question came and fell to the ground. He was finally able to answer that Muhammad was greater, because Bestami had taken one gulp of the divine and stopped there, whereas for Muhammad the way was always unfolding. There are various versions of this encounter, but whatever the facts, Shams and Rumi became inseparable. Their friendship is one of the mysteries. They spent months together without any human needs, transported into a region of pure conversation. This ecstatic connection caused difficulties in the religious community. Rumi’s students felt neglected. Sensing the trouble, Shams disappeared as suddenly as he had appeared.
Word came that Shams was in Damascus. Rumi sent his son, Sultan Velad, to Syria to bring his friend back to Konya. When Rumi and Shams met for the second time, they fell at each other’s feet, so that “no one knew who was lover and who the beloved.” Shams stayed in Rumi’s home and was married to a young girl who had been brought up in the family. Again the long mystical conversation (sohbet) began, and again the jealousies grew.
On the night of December 5, 1248, as Rumi and Shams were talking, Shams was called to the back door. He went out, never to be seen again. Most likely, he was murdered with the connivance of Rumi’s son, Allaedin. If so, Shams indeed gave his head for the privilege of this mystical friendship.
The mystery of the Friend’s absence covered Rumi’s world. He himself went out searching for Shams and journeyed again to Damascus. It was there that he realized, Why should I seek? I am the same as he. His essence speaks through me.
I have been looking for myself?
The union became complete. There was full fana, annihilation in the Friend. Rumi’s devotion to Shams unleashed a torrent of rapturous lyric poems, many written in the name of the vanished dervish, with whom, as the “mirror” reflecting the Godhead, Rumi had come to identify himself. Indeed, Rumi called the huge collection of his odes and quatrains Divani-i Shams-i Tabriz -- The Works of Shams of Tabriz. After Sham’s death and Rumi’s merging with him, another companion was found, Saladin Zarkub, the goldsmith. Saladin the Friend to whom Rumi addressed his poems, not so fierily as to Shams, but with quiet tenderness. When Saladin died, Husam Chelebi, Rumi’s scribe and favorite student, assumed this role. Rumi claimed that Husam was the source, the one who understood the vast secret order of the Mathnawi, that great work that shifts so fantastically from theory to folklore to jokes to ecstative poetry. For the last twelve years of his life, Rumi dictated the six volumes of this masterwork to Husam. Comprising six books and some 27,000 couplets, the Mathnavi (Mathnawi-i Ma‘nawi) sets forth loosely connected themes, often narrated as parables or anecdotes in picturesque, highly alliterative verse. Among mystically minded Muslims, the Mathnavi is known as “the Qur’an in Persian.” Commentaries on it, imitations of it, works relating to it or inspired by it abound in various languages throughout the Muslim world.
Rumi also inspired an independent Sufi order (a tariqa), the Mawlawiya (Mevlevi), named after the respectful
title mawlana accorded the Shaikh by his disciples. The order was later publicized among European travelers as the “Whirling Dervishes,” a name that reflects the prominent role of ritual dance in the Mawlawis’ weekly observance of sama’ -- congregational music.
Jalal ad-Din Rumi died on December 17, 1273. He was buried beside his father at Konya. His shrine, around which the Mevlevi (Mawlawi) conventicle grew up, remains, even under the secular Turkish republic, a revered place of pilgrimage.
Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalal ad-Din Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalal al-Din Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Mawlana see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jelaluddin Balkhi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalal ad-Din Rumi died on December 17, 1273. He was buried beside his father at Konya. His shrine, around which the Mevlevi (Mawlawi) conventicle grew up, remains, even under the secular Turkish republic, a revered place of pilgrimage.
Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalal ad-Din Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalal al-Din Rumi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Mawlana see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jelaluddin Balkhi see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī see Rumi, Jalal ad-Din
Ruqayya bint Muhammad
Ruqayya bint Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad) (d. 624). One of the daughters of the Prophet. She is said to have married a son of the Prophet’s uncle Abu Lahab. After her divorce, she married the future Caliph ‘Uthman ibn Affan and went with him to Abyssinia. After her return, she accompanied the Prophet to Medina and died in 625, the year of the battle of Badr.
Ruqayyah is viewed as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid by Sunni Muslims. Other Muslim sects such as Shia Muslims debate her being the daughter of Muhammed (or even of Khadijah).
She was first married to Utbah ibn Abu Lahab. His father, Abu Lahab, forced Utbah to repudiate Ruqayyah due to Abu Lahab's opposition to Muhammad and his teachings. The Muslim convert Uthman ibn Affan had long admired Ruqayyah and was then able to ask for her hand in marriage. Ruqayyah's son was Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, who died when he was 2 years old.
She participated in the Migration to Abyssinia.
The daughters attributed to Muhammad are:
1. Zainab bint Muhammad, married to her maternal cousin Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee before al-Hijra
2. Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, was first married to Utbah ibn Abu Lahab & then to Uthman ibn Affan
3. Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, was first married to Utaybah bin Abu Lahab and then to Uthman ibn Affan after the death of her sister Ruqayyah
4. Fatimah, was married to Ali ('Ali bin Abi Talib)
According to some Shia Muslim sources Ruqayyah only had one daughter, Fatimah. The others either belonged to her sister or were orphaned girls raised by her. Possibly, all of them were Khadijah's but only Fatimah was born to Muhammad. Sunni Muslims however do not contest the parentage of her daughters.
Ruqayyah bint Muhammad see Ruqayya bint Muhammad
Ruqayya bint Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad) (d. 624). One of the daughters of the Prophet. She is said to have married a son of the Prophet’s uncle Abu Lahab. After her divorce, she married the future Caliph ‘Uthman ibn Affan and went with him to Abyssinia. After her return, she accompanied the Prophet to Medina and died in 625, the year of the battle of Badr.
Ruqayyah is viewed as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid by Sunni Muslims. Other Muslim sects such as Shia Muslims debate her being the daughter of Muhammed (or even of Khadijah).
She was first married to Utbah ibn Abu Lahab. His father, Abu Lahab, forced Utbah to repudiate Ruqayyah due to Abu Lahab's opposition to Muhammad and his teachings. The Muslim convert Uthman ibn Affan had long admired Ruqayyah and was then able to ask for her hand in marriage. Ruqayyah's son was Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, who died when he was 2 years old.
She participated in the Migration to Abyssinia.
The daughters attributed to Muhammad are:
1. Zainab bint Muhammad, married to her maternal cousin Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee before al-Hijra
2. Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, was first married to Utbah ibn Abu Lahab & then to Uthman ibn Affan
3. Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, was first married to Utaybah bin Abu Lahab and then to Uthman ibn Affan after the death of her sister Ruqayyah
4. Fatimah, was married to Ali ('Ali bin Abi Talib)
According to some Shia Muslim sources Ruqayyah only had one daughter, Fatimah. The others either belonged to her sister or were orphaned girls raised by her. Possibly, all of them were Khadijah's but only Fatimah was born to Muhammad. Sunni Muslims however do not contest the parentage of her daughters.
Ruqayyah bint Muhammad see Ruqayya bint Muhammad
Rus
Rus (Ros). Name first used for the Northmen, then for the Scandinavian-Slav adventurers who founded the principality of Kiev.
Originally, the name Rus referred to the people, the region, and the medieval states (9th to 12th centuries) of the Rus' Khaganate and Kievan Rus' polities. The territories of the latter are today distributed among Belarus, Ukraine, and a part of the European section of Russia.
The name of Russia (Rossiya) that came into use in the 17th century is derived from an early Greek name for the people of Rus'.
To distinguish the medieval "Rus" state from other states that derived from it, modern historiography calls it "Kievan Rus'." Its predecessor, the 9th-century "Rus' Khaganate," is a somewhat hypothetical state whose existence is inferred from a handful of early medieval Byzantine and Persian/Arabic sources that mention that the Rus' people were governed by a khagan.
"Rus'" as a state had no proper name; by its inhabitants it was called "ruska zemlya" (with ruska alternatively spelled rouska, ruska, rus'ka, and russka), which might be translated as "Land of the Rus".
The Rus are an ancient people who gave their name to the land of Russia. Their origin and identity are much in dispute. Traditional Western scholars believe them to be Scandinavian Vikings, an offshoot of the Varangians, who moved southward from the Baltic coast and founded the first consolidated state among the eastern Slavs, centering on Kiev. Russian scholars, along with some Westerners, consider the Rus to be a southeastern Slavic tribe that founded a tribal league; the Kievan state, they affirm, was the creation of Slavs and was attacked and held only briefly by Varangians.
The Viking, or “Normanist,” theory was initiated in the 18th century by such German historian-philologists as Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694–1738) and August Ludwig von Schlözer (1735–1809). Bayer was an early member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. These two relied on The Russian Primary Chronicle, an account written in the 12th century and covering the period 852 to 1110. It says that the Rus, a Norman people, were first asked to come to Novgorod by the local population to put an end to their feuds. The Rus later extended their rule to Kiev, making it their keystone of defense. This theory was advanced in the 19th century by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen (1842–1927) and the German-Russian historian-philologist Ernst Eduard Kunik (1814–99). It was noted that early Arabian writers had represented the seat of Rus as an island covered with woods and marshes; excavations of 9th- and 10th-century tumuli confirmed the presence of Norse warriors in such a region around Lake Ilmen, near the ancient town of Novgorod, and Lake Ladoga, where the Neva River has its origin. These Baltic regions seemed to indicate the origin of the Rus.
Russian scholars have rejected The Russian Primary Chronicle as unreliable and have insisted that the eastern Slavs, before the entry of the Varangians, had evolved a sophisticated feudal state comparable to the Carolingian empire in the West. The Rus were simply a southern Slavic tribe living on the Ros River.
Ros see Rus
Rus (Ros). Name first used for the Northmen, then for the Scandinavian-Slav adventurers who founded the principality of Kiev.
Originally, the name Rus referred to the people, the region, and the medieval states (9th to 12th centuries) of the Rus' Khaganate and Kievan Rus' polities. The territories of the latter are today distributed among Belarus, Ukraine, and a part of the European section of Russia.
The name of Russia (Rossiya) that came into use in the 17th century is derived from an early Greek name for the people of Rus'.
To distinguish the medieval "Rus" state from other states that derived from it, modern historiography calls it "Kievan Rus'." Its predecessor, the 9th-century "Rus' Khaganate," is a somewhat hypothetical state whose existence is inferred from a handful of early medieval Byzantine and Persian/Arabic sources that mention that the Rus' people were governed by a khagan.
"Rus'" as a state had no proper name; by its inhabitants it was called "ruska zemlya" (with ruska alternatively spelled rouska, ruska, rus'ka, and russka), which might be translated as "Land of the Rus".
The Rus are an ancient people who gave their name to the land of Russia. Their origin and identity are much in dispute. Traditional Western scholars believe them to be Scandinavian Vikings, an offshoot of the Varangians, who moved southward from the Baltic coast and founded the first consolidated state among the eastern Slavs, centering on Kiev. Russian scholars, along with some Westerners, consider the Rus to be a southeastern Slavic tribe that founded a tribal league; the Kievan state, they affirm, was the creation of Slavs and was attacked and held only briefly by Varangians.
The Viking, or “Normanist,” theory was initiated in the 18th century by such German historian-philologists as Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694–1738) and August Ludwig von Schlözer (1735–1809). Bayer was an early member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. These two relied on The Russian Primary Chronicle, an account written in the 12th century and covering the period 852 to 1110. It says that the Rus, a Norman people, were first asked to come to Novgorod by the local population to put an end to their feuds. The Rus later extended their rule to Kiev, making it their keystone of defense. This theory was advanced in the 19th century by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen (1842–1927) and the German-Russian historian-philologist Ernst Eduard Kunik (1814–99). It was noted that early Arabian writers had represented the seat of Rus as an island covered with woods and marshes; excavations of 9th- and 10th-century tumuli confirmed the presence of Norse warriors in such a region around Lake Ilmen, near the ancient town of Novgorod, and Lake Ladoga, where the Neva River has its origin. These Baltic regions seemed to indicate the origin of the Rus.
Russian scholars have rejected The Russian Primary Chronicle as unreliable and have insisted that the eastern Slavs, before the entry of the Varangians, had evolved a sophisticated feudal state comparable to the Carolingian empire in the West. The Rus were simply a southern Slavic tribe living on the Ros River.
Ros see Rus
Rushdie, Salman
Rushdie, Salman (Salman Rushdie) (b. June 19, 1947). Anglo-Indian novelist. Rushdie was born in Bombay (Mumbai), India, to a middle-class Muslim family. His paternal grandfather was an Urdu poet, and his father a Cambridge-educated businessman. At the age of fourteen Rushdie was sent to Rugby School in England. In 1964, Rushdie’s parents moved to Karachi, Pakistan, joining reluctantly the Muslim exodus -- during these years there was a war between India and Pakistan, and the choosing of sides and divided loyalties burdened Rushdie heavily.
Rushdie continued his studies at King’s College, Cambridge, where he read history. After graduating in 1968, he worked for a time in television in Pakistan. After graduating in 1968, Rushdie worked for a time in television in Pakistan. He was an actor in a theatre group at the oval House in Kennington and from 1971 to 1981 he worked intermittently as a freelance advertising copywriter for Ogilvy and Mather and Charles Barker.
As a novelist Rushdie made his debut with Grimus in 1975, an exercise in fantastical science fiction, which draws on the 12th century Sufi poem The Conference of Birds. The title of the novel is an anagram of the name “Simurg,” the immense, all-wise, fabled bird of pre-Islamic Persian mythology. Rushdie’s next novel, Midnight’s Children (1981), won the Booker Prize and brought him international fame. Written in exuberant style, the comic allegory of Indian history revolves around the lives of the narrator Saleem Sinai and the one thousand children born after the Declaration of Independence. All of the children are given some magical property. Saleem has a very large nose, which grants him the ability to see “into the hearts and minds of men.” His chief rival is Shiva, who has the power of war. Saleem, dying in a pickle factory near Bombay, tells his tragic story with special interest in its comical aspects. The work aroused a great deal of controversy in India because of its unflattering portrait of Indira Gandhi and her son Sanjay who was involved in a controversial sterilization campaign. Midnight’s Children took its title from Nehru’s speech delivered at the stroke of midnight, August 14, 1947, as India gained its independence from Great Britain.
Shame (1983) centered on a well-to-do Pakistani family, using the family history as a metaphor for the country. The story included two thinly veiled historical characters -- Iskander Harappa, a playboy turned politician, modeled on the former Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and General Raza Hyder, Iskander’s associate and later his executioner.
In 1988, Rushdie won the Whitbread Award with his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses. The Satanic Verses opens spectacularly. Gibreel Farishta and Saladin Chamcha, two Indian actors, fell to earth after an Air India jumbo jet explodes 30,000 feet above the English Channel. This refers to a real act of terrorism, when an Air India Boeing 747 was blown up in 1985 -- supposedly by Sikh terrorists. Gibreel Farishta in Urdu, means Gabriel Angel, which makes him the archangel whom Islamic tradition regards as “bringing down” the Qur’an from God to Muhammad.
Gibreel Farista and Saladin are miraculously saved, and chosen as protagonists in the fight between Good and Evil. In the following cycle of bizarre adventures, dreams, and tales of past and future, the reader meets Mahound, the Prophet of Jahilia, the recipient of a revelation in which satanic verses mingle with divine. “I told you a long time back,” Gibreel Farishta quietly said, “that if I thought the sickness would never leave me, that it would always return, I would not be able to bear up to it.” Then, very quickly, before Salahuddin could move a finger, Gobreel put the barrel of the gun into his own mouth; and pulled the trigger; and was free.” The character modeled on the Prophet Muhammad and his transcription of the Qur’an is portrayed in an unconventional light. The quotations from the Qur’an are composites of the English version of New Jersey. Dawood and of Maulana Muhammad Ali, with a few touches of Rushdie’s own.
The Satanic Verses was banned in India and South Africa and burned on the streets of Bradford, Yorkshire. On February 14, 1989, Rushdie was condemned to death by the former Iranian spiritual leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini for Rushdie’s publication of The Satanic Verses. When Khomeini called on all zealous Muslims to execute Rushdie and his publishers, Rushdie was forced into hiding. Adding to the fear was an offer made by an aide to Khomeini which announced a million dollar reward for Rushdie’s death. In 1993, Rushdie’s Norwegian publisher William Nygaard was wounded in an attack outside his house. In 1997, the reward was doubled, and the next year the highest Iranian state prosecutor Morteza Moqtadale renewed the death sentence.
During this period of fatwa violent protest in India, Pakistan, and Egypt caused several deaths. Naguib Mahfouz, the winner of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, criticized Khomeini for “intellectual terrorism” but changed his view later and said that Rushdie did not have “the right to insult anything, especially a prophet or anything considered holy.” Another Nobel winner, V. S. Naipaul, described Khomeini’s fatwa as “an extreme form of literary criticism.” In 1990, Rushdie published an essay In Good Faith to appease his critics and issued an apology in which he reaffirmed his respect for Islam. However, Iranian clerics did not repudiate their death threat.
After the religious decree, Rushdie shunned publicity, hiding from assassins. However, he continued to write and publish books. Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990) was written for children, and wove into the story an affable robot, genies, talking fish, dark villains, and an Arabian princess in need of saving. The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995) focused on contemporary India, and explored those activities, directed at Indian Muslims and lower castes, of right-wing Hindu terrorists. The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) was set in the world of hedonistic rock stars, a mixture of mythology and elements from the repertoire of science fiction. In Fury (2001), Malik Solanka, a former Cambridge professor, tries to find a new life in New York City. He has left his wife and son and created an animated philosophizing doll, Little Brain, which has its own successful television series. In New York, he has blackouts and violent rages and becomes involved with two women, Mila, who looks like Little Brain, and a beautiful freedom fighter named Neela Mahendra.
Rushdie was married twice, in 1976 to Clarissa Luard and in 1988 to the American writer Marianne Wiggins. The marriage broke up during their enforced underground life. The spouses of Salman Rushdie were: Clarissa Luard (1976–1987); Marianne Wiggins (1988–1993); Elizabeth West (1997–2004); and Padma Lakshmi (2004–2007).
However, in September 1998, the Iranian government announced that the state was not going to put into effect the fatwa nor encourage anyone to do so. Rushdie then decided to end his hiding.
In February 1999, Ayatollah Hassan Sanei promised a $2.8 million dollar reward for killing the author.
Rushdie uses in his works tales from various genres – fantasy, mythology, religion, and oral tradition. Rushdie’s narrative technique connected his books to magic realism, which includes such English language authors as Peter Carey, Angela Carter, E. L. Doctorow, John Fowles, Mark Helprin or Emma Tenant.
Rushdie was knighted for services to literature in the Queen's Birthday Honours on June 16, 2007. In response to his knighthood, many nations with Muslim majorities protested. Parliamentarians of several of these countries condemned the action, and Iran and Pakistan called in their British envoys to protest formally. Controversial condemnation issued by Pakistan's Religious Affairs Minister Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq was in turn rebuffed by former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Ironically, their respective fathers Zia-ul-Haq and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had been earlier portrayed in Rushdie's novel Shame. Mass demonstrations against Rushdie's knighthood took place in Pakistan and Malaysia. Several called publicly for his death. Some non-Muslims were disappointed by Rushdie's knighthood, believing that the writer did not merit such an honor and there were several other writers who deserved the knighthood more than Rushdie.
In the wake of the 'Danish Cartoons Affair' in March 2006 – which many considered to be an echo of the death threats and fatwā which had followed the publication of The Satanic Verses in 1989 – Rushdie signed the manifesto 'Together Facing the New Totalitarianism', a statement warning of the dangers of religious extremism. The Manifesto was published in the left-leaning French weekly Charlie Hebdo in March 2006.
The books of Salman Rushdie include:
* Grimus (1975)
* Midnight's Children (1981)
* Shame (1983)
* The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey (1987)
* The Satanic Verses (1988)
* Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990)
* Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (1992)
* Homeless by Choice (1992, with R. Jhabvala and V. S. Naipaul)
* East, West (1994)
* The Moor's Last Sigh (1995)
* The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999)
* The Screenplay of Midnight's Children (1999)
* Fury (2001)
* Step Across This Line: Collected Nonfiction 1992 - 2002 (2002)
* Shalimar the Clown (2005)
* The Enchantress of Florence (2008)
* The Best American Short Stories (2008, as Guest Editor)
Rushdie, Salman (Salman Rushdie) (b. June 19, 1947). Anglo-Indian novelist. Rushdie was born in Bombay (Mumbai), India, to a middle-class Muslim family. His paternal grandfather was an Urdu poet, and his father a Cambridge-educated businessman. At the age of fourteen Rushdie was sent to Rugby School in England. In 1964, Rushdie’s parents moved to Karachi, Pakistan, joining reluctantly the Muslim exodus -- during these years there was a war between India and Pakistan, and the choosing of sides and divided loyalties burdened Rushdie heavily.
Rushdie continued his studies at King’s College, Cambridge, where he read history. After graduating in 1968, he worked for a time in television in Pakistan. After graduating in 1968, Rushdie worked for a time in television in Pakistan. He was an actor in a theatre group at the oval House in Kennington and from 1971 to 1981 he worked intermittently as a freelance advertising copywriter for Ogilvy and Mather and Charles Barker.
As a novelist Rushdie made his debut with Grimus in 1975, an exercise in fantastical science fiction, which draws on the 12th century Sufi poem The Conference of Birds. The title of the novel is an anagram of the name “Simurg,” the immense, all-wise, fabled bird of pre-Islamic Persian mythology. Rushdie’s next novel, Midnight’s Children (1981), won the Booker Prize and brought him international fame. Written in exuberant style, the comic allegory of Indian history revolves around the lives of the narrator Saleem Sinai and the one thousand children born after the Declaration of Independence. All of the children are given some magical property. Saleem has a very large nose, which grants him the ability to see “into the hearts and minds of men.” His chief rival is Shiva, who has the power of war. Saleem, dying in a pickle factory near Bombay, tells his tragic story with special interest in its comical aspects. The work aroused a great deal of controversy in India because of its unflattering portrait of Indira Gandhi and her son Sanjay who was involved in a controversial sterilization campaign. Midnight’s Children took its title from Nehru’s speech delivered at the stroke of midnight, August 14, 1947, as India gained its independence from Great Britain.
Shame (1983) centered on a well-to-do Pakistani family, using the family history as a metaphor for the country. The story included two thinly veiled historical characters -- Iskander Harappa, a playboy turned politician, modeled on the former Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and General Raza Hyder, Iskander’s associate and later his executioner.
In 1988, Rushdie won the Whitbread Award with his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses. The Satanic Verses opens spectacularly. Gibreel Farishta and Saladin Chamcha, two Indian actors, fell to earth after an Air India jumbo jet explodes 30,000 feet above the English Channel. This refers to a real act of terrorism, when an Air India Boeing 747 was blown up in 1985 -- supposedly by Sikh terrorists. Gibreel Farishta in Urdu, means Gabriel Angel, which makes him the archangel whom Islamic tradition regards as “bringing down” the Qur’an from God to Muhammad.
Gibreel Farista and Saladin are miraculously saved, and chosen as protagonists in the fight between Good and Evil. In the following cycle of bizarre adventures, dreams, and tales of past and future, the reader meets Mahound, the Prophet of Jahilia, the recipient of a revelation in which satanic verses mingle with divine. “I told you a long time back,” Gibreel Farishta quietly said, “that if I thought the sickness would never leave me, that it would always return, I would not be able to bear up to it.” Then, very quickly, before Salahuddin could move a finger, Gobreel put the barrel of the gun into his own mouth; and pulled the trigger; and was free.” The character modeled on the Prophet Muhammad and his transcription of the Qur’an is portrayed in an unconventional light. The quotations from the Qur’an are composites of the English version of New Jersey. Dawood and of Maulana Muhammad Ali, with a few touches of Rushdie’s own.
The Satanic Verses was banned in India and South Africa and burned on the streets of Bradford, Yorkshire. On February 14, 1989, Rushdie was condemned to death by the former Iranian spiritual leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini for Rushdie’s publication of The Satanic Verses. When Khomeini called on all zealous Muslims to execute Rushdie and his publishers, Rushdie was forced into hiding. Adding to the fear was an offer made by an aide to Khomeini which announced a million dollar reward for Rushdie’s death. In 1993, Rushdie’s Norwegian publisher William Nygaard was wounded in an attack outside his house. In 1997, the reward was doubled, and the next year the highest Iranian state prosecutor Morteza Moqtadale renewed the death sentence.
During this period of fatwa violent protest in India, Pakistan, and Egypt caused several deaths. Naguib Mahfouz, the winner of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, criticized Khomeini for “intellectual terrorism” but changed his view later and said that Rushdie did not have “the right to insult anything, especially a prophet or anything considered holy.” Another Nobel winner, V. S. Naipaul, described Khomeini’s fatwa as “an extreme form of literary criticism.” In 1990, Rushdie published an essay In Good Faith to appease his critics and issued an apology in which he reaffirmed his respect for Islam. However, Iranian clerics did not repudiate their death threat.
After the religious decree, Rushdie shunned publicity, hiding from assassins. However, he continued to write and publish books. Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990) was written for children, and wove into the story an affable robot, genies, talking fish, dark villains, and an Arabian princess in need of saving. The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995) focused on contemporary India, and explored those activities, directed at Indian Muslims and lower castes, of right-wing Hindu terrorists. The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) was set in the world of hedonistic rock stars, a mixture of mythology and elements from the repertoire of science fiction. In Fury (2001), Malik Solanka, a former Cambridge professor, tries to find a new life in New York City. He has left his wife and son and created an animated philosophizing doll, Little Brain, which has its own successful television series. In New York, he has blackouts and violent rages and becomes involved with two women, Mila, who looks like Little Brain, and a beautiful freedom fighter named Neela Mahendra.
Rushdie was married twice, in 1976 to Clarissa Luard and in 1988 to the American writer Marianne Wiggins. The marriage broke up during their enforced underground life. The spouses of Salman Rushdie were: Clarissa Luard (1976–1987); Marianne Wiggins (1988–1993); Elizabeth West (1997–2004); and Padma Lakshmi (2004–2007).
However, in September 1998, the Iranian government announced that the state was not going to put into effect the fatwa nor encourage anyone to do so. Rushdie then decided to end his hiding.
In February 1999, Ayatollah Hassan Sanei promised a $2.8 million dollar reward for killing the author.
Rushdie uses in his works tales from various genres – fantasy, mythology, religion, and oral tradition. Rushdie’s narrative technique connected his books to magic realism, which includes such English language authors as Peter Carey, Angela Carter, E. L. Doctorow, John Fowles, Mark Helprin or Emma Tenant.
Rushdie was knighted for services to literature in the Queen's Birthday Honours on June 16, 2007. In response to his knighthood, many nations with Muslim majorities protested. Parliamentarians of several of these countries condemned the action, and Iran and Pakistan called in their British envoys to protest formally. Controversial condemnation issued by Pakistan's Religious Affairs Minister Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq was in turn rebuffed by former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Ironically, their respective fathers Zia-ul-Haq and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had been earlier portrayed in Rushdie's novel Shame. Mass demonstrations against Rushdie's knighthood took place in Pakistan and Malaysia. Several called publicly for his death. Some non-Muslims were disappointed by Rushdie's knighthood, believing that the writer did not merit such an honor and there were several other writers who deserved the knighthood more than Rushdie.
In the wake of the 'Danish Cartoons Affair' in March 2006 – which many considered to be an echo of the death threats and fatwā which had followed the publication of The Satanic Verses in 1989 – Rushdie signed the manifesto 'Together Facing the New Totalitarianism', a statement warning of the dangers of religious extremism. The Manifesto was published in the left-leaning French weekly Charlie Hebdo in March 2006.
The books of Salman Rushdie include:
* Grimus (1975)
* Midnight's Children (1981)
* Shame (1983)
* The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey (1987)
* The Satanic Verses (1988)
* Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990)
* Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (1992)
* Homeless by Choice (1992, with R. Jhabvala and V. S. Naipaul)
* East, West (1994)
* The Moor's Last Sigh (1995)
* The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999)
* The Screenplay of Midnight's Children (1999)
* Fury (2001)
* Step Across This Line: Collected Nonfiction 1992 - 2002 (2002)
* Shalimar the Clown (2005)
* The Enchantress of Florence (2008)
* The Best American Short Stories (2008, as Guest Editor)
Rushdi, Husayn
Rushdi, Husayn (Husayn Rushdi) (Hussein Rushdi Pasha) (1863-1928). Egypt’s prime minister from 1914 to 1919.
Husayn Rushdi was an Egyptian political figure who served as Prime Minister of Egypt between 1914 and 1919. Under pressure from British authorities, Rushdi issued a “Decision of the Council of Ministers” which essentially declared war against the Central Powers in the First World War. He was later forced to resign for failing to resolve a strike by government officials demanding mandatory recognition of the Egyptian delegation by the cabinet and the withdrawal of British sentries and guards.
Husayn Rushdi see Rushdi, Husayn
Hussein Rushdi Pasha see Rushdi, Husayn
Rushdi, Husayn (Husayn Rushdi) (Hussein Rushdi Pasha) (1863-1928). Egypt’s prime minister from 1914 to 1919.
Husayn Rushdi was an Egyptian political figure who served as Prime Minister of Egypt between 1914 and 1919. Under pressure from British authorities, Rushdi issued a “Decision of the Council of Ministers” which essentially declared war against the Central Powers in the First World War. He was later forced to resign for failing to resolve a strike by government officials demanding mandatory recognition of the Egyptian delegation by the cabinet and the withdrawal of British sentries and guards.
Husayn Rushdi see Rushdi, Husayn
Hussein Rushdi Pasha see Rushdi, Husayn
Rustamids
Rustamids (Rostamids) (Rustumids) (Rostemids). Dynasty of Ibadite imams in the city-state of Tahart (Algeria) (r. 776-909). The dynasty’s founder, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustam, was briefly governor of Kairouan in 758 and, following his escape to Tahart, was chosen as imam (776-784). A claim to political authority over parts of Algeria was made by his son, Abd al-Wahhab (784-823), who yielded to the protection of the Spanish Umayyads, with whom he always had an excellent relationship. Internal peace and prosperity under Abu Said al-Aflah (r. 823-868) and Abu Hatim Yusuf (r. 868-906) transformed Tahart into the intellectual and religious center of the Kharijites in northern Africa. Ousted and expelled in 908 by the Shi‘ite leader, Abu Abdallah al-Shii, in the name of the aspiring Fatimids, the Ibadites migrated to southern Algeria, where they still live today in Wadi M’Zab (and are known as Mozabites).
Rustamid, also spelled Rostamid, was an Islāmic state on the high plateau of northern Algeria, founded by followers of the Ibaḍīyah branch of Khārijism. It was one of several kingdoms that arose in opposition to the new ʿAbbāsid dynasty and its Eastern orientation. The Khārijites preached a puritanical, democratic, and egalitarian theocracy that found support among the Berber tribes. The state was governed by imams descended from ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Rustam, the austere Persian who founded the state. These imams were themselves under the supervision of the religious leaders and the chief judge. The kingdom was renowned for its religious toleration and secular learning. The state was very active in the trans-Saharan trade, and its size fluctuated with the power of its leaders. The Rustamid kingdom ended with the capture of its capital, Tāhart (near modern Tihert), by the Shīʿite Fāṭimids in 909.
The Rustamid Imams were:
* Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rustam ibn Bahram (776-784)
* Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd ar-Rahman (784-832)
* Aflah ibn Abd al-Wahhab (832-871)
* Abu Bakr ibn Aflah (871)
* Muhammad Abul-Yaqzan ibn Aflah (871-894)
* Yusuf Abu Hatim ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan (894-897)
* Yaqub ibn Aflah (897-901)
* Yusuf Abu Hatim ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan, again (901-906)
* Yaqzan ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan (906-909)
Rostamids see Rustamids
Rustumids see Rustamids
Rostemids see Rustamids
Rustamids (Rostamids) (Rustumids) (Rostemids). Dynasty of Ibadite imams in the city-state of Tahart (Algeria) (r. 776-909). The dynasty’s founder, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustam, was briefly governor of Kairouan in 758 and, following his escape to Tahart, was chosen as imam (776-784). A claim to political authority over parts of Algeria was made by his son, Abd al-Wahhab (784-823), who yielded to the protection of the Spanish Umayyads, with whom he always had an excellent relationship. Internal peace and prosperity under Abu Said al-Aflah (r. 823-868) and Abu Hatim Yusuf (r. 868-906) transformed Tahart into the intellectual and religious center of the Kharijites in northern Africa. Ousted and expelled in 908 by the Shi‘ite leader, Abu Abdallah al-Shii, in the name of the aspiring Fatimids, the Ibadites migrated to southern Algeria, where they still live today in Wadi M’Zab (and are known as Mozabites).
Rustamid, also spelled Rostamid, was an Islāmic state on the high plateau of northern Algeria, founded by followers of the Ibaḍīyah branch of Khārijism. It was one of several kingdoms that arose in opposition to the new ʿAbbāsid dynasty and its Eastern orientation. The Khārijites preached a puritanical, democratic, and egalitarian theocracy that found support among the Berber tribes. The state was governed by imams descended from ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Rustam, the austere Persian who founded the state. These imams were themselves under the supervision of the religious leaders and the chief judge. The kingdom was renowned for its religious toleration and secular learning. The state was very active in the trans-Saharan trade, and its size fluctuated with the power of its leaders. The Rustamid kingdom ended with the capture of its capital, Tāhart (near modern Tihert), by the Shīʿite Fāṭimids in 909.
The Rustamid Imams were:
* Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rustam ibn Bahram (776-784)
* Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd ar-Rahman (784-832)
* Aflah ibn Abd al-Wahhab (832-871)
* Abu Bakr ibn Aflah (871)
* Muhammad Abul-Yaqzan ibn Aflah (871-894)
* Yusuf Abu Hatim ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan (894-897)
* Yaqub ibn Aflah (897-901)
* Yusuf Abu Hatim ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan, again (901-906)
* Yaqzan ibn Muhammad Abil-Yaqzan (906-909)
Rostamids see Rustamids
Rustumids see Rustamids
Rostemids see Rustamids
Rustem Pasha
Rustem Pasha (Damat Rustem Pasha) (Hirvat Rustem Pasa) (1500/1505 - July 10, 1561). Ottoman Grand Vizier and historian. Born near Sarajevo, he became very wealthy and erected many mosques in various parts of the empire, employing the great architect Sinan. His reputation as an historian is based on his History of the Family of ‘Othman, which is important for the events of his time.
Rüstem Pasha was a Croatian from Bosnia who became an Ottoman general and statesman. Rüstem Pasha is also known as Damat Rüstem Pasha (Damat meaning Bridegroom to the Ottoman dynasty) and Hırvat Rüstem Paşa.
Rüstem Pasha was born in Sarajevo. He was taken as a child to Istanbul, where he built a great military career. On November 26, 1539 he married Princess Mihrimah, a daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Rüstem Pasha held the title Grand Vizier twice, first from 1544–1553 and second from 1555–1561, until his death. As Grand Vizier he collected a vast wealth, much of it through bribes. However, the bribes in his time were moderate, and he spent his wealth raising public buildings, mosques and charitable foundations. When he died, his personal property included 815 lands in Rumelia and Anatolia, 476 mills, 1700 slaves, 2900 war horses, 1106 camels, 800 Qur’an, etc.
The Rüstem Pasha Mosque (Turkish: Rüstem Paşa Camii) is an Ottoman mosque located in Hasırcılar Çarşısı (Strawmat Weavers Market) in Eminönü, Istanbul, Turkey, which was designed by Ottoman imperial architect Mimar Sinan for Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha. It was built between 1561 and 1563.
Damat Rustem Pasha see Rustem Pasha
Hirvat Rustem Pasa see Rustem Pasha
Rustem Pasha (Damat Rustem Pasha) (Hirvat Rustem Pasa) (1500/1505 - July 10, 1561). Ottoman Grand Vizier and historian. Born near Sarajevo, he became very wealthy and erected many mosques in various parts of the empire, employing the great architect Sinan. His reputation as an historian is based on his History of the Family of ‘Othman, which is important for the events of his time.
Rüstem Pasha was a Croatian from Bosnia who became an Ottoman general and statesman. Rüstem Pasha is also known as Damat Rüstem Pasha (Damat meaning Bridegroom to the Ottoman dynasty) and Hırvat Rüstem Paşa.
Rüstem Pasha was born in Sarajevo. He was taken as a child to Istanbul, where he built a great military career. On November 26, 1539 he married Princess Mihrimah, a daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Rüstem Pasha held the title Grand Vizier twice, first from 1544–1553 and second from 1555–1561, until his death. As Grand Vizier he collected a vast wealth, much of it through bribes. However, the bribes in his time were moderate, and he spent his wealth raising public buildings, mosques and charitable foundations. When he died, his personal property included 815 lands in Rumelia and Anatolia, 476 mills, 1700 slaves, 2900 war horses, 1106 camels, 800 Qur’an, etc.
The Rüstem Pasha Mosque (Turkish: Rüstem Paşa Camii) is an Ottoman mosque located in Hasırcılar Çarşısı (Strawmat Weavers Market) in Eminönü, Istanbul, Turkey, which was designed by Ottoman imperial architect Mimar Sinan for Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha. It was built between 1561 and 1563.
Damat Rustem Pasha see Rustem Pasha
Hirvat Rustem Pasa see Rustem Pasha
No comments:
Post a Comment