Qalandar
Qalandar (Qalandariyya) (Qalandariyah) (Qalandaris) (Kalandars). Name given to the members of a class of dervishes, which existed within the area extending from Turkestan to Morocco, especially in the thirteenth century of the Christian calendar. Its spread westward is due to the activities of Jamal al-Din al-Sawi (d.1223). They adopted Malamatiyya doctrines and distinguished themselves by their unconventional dress, behavior and way of life.
The Qalandariyah are wanderering Sufi dervishes. The term covers a variety of sects, not centrally organized. One was founded by Qalandar Yusuf al-Andalusi of Andalusia, Spain.
Starting in the early 12th century, the movement gained popularity in Greater Khorasan and neighboring regions. The first references are found in 11th century prose text Qalandarname (The Tale of the Kalandar) attributed to Ansarī Harawī. The term Qalandariyyat (the Qalandar condition) appears to be first applied by Sanai Ghaznavi (d 1131) in seminal poetic works where diverse practices are described. Particular to the qalandar genre of poetry are terms that refer to gambling, games, intoxicants and Nazar ila'l-murd - themes commonly referred to as kufriyyat or kharabat.
The writings of qalandars were not a mere celebration of libertinism, but antinomial practices of affirmation from negative action. The order was often viewed suspiciously by authorities.
The term remains in popular culture. Sufi qawwali singers the Sabri brothers and international Qawwali star Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan favored the chant dam a dam masta qalandar (Oh go, go, crazy Qalandar!), and a similar refrain appeared in a hit song from Runa Laila from the movie Ek Se Badhkar Ek that became a dancefloor crossover hit in the 1970s.
In North India, descendents of Qalandariyah faqirs now form a distinct community, known as the Qalandar biradari.
Qalandariyya see Qalandar
Qalandariyah see Qalandar
Qalandaris see Qalandar
Kalandars see Qalandar
The Qalandariyah are wanderering Sufi dervishes. The term covers a variety of sects, not centrally organized. One was founded by Qalandar Yusuf al-Andalusi of Andalusia, Spain.
Starting in the early 12th century, the movement gained popularity in Greater Khorasan and neighboring regions. The first references are found in 11th century prose text Qalandarname (The Tale of the Kalandar) attributed to Ansarī Harawī. The term Qalandariyyat (the Qalandar condition) appears to be first applied by Sanai Ghaznavi (d 1131) in seminal poetic works where diverse practices are described. Particular to the qalandar genre of poetry are terms that refer to gambling, games, intoxicants and Nazar ila'l-murd - themes commonly referred to as kufriyyat or kharabat.
The writings of qalandars were not a mere celebration of libertinism, but antinomial practices of affirmation from negative action. The order was often viewed suspiciously by authorities.
The term remains in popular culture. Sufi qawwali singers the Sabri brothers and international Qawwali star Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan favored the chant dam a dam masta qalandar (Oh go, go, crazy Qalandar!), and a similar refrain appeared in a hit song from Runa Laila from the movie Ek Se Badhkar Ek that became a dancefloor crossover hit in the 1970s.
In North India, descendents of Qalandariyah faqirs now form a distinct community, known as the Qalandar biradari.
Qalandariyya see Qalandar
Qalandariyah see Qalandar
Qalandaris see Qalandar
Kalandars see Qalandar
Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al- (Abu’l-Hasan al-Qalasadi) (Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī) (b. 1412 in Baza, Spain – d. 1486 in Béja, Tunisia). Muslim mathematician, jurist and scholar of Spain. He was a prolific writer and compiler. Some of his works enjoyed considerable renown both in the East and the West.
Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī was an Arab Muslim mathematician and an Islamic scholar specializing in Islamic inheritance jurisprudence. He is known for being one of the most influential voices in algebraic notation since antiquity and for taking the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism. He wrote numerous books on arithmetic and algebra, including al-Tabsira fi'lm al-hisab ("Clarification of the science of arithmetic").
Al-Qalasādī was born in Baza, an outpost of the Emirate of Granada. According to some historians he was the descendant of one of the generals of Reccared the Visigoth, he received an education in Granada, but continued to support his family in Baza. He published many works and eventually retired to his native Baza.
The works of al-Qalasadi dealt with algebra and contained the precise mathematical answers to problems in everyday life, such as the composition of medicaments, the calculation of the drop of irrigation canals and the explanation of frauds linked to instruments of measurement. The second part belongs to the already ancient tradition of judicial and cultural mathematics and joins a collection of little arithmetical problems presented in the form of poetical riddles
In 1480 the Christian forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Católicos ("The Catholic Monarchs"), raided and often pillaged the Baza. Al-Qalasādī himself served in the mountain citadels which were erected in the vicinity of Baza. Al-Qalasādī eventually left his homeland and took refuge with his family in Béja, Tunisia. Baza was eventually besieged by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella and its inhabitants sacked.
In Islamic mathematics, al-Qalasadi made the first attempt at creating an algebraic notation since Ibn al-Banna two centuries earlier, who was himself the first to make such an attempt since Diophantus and Brahmagupta in ancient times. The notations of his predecessors, however, lacked symbols for mathematical operations. Al-Qalasadi's algebraic notation was the first to have symbols for these functions and was thus "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism." He represented mathematical symbols using characters from the Arabic alphabet, where:
* ﻭ (wa) means "and" for addition (+)
* ﻻ (illa) means "less" for subtraction (-)
* ف (fi) means "times" for multiplication (*)
* ة (ala) means "over" for division (/)
* ﺝ (j) represents jadah meaning "root"
* ﺵ (sh) represents shay meaning "thing" for a variable (x)
* ﻡ (m) represents mal for a square (x2)
* ﻙ (k) represents kab for a cube (x3)
* ﻝ (l) represents yadilu for equality (=)
Abu’l-Hasan al-Qalasadi see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Qalasadi, Abu al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al- see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al- (Abu’l-Hasan al-Qalasadi) (Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī) (b. 1412 in Baza, Spain – d. 1486 in Béja, Tunisia). Muslim mathematician, jurist and scholar of Spain. He was a prolific writer and compiler. Some of his works enjoyed considerable renown both in the East and the West.
Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī was an Arab Muslim mathematician and an Islamic scholar specializing in Islamic inheritance jurisprudence. He is known for being one of the most influential voices in algebraic notation since antiquity and for taking the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism. He wrote numerous books on arithmetic and algebra, including al-Tabsira fi'lm al-hisab ("Clarification of the science of arithmetic").
Al-Qalasādī was born in Baza, an outpost of the Emirate of Granada. According to some historians he was the descendant of one of the generals of Reccared the Visigoth, he received an education in Granada, but continued to support his family in Baza. He published many works and eventually retired to his native Baza.
The works of al-Qalasadi dealt with algebra and contained the precise mathematical answers to problems in everyday life, such as the composition of medicaments, the calculation of the drop of irrigation canals and the explanation of frauds linked to instruments of measurement. The second part belongs to the already ancient tradition of judicial and cultural mathematics and joins a collection of little arithmetical problems presented in the form of poetical riddles
In 1480 the Christian forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Católicos ("The Catholic Monarchs"), raided and often pillaged the Baza. Al-Qalasādī himself served in the mountain citadels which were erected in the vicinity of Baza. Al-Qalasādī eventually left his homeland and took refuge with his family in Béja, Tunisia. Baza was eventually besieged by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella and its inhabitants sacked.
In Islamic mathematics, al-Qalasadi made the first attempt at creating an algebraic notation since Ibn al-Banna two centuries earlier, who was himself the first to make such an attempt since Diophantus and Brahmagupta in ancient times. The notations of his predecessors, however, lacked symbols for mathematical operations. Al-Qalasadi's algebraic notation was the first to have symbols for these functions and was thus "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism." He represented mathematical symbols using characters from the Arabic alphabet, where:
* ﻭ (wa) means "and" for addition (+)
* ﻻ (illa) means "less" for subtraction (-)
* ف (fi) means "times" for multiplication (*)
* ة (ala) means "over" for division (/)
* ﺝ (j) represents jadah meaning "root"
* ﺵ (sh) represents shay meaning "thing" for a variable (x)
* ﻡ (m) represents mal for a square (x2)
* ﻙ (k) represents kab for a cube (x3)
* ﻝ (l) represents yadilu for equality (=)
Abu’l-Hasan al-Qalasadi see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Qalasadi, Abu al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al- see Qalasadi, Abu’l-Hasan al-
Qala’un
Qala’un (Qalawun al-Alfi, al-Malik al-Mansur) (al-Malik al-Mansur Qalawun al-Alfi) (Saif ad-Dīn Qalawun aṣ-Ṣāliḥī) (Kalavun) (al-Malik al-Manṣūr Saif ad-Dīn Qalāʾūn al-Alfi as-Ṣālihī an-Najmī al-ʿAlāʾī) (c. 1222 – November 10, 1290). Mameluke sultan (r. 1279-1290).
Qala‘un was cooperating closely with the Mameluke commander Baybars, who would later become sultan. Baybars became sultan and Qala‘un received important positions in the military.
In 1277, Baybars died and Qala‘un had his men kill two of Baybars’ sons.
In 1279, through alliances, Qala‘un had himself appointed sultan of Egypt.
In 1280, Qala‘un fought another usurper to the sultan’s throne.
In 1281, Qala‘un brought the threat from Mongol warlords to an end when he defeated them at Homs in Syria.
In 1283, Qala‘un signed a peace treaty, meant to last for ten years, 10 months and 10 days, with the tiny kingdom still calling itself Jerusalem, even though it only controlled a few cities on the Palestinian coast, with Acre as the capital. The Christian city of Tyre signed its own peace agreement with Qala‘un.
On May 25, 1285, Qala‘un conquered the fortress of Marqab in Syria which had been controlled by the Knights Hospitallers. The knights were allowed to go to Tripoli.
On April 27, 1289, following a month long siege, Qala‘un and his army conquered Tripoli. The city was destroyed and most of the male Christian inhabitants were murdered, the rest enslaved.
In 1290, Qala‘un was forced to break the peace agreement with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, as the Muslim inhabitants of Acre were killed by newly arrived European Crusaders.
In November 1290, Qala‘un died from illness, and was succeeded by his son Khalil.
Following the example of Sultan Baybars I in pursuing the holy war against the Crusaders in Syria, Qala‘un took the offensive against the Christian Armenians, and subdued Nubia. He maintained good relations with the Golden Horde, Byzantium, Castile, Sicily and with Rudolf I of Habsburg. In Cairo, he erected a hospital, which is perhaps the most remarkable building of the Mameluke era.
Qalawun was a Kipchak Turk who became a Mameluke in the 1240s after being sold for 1000 dinars to a member of sultan al-Kāmil's household. Qalawun was known as al-Alfi ['the Thousand-man'] because al-Malik aṣ-Ṣāliḥ bought him for a thousand dinars of gold. Despite his enslavement by the Ayyubid sultan, he never learned to speak Arabic fluently. He rose to power and influence and became an emir under sultan Baibars, whose son Barakah Khan was married to Qalawun's daughter. Baibars died in 1277 and was succeeded by Barakah. In early 1279, as Barakah and Qalawun invaded the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, there was a revolt in Egypt that forced Barakah to abdicate upon his return home. He was succeeded by his brother Solamish, but it was Qalawun, acting as atabeg, who was the true holder of power. Because Solamish was only seven years old, Qalawun argued that Egypt needed an adult ruler, and Solamish was sent into exile in Constantinople in late 1279. As a result, Qalawun took the title al-Malik al-Mansur. The governor of Damascus, Sungur, did not agree with Qalawun's ascent to power and declared himself sultan. Sungur's claim of leadership, however, was repelled in 1280, when Qalawun defeated him in battle. In 1281, Qalawun and Sungur reconciled as a matter of convenience when the Mongol Il-Khan emperor of Persia, Abaqa, invaded Syria. Qalawun and Sungur, working together, successfully repelled Abuqa's attack at the Second Battle of Homs.
Barakah, Solamish, and their brother Khadir were exiled to Al Karak, the former Crusader castle. Barakah died there in 1280 (it was rumored that Qalawun had him poisoned), and Khadir gained control of the castle, until 1286 when Qalawun took it over directly.
As Baibars had done previously, Qalawun entered into land control treaties with the remaining Crusader states, military orders and individual lords who wished to remain independent. He recognized Tyre and Beirut as separate from the Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre. The treaties were always in Qalawun's favor, and his treaty with Tyre mandated that the city would not build new fortifications, would stay neutral in conflicts between the Mamelukes and other Crusaders, and Qalawun would be allowed to collect half the city's taxes. In 1281, Qalawun also negotiated an alliance with the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus to bolster resistance against Charles of Anjou, who was threatening both the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1290, he concluded trade alliances with the Republic of Genoa and the Kingdom of Sicily.
Undeterred by the terms of these newly formed peace treaties, Qalawun sacked the "impregnable" Hospitaller fortress of Margat in 1285, and established a Mamluk garrison there. He also captured and destroyed the castle of Maraclea. He captured Latakia in 1287 and Tripoli on April 27, 1289, thus ending the Crusader County of Tripoli. The siege of Tripoli in 1289 was spurred by the Venetians and the Pisans, who opposed rising Genoese influence in the area. In 1290, reinforcements of King Henry arrived in Acre and drunkenly slaughtered peaceable merchants and peasants, Christians and Muslims alike. Qalawun sent an embassy to ask for an explanation and above all to demand that the murderers be handed over for punishment. The Frankish response was divided between those who sought to appease him and those who sought a new war. Having received neither an explanation nor the murderers themselves, Qalawun decided that the ten-year truce he had formed with Acre in 1284 had been broken by the Franks. He subsequently besieged the city that same year. He died in Cairo on November 10, before taking the city, but Acre was captured the next year by his son Al-Ashraf Khalil.
Despite Qalawun's distrust of his son, Khalil succeeded him following his death. Khalil continued his father's policy of replacing Turkish Mamelukes with Circassians, which eventually led to conflict within the Mameluke ranks. Khalil was assassinated by the Turks in 1293, but Qalawun's legacy continued when his younger son, Al-Nasir Muhammad, claimed power.
Qalawun al-Alfi, al-Malik al-Mansur see Qala’un
al-Malik al-Mansur Qalawun al-Alfi see Qala’un
Saif ad-Dīn Qalawun aṣ-Ṣāliḥī see Qala’un
Kalavun see Qala’un
al-Malik al-Manṣūr Saif ad-Dīn Qalāʾūn al-Alfi as-Ṣālihī an-Najmī al-ʿAlāʾī see Qala’un
The Thousand Man see Qala’un
Qala’un (Qalawun al-Alfi, al-Malik al-Mansur) (al-Malik al-Mansur Qalawun al-Alfi) (Saif ad-Dīn Qalawun aṣ-Ṣāliḥī) (Kalavun) (al-Malik al-Manṣūr Saif ad-Dīn Qalāʾūn al-Alfi as-Ṣālihī an-Najmī al-ʿAlāʾī) (c. 1222 – November 10, 1290). Mameluke sultan (r. 1279-1290).
Qala‘un was cooperating closely with the Mameluke commander Baybars, who would later become sultan. Baybars became sultan and Qala‘un received important positions in the military.
In 1277, Baybars died and Qala‘un had his men kill two of Baybars’ sons.
In 1279, through alliances, Qala‘un had himself appointed sultan of Egypt.
In 1280, Qala‘un fought another usurper to the sultan’s throne.
In 1281, Qala‘un brought the threat from Mongol warlords to an end when he defeated them at Homs in Syria.
In 1283, Qala‘un signed a peace treaty, meant to last for ten years, 10 months and 10 days, with the tiny kingdom still calling itself Jerusalem, even though it only controlled a few cities on the Palestinian coast, with Acre as the capital. The Christian city of Tyre signed its own peace agreement with Qala‘un.
On May 25, 1285, Qala‘un conquered the fortress of Marqab in Syria which had been controlled by the Knights Hospitallers. The knights were allowed to go to Tripoli.
On April 27, 1289, following a month long siege, Qala‘un and his army conquered Tripoli. The city was destroyed and most of the male Christian inhabitants were murdered, the rest enslaved.
In 1290, Qala‘un was forced to break the peace agreement with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, as the Muslim inhabitants of Acre were killed by newly arrived European Crusaders.
In November 1290, Qala‘un died from illness, and was succeeded by his son Khalil.
Following the example of Sultan Baybars I in pursuing the holy war against the Crusaders in Syria, Qala‘un took the offensive against the Christian Armenians, and subdued Nubia. He maintained good relations with the Golden Horde, Byzantium, Castile, Sicily and with Rudolf I of Habsburg. In Cairo, he erected a hospital, which is perhaps the most remarkable building of the Mameluke era.
Qalawun was a Kipchak Turk who became a Mameluke in the 1240s after being sold for 1000 dinars to a member of sultan al-Kāmil's household. Qalawun was known as al-Alfi ['the Thousand-man'] because al-Malik aṣ-Ṣāliḥ bought him for a thousand dinars of gold. Despite his enslavement by the Ayyubid sultan, he never learned to speak Arabic fluently. He rose to power and influence and became an emir under sultan Baibars, whose son Barakah Khan was married to Qalawun's daughter. Baibars died in 1277 and was succeeded by Barakah. In early 1279, as Barakah and Qalawun invaded the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, there was a revolt in Egypt that forced Barakah to abdicate upon his return home. He was succeeded by his brother Solamish, but it was Qalawun, acting as atabeg, who was the true holder of power. Because Solamish was only seven years old, Qalawun argued that Egypt needed an adult ruler, and Solamish was sent into exile in Constantinople in late 1279. As a result, Qalawun took the title al-Malik al-Mansur. The governor of Damascus, Sungur, did not agree with Qalawun's ascent to power and declared himself sultan. Sungur's claim of leadership, however, was repelled in 1280, when Qalawun defeated him in battle. In 1281, Qalawun and Sungur reconciled as a matter of convenience when the Mongol Il-Khan emperor of Persia, Abaqa, invaded Syria. Qalawun and Sungur, working together, successfully repelled Abuqa's attack at the Second Battle of Homs.
Barakah, Solamish, and their brother Khadir were exiled to Al Karak, the former Crusader castle. Barakah died there in 1280 (it was rumored that Qalawun had him poisoned), and Khadir gained control of the castle, until 1286 when Qalawun took it over directly.
As Baibars had done previously, Qalawun entered into land control treaties with the remaining Crusader states, military orders and individual lords who wished to remain independent. He recognized Tyre and Beirut as separate from the Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre. The treaties were always in Qalawun's favor, and his treaty with Tyre mandated that the city would not build new fortifications, would stay neutral in conflicts between the Mamelukes and other Crusaders, and Qalawun would be allowed to collect half the city's taxes. In 1281, Qalawun also negotiated an alliance with the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus to bolster resistance against Charles of Anjou, who was threatening both the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1290, he concluded trade alliances with the Republic of Genoa and the Kingdom of Sicily.
Undeterred by the terms of these newly formed peace treaties, Qalawun sacked the "impregnable" Hospitaller fortress of Margat in 1285, and established a Mamluk garrison there. He also captured and destroyed the castle of Maraclea. He captured Latakia in 1287 and Tripoli on April 27, 1289, thus ending the Crusader County of Tripoli. The siege of Tripoli in 1289 was spurred by the Venetians and the Pisans, who opposed rising Genoese influence in the area. In 1290, reinforcements of King Henry arrived in Acre and drunkenly slaughtered peaceable merchants and peasants, Christians and Muslims alike. Qalawun sent an embassy to ask for an explanation and above all to demand that the murderers be handed over for punishment. The Frankish response was divided between those who sought to appease him and those who sought a new war. Having received neither an explanation nor the murderers themselves, Qalawun decided that the ten-year truce he had formed with Acre in 1284 had been broken by the Franks. He subsequently besieged the city that same year. He died in Cairo on November 10, before taking the city, but Acre was captured the next year by his son Al-Ashraf Khalil.
Despite Qalawun's distrust of his son, Khalil succeeded him following his death. Khalil continued his father's policy of replacing Turkish Mamelukes with Circassians, which eventually led to conflict within the Mameluke ranks. Khalil was assassinated by the Turks in 1293, but Qalawun's legacy continued when his younger son, Al-Nasir Muhammad, claimed power.
Qalawun al-Alfi, al-Malik al-Mansur see Qala’un
al-Malik al-Mansur Qalawun al-Alfi see Qala’un
Saif ad-Dīn Qalawun aṣ-Ṣāliḥī see Qala’un
Kalavun see Qala’un
al-Malik al-Manṣūr Saif ad-Dīn Qalāʾūn al-Alfi as-Ṣālihī an-Najmī al-ʿAlāʾī see Qala’un
The Thousand Man see Qala’un
Qali, Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-
Qali, Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al- (Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-Qali) (901-967). Arab philologist. In 942, he went to Cordoba and became the key figure in the Iraqi tradition in the West. The best-known of the few works which have survived deals with every conceivable question of Arabic philology.
Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-Qali see Qali, Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-
Qali, Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al- (Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-Qali) (901-967). Arab philologist. In 942, he went to Cordoba and became the key figure in the Iraqi tradition in the West. The best-known of the few works which have survived deals with every conceivable question of Arabic philology.
Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-Qali see Qali, Abu ‘Ali Isma‘il al-Baghdadi al-
Qalqashandi, al-
Qalqashandi, al- (Ahmad al-Qalqashandi) (Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi) (1355/1356 – 1418). Gentilic of several Egyptian scholars, the most important of them being Shihab al-Din Abu’l-‘Abbas. He was a legal scholar, secretary in the Mameluke chancery and author. He owes his fame mainly to the multi-volume Dawn of the Night-Blind One, in which he gives a very detailed conspectus of the theoretical sciences and the practical skills required by a secretary concerned with official correspondence.
Al-Qalqashandi was a medieval Egyptian writer and mathematician born in a village in the Nile Delta. He is the author of Subh al-a 'sha, a fourteen volume encyclopedia in Arabic, which included a section on cryptology. This information was attributed to Taj ad-Din Ali ibn ad-Duraihim ben Muhammad ath-Tha 'alibi al-Mausili who lived from 1312 to 1361, but whose writings on cryptology have been lost. The list of ciphers in this work included both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter. Also traced to Ibn al-Duraihim is an exposition on and worked example of cryptanalysis, including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which can not occur together in one word.
Ahmad al-Qalqashandi see Qalqashandi, al-
Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi see Qalqashandi, al-
Qalqashandi, al- (Ahmad al-Qalqashandi) (Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi) (1355/1356 – 1418). Gentilic of several Egyptian scholars, the most important of them being Shihab al-Din Abu’l-‘Abbas. He was a legal scholar, secretary in the Mameluke chancery and author. He owes his fame mainly to the multi-volume Dawn of the Night-Blind One, in which he gives a very detailed conspectus of the theoretical sciences and the practical skills required by a secretary concerned with official correspondence.
Al-Qalqashandi was a medieval Egyptian writer and mathematician born in a village in the Nile Delta. He is the author of Subh al-a 'sha, a fourteen volume encyclopedia in Arabic, which included a section on cryptology. This information was attributed to Taj ad-Din Ali ibn ad-Duraihim ben Muhammad ath-Tha 'alibi al-Mausili who lived from 1312 to 1361, but whose writings on cryptology have been lost. The list of ciphers in this work included both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter. Also traced to Ibn al-Duraihim is an exposition on and worked example of cryptanalysis, including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which can not occur together in one word.
Ahmad al-Qalqashandi see Qalqashandi, al-
Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi see Qalqashandi, al-
Qaman Bulhan
Qaman Bulhan (b. probably mid-19th century - d. shortly before World War II). Somali oral poet. Of the Ogaden clan, he lived mainly in Eastern Ethiopia. His poems achieved fame throughout Somali-speaking territories. He acted as spokesman of his clan in several inter-clan conflicts, defending his position and publicizing his views in the form of alliterative poems. Qamaan is also well known for his philosophical and reflective turn of mind and some lines from his poems have become proverbial expressions.
Bulhan, Qaman see Qaman Bulhan
Qaman Bulhan (b. probably mid-19th century - d. shortly before World War II). Somali oral poet. Of the Ogaden clan, he lived mainly in Eastern Ethiopia. His poems achieved fame throughout Somali-speaking territories. He acted as spokesman of his clan in several inter-clan conflicts, defending his position and publicizing his views in the form of alliterative poems. Qamaan is also well known for his philosophical and reflective turn of mind and some lines from his poems have become proverbial expressions.
Bulhan, Qaman see Qaman Bulhan
Qansawh al-Ghawri
Qansawh al-Ghawri (al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri) (1441-1516). Penultimate Mameluke sultan of Egypt (r.1501-1516). Having been governor of Tarsus and Malatya, and secretary of state to sultan al-‘AdilTuman Bay who reigned in 1501, Qansawh al-Ghawri was compelled by a junta of high amirs to become sultan in 1501. He was confronted by fiscal problems and the growing maritime power of the Europeans, the Portuguese seeking to exclude Muslim shipping from the Red Sea. He organized a unit armed with handguns and established a cannon-foundry, weapons despised by the genuine Mamelukes. After the battle of Chaldiran in 1514, the principality of Dulgadir (in Arabic: Dhu’l-Qadr), a dependency of the Mameluke sultanate, came under Ottoman domination. Alarmed, the Mameluke sultan organized an expedition. At Aleppo, conciliatory messages were exchanged with the Ottoman ambassadors, but the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, who intended another campaign against the Safavids, decided to end the danger to his flank. The Mamelukes were decisively beaten at Marj Dabiq in 1516, and Qansawh al-Ghawri died on the battlefield.
Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri was the last of the Mameluke Sultans. One of the last of the Burji dynasty, he reigned from 1501 to 1516. On the disappearance of Sultan Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman Bay I, it was not until after some days that the choice of the Emirs and Mamelukes fell upon Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri. As a Circassian slave, he served Sultan Al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Qaitbay. Qansawh al-Ghawri was over forty before he was raised to independence as Emir of ten, and then, rapidly promoted to command of Tarsus, Aleppo and Malatia. He became Emir of a thousand, Chamberlain of the Court, and chief Vizier. At first he declined the throne; but being pressed by the Emirs, who swore faithful service, he at last consented. He was then 60 years of age; but, still firm and vigorous, soon showed the Emirs that he was not to be overruled by any of them.
al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri see Qansawh al-Ghawri
Qansawh al-Ghawri (al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri) (1441-1516). Penultimate Mameluke sultan of Egypt (r.1501-1516). Having been governor of Tarsus and Malatya, and secretary of state to sultan al-‘AdilTuman Bay who reigned in 1501, Qansawh al-Ghawri was compelled by a junta of high amirs to become sultan in 1501. He was confronted by fiscal problems and the growing maritime power of the Europeans, the Portuguese seeking to exclude Muslim shipping from the Red Sea. He organized a unit armed with handguns and established a cannon-foundry, weapons despised by the genuine Mamelukes. After the battle of Chaldiran in 1514, the principality of Dulgadir (in Arabic: Dhu’l-Qadr), a dependency of the Mameluke sultanate, came under Ottoman domination. Alarmed, the Mameluke sultan organized an expedition. At Aleppo, conciliatory messages were exchanged with the Ottoman ambassadors, but the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, who intended another campaign against the Safavids, decided to end the danger to his flank. The Mamelukes were decisively beaten at Marj Dabiq in 1516, and Qansawh al-Ghawri died on the battlefield.
Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri was the last of the Mameluke Sultans. One of the last of the Burji dynasty, he reigned from 1501 to 1516. On the disappearance of Sultan Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman Bay I, it was not until after some days that the choice of the Emirs and Mamelukes fell upon Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri. As a Circassian slave, he served Sultan Al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Qaitbay. Qansawh al-Ghawri was over forty before he was raised to independence as Emir of ten, and then, rapidly promoted to command of Tarsus, Aleppo and Malatia. He became Emir of a thousand, Chamberlain of the Court, and chief Vizier. At first he declined the throne; but being pressed by the Emirs, who swore faithful service, he at last consented. He was then 60 years of age; but, still firm and vigorous, soon showed the Emirs that he was not to be overruled by any of them.
al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri see Qansawh al-Ghawri
Qapi Aghasi
Qapi Aghasi. Senior officer in the Ottoman sultan’s palace who had the authority to petition the sultan for the appointment, promotion and transfer of palace servants. He had his office at the Inner Gate of the palace, called “Gate of Felicity.”
Aghasi, Qapi see Qapi Aghasi.
Qapi Aghasi. Senior officer in the Ottoman sultan’s palace who had the authority to petition the sultan for the appointment, promotion and transfer of palace servants. He had his office at the Inner Gate of the palace, called “Gate of Felicity.”
Aghasi, Qapi see Qapi Aghasi.
Qaradawi, Yusuf al-
Yusuf al-Qaradawi (or Yusuf al-Qardawi) (b. September 9, 1926, Saft Turab, Kingdom of Egypt – d. September 26, 2022, Doha, Qatar) was an Egyptian Islamic scholar based in Doha, Qatar, and chairman of the International Union of Muslim Scholars. His influences included Ibn Taymiyya, Iby Qayyim, Sayyid Rashid Rida, Hassan al-Banna, Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi, Abul A'la Maududi and Naeem Siddiqui. He was best known for his television program al-Sharīʿa wa al-Ḥayāh ("Sharia and Life"), broadcast on Al Jazeera, which had an estimated audience of 40–60 million worldwide. He was also known for IslamOnline, a website he helped to found in 1997 and for which he served as chief religious scholar.
Al-Qaradawi published more than 120 books, including The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam and Islam: The Future Civilization. He also received eight international prizes for his contributions to Islamic scholarship, and was considered one of the most influential Islamic scholars living. Al-Qaradawi had a prominent role within the intellectual leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood, an Egyptian political organization, although he repeatedly stated that he was no longer a member and twice (in 1976 and 2004) turned down offers for the official role in the organization.
Al-Qaradawi was sometimes described as a "moderate Islamist". Some of his views, such as his condoning of Palestinian suicide bombings against Israelis, caused reactions from governments in the West. He was refused an entry visa to the United Kingdom in 2008, and barred from entering France in 2012.
Qaragoz
Qaragoz (“Black Eye”). Name of the principal character in the Turkish shadow play, and also of the shadow play theater itself. The theater is played with flat, two-dimensional figures, manipulated by the shadow player, which represent inanimate objects, animals, fantastic beasts and beings, and human characters. The two central figures are Qaragoz, who combines within himself all the minor vices, and Hajivad, the petit bourgeois and educated man. It is generally recognized that the shadow play spread from eastern and Southeast Asia towards the Near East and Europe.
Black Eye see Qaragoz
Qaragoz (“Black Eye”). Name of the principal character in the Turkish shadow play, and also of the shadow play theater itself. The theater is played with flat, two-dimensional figures, manipulated by the shadow player, which represent inanimate objects, animals, fantastic beasts and beings, and human characters. The two central figures are Qaragoz, who combines within himself all the minor vices, and Hajivad, the petit bourgeois and educated man. It is generally recognized that the shadow play spread from eastern and Southeast Asia towards the Near East and Europe.
Black Eye see Qaragoz
Qarakhanids
Qarakhanids. See Karakhanids.
Qarakhanids. See Karakhanids.
Qaramanids
Qaramanids (Qaraman-oghullari) (Karamanids) (Karamanoglu). Turkish dynasty which was opposed to the Ottomans and ruled over the regions of Konya and Nigde (r.c.1262-1475). Various groups in the Qaramanid state took part in the foundation of the Safavid state in Persia.
The Karamanids traced their ancestry back to Hoca Sadeddin and his son Nure Sufi, who emigrated from Azerbaijan to Sivas. He moved from there to the western Taurus Mountains, near the town of Larende, where he worked as a woodcutter. Nure Sufi's son, Kerimeddin Karaman Bey, gained a tenuous control over the mountainous parts of Cilicia in the middle of the 13th century. A persistent but spurious legend, however, claims that the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I instead established Karaman in these lands.
Karaman expanded his territories by capturing castles in Ermenek, Mut, Ereğli, Gülnar, Mer and Silifke. As a reward for this expansion of Seljuk territory, the sultan Kilij Arslan IV gave the town of Larende (now Karaman in honor of the dynasty) to the Karamanoğlu. In the meantime, Bunsuz, brother of Karaman Bey, was chosen as a bodyguard (Candar) for Kilij Arslan IV. Their power rose as a result of the unification of Turkish clans that lived in the mountainous regions of Cilicia with the new Turkish elements transferred there by Kayqubad.
Good relations between the Seljuks and the Karamanids did not last. In 1261, on the pretext of supporting Kaykaus II who had fled to Constantinople as a result of the intrigues of the chancellor Pervâne, Karaman Bey and his two brothers, Zeynül-Hac and Bunsuz, marched toward Konya, the capital of Seljuks, with 20,000 men. A combined Seljuk and Mongol army, led by the chancellor Mu'in al-Din Suleyman, the Pervane, defeated the Karamanoğlu army and captured Karaman Bey's two brothers.
After Karaman Bey died in 1262, his older son, Şemseddin Mehmet I, became the head of the house. He immediately negotiated alliances with other Turkmen clans to raise an army against the Seljuks. During the 1276 revolt of Hatıroğlu Şemseddin Bey against Mongol domination in Anatolia, Karamanoğlu also defeated several Mongol-Seljuk armies. In the Battle of Göksu in 1277 in particular, the central power of the Seljuk was dealt a severe blow. Taking advantage of the general confusion, Mehmed Bey captured Konya on May 12 and placed on the throne a pretender called Jimri who claimed to be the son of Kaykaus. In the end, however, Mehmed was defeated by Seljuk and Mongol forces the same year, and executed with some of his brothers.
Despite these blows, Karamanoğlu continued to increase their power and influence, largely aided by the Mamelukes of Egypt, especially during the reign of Baybars. Karamanoğlu captured Konya on two more occasions in the beginning of the 14th century, but were driven out the first time by emir Chupan, the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia, and the second time by Emir Chupan's son and successor Timurtash. An expansion of Karamanoğlu power occurred after the fall of the Ilkhanids. A second expansion coincided with Karamanoğlu Alâeddin Ali Bey's marriage to Nefise Sultan, the daughter of the Ottoman sultan Murad II, the first important contact between the two dynasties.
As Ottoman power expanded into the Balkans, Aleaddin Ali Bey captured the city of Beyşehir, which had been an Ottoman city. However, it did not take much time for the Ottomans to react and march on Konya, the capital city of Karamanids. A treaty between the two kingdoms was made and peace existed until the reign of Bayezid I.
Timur gave control of the Karamanid lands to Mehmet Bey, the oldest son of Aleaddin Ali Bey. After Bayezid died in 1403, the Ottoman Empire went into a political crisis. During this time, the Ottoman family fell prey to an internecine strife. It was an opportunity not only for Karamanoğlu, but also for all of the Anatolian beyliks. Mehmet Bey assembled an army to march on Bursa. He captured the city and damaged it. This would not be the last Karamanid invasion of Ottoman lands. However, Mehmet Bey was captured by Bayezid Pasha and sent to prison. He apologized for what he had done and was forgiven by the Ottoman ruler.
Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey captured Tarsus while Mehmet Bey was in prison. Mustafa Bey, son of Mehmet Bey, retook the city during a conflict between the Emirs of Sham and Egypt. After that, the Egyptian sultan sent an army to retake Tarsus from the Karamanids. The Egyptian Mamelukes damaged Konya after defeating the Karamanids, and Mehmet Bey retreated from Konya. Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey pursued and captured him. According to an agreement between the two leaders, Mehmet Bey was exiled to Egypt for the rest of his life.
During the Crusade of Varna against the Ottomans in 1443-4, Karamanid İbrahim Bey marched on Ankara and Kütahya, destroying both cities. In the meantime, the Ottoman sultan Murad II was returning from Rumelia with a victory against the Hungarian Crusaders. Like all other Islamic emirates in Anatolia, the Karamanids were accused of treason. Hence, İbrahim Bey accepted all Ottoman terms. The Karamanid state was eventually terminated by the Ottomans in 1487, as the power of their Egyptian allies was declining.
A list of Karamanid rulers reads as follows:
1. Nûre Sûfî Bey (Capital City: Ereğli) (1250-1256) [1]
2. Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey (Capital City: Ermenek) (1256?-1261)
3. Şemseddin I. Mehmed Bey (1261-1277)
4. Güneri Bey (1283-1300)
5. Bedreddin Mahmud Bey (1300-1308)
6. Yahşı Han Bey (1308-1312) (Capital City: Konya)
7. Bedreddin I. İbrahim Bey (1312-1333, 1348-1349)
8. Alâeddin Halil Mirza Bey (1333-1348)
9. Fahreddin Ahmed Bey (1349-1350)
10. Şemseddin Bey (1350-1351)
11. Hacı Sûfi Burhâneddin Musa Bey (Capital City: Mut) (1351-1356)
12. Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey (1356-1357)
13. Damad I. Alâeddin Ali Bey (1357-1398)
14. Sultanzâde Nâsıreddin II. Mehmed Bey (Gıyâseddin)(1398-1399)
15. Damad Bengi II. Alâeddin Ali Bey (1418-1419, 1423-1424)
16. Damad II. İbrahim Bey (1424-1464)
17. Sultanzâde İshak Bey (1464)
18. Sultanzâde Pîr Ahmed Bey (1464-1469)
19. Kasım Bey (1469-1483)
20. Turgutoğlu Mahmud Bey (1483-1487)
Qaraman-oghullari see Qaramanids
Karamanids see Qaramanids
Karamanoglu see Qaramanids
Qaramanids (Qaraman-oghullari) (Karamanids) (Karamanoglu). Turkish dynasty which was opposed to the Ottomans and ruled over the regions of Konya and Nigde (r.c.1262-1475). Various groups in the Qaramanid state took part in the foundation of the Safavid state in Persia.
The Karamanids traced their ancestry back to Hoca Sadeddin and his son Nure Sufi, who emigrated from Azerbaijan to Sivas. He moved from there to the western Taurus Mountains, near the town of Larende, where he worked as a woodcutter. Nure Sufi's son, Kerimeddin Karaman Bey, gained a tenuous control over the mountainous parts of Cilicia in the middle of the 13th century. A persistent but spurious legend, however, claims that the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I instead established Karaman in these lands.
Karaman expanded his territories by capturing castles in Ermenek, Mut, Ereğli, Gülnar, Mer and Silifke. As a reward for this expansion of Seljuk territory, the sultan Kilij Arslan IV gave the town of Larende (now Karaman in honor of the dynasty) to the Karamanoğlu. In the meantime, Bunsuz, brother of Karaman Bey, was chosen as a bodyguard (Candar) for Kilij Arslan IV. Their power rose as a result of the unification of Turkish clans that lived in the mountainous regions of Cilicia with the new Turkish elements transferred there by Kayqubad.
Good relations between the Seljuks and the Karamanids did not last. In 1261, on the pretext of supporting Kaykaus II who had fled to Constantinople as a result of the intrigues of the chancellor Pervâne, Karaman Bey and his two brothers, Zeynül-Hac and Bunsuz, marched toward Konya, the capital of Seljuks, with 20,000 men. A combined Seljuk and Mongol army, led by the chancellor Mu'in al-Din Suleyman, the Pervane, defeated the Karamanoğlu army and captured Karaman Bey's two brothers.
After Karaman Bey died in 1262, his older son, Şemseddin Mehmet I, became the head of the house. He immediately negotiated alliances with other Turkmen clans to raise an army against the Seljuks. During the 1276 revolt of Hatıroğlu Şemseddin Bey against Mongol domination in Anatolia, Karamanoğlu also defeated several Mongol-Seljuk armies. In the Battle of Göksu in 1277 in particular, the central power of the Seljuk was dealt a severe blow. Taking advantage of the general confusion, Mehmed Bey captured Konya on May 12 and placed on the throne a pretender called Jimri who claimed to be the son of Kaykaus. In the end, however, Mehmed was defeated by Seljuk and Mongol forces the same year, and executed with some of his brothers.
Despite these blows, Karamanoğlu continued to increase their power and influence, largely aided by the Mamelukes of Egypt, especially during the reign of Baybars. Karamanoğlu captured Konya on two more occasions in the beginning of the 14th century, but were driven out the first time by emir Chupan, the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia, and the second time by Emir Chupan's son and successor Timurtash. An expansion of Karamanoğlu power occurred after the fall of the Ilkhanids. A second expansion coincided with Karamanoğlu Alâeddin Ali Bey's marriage to Nefise Sultan, the daughter of the Ottoman sultan Murad II, the first important contact between the two dynasties.
As Ottoman power expanded into the Balkans, Aleaddin Ali Bey captured the city of Beyşehir, which had been an Ottoman city. However, it did not take much time for the Ottomans to react and march on Konya, the capital city of Karamanids. A treaty between the two kingdoms was made and peace existed until the reign of Bayezid I.
Timur gave control of the Karamanid lands to Mehmet Bey, the oldest son of Aleaddin Ali Bey. After Bayezid died in 1403, the Ottoman Empire went into a political crisis. During this time, the Ottoman family fell prey to an internecine strife. It was an opportunity not only for Karamanoğlu, but also for all of the Anatolian beyliks. Mehmet Bey assembled an army to march on Bursa. He captured the city and damaged it. This would not be the last Karamanid invasion of Ottoman lands. However, Mehmet Bey was captured by Bayezid Pasha and sent to prison. He apologized for what he had done and was forgiven by the Ottoman ruler.
Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey captured Tarsus while Mehmet Bey was in prison. Mustafa Bey, son of Mehmet Bey, retook the city during a conflict between the Emirs of Sham and Egypt. After that, the Egyptian sultan sent an army to retake Tarsus from the Karamanids. The Egyptian Mamelukes damaged Konya after defeating the Karamanids, and Mehmet Bey retreated from Konya. Ramazanoğlu Ali Bey pursued and captured him. According to an agreement between the two leaders, Mehmet Bey was exiled to Egypt for the rest of his life.
During the Crusade of Varna against the Ottomans in 1443-4, Karamanid İbrahim Bey marched on Ankara and Kütahya, destroying both cities. In the meantime, the Ottoman sultan Murad II was returning from Rumelia with a victory against the Hungarian Crusaders. Like all other Islamic emirates in Anatolia, the Karamanids were accused of treason. Hence, İbrahim Bey accepted all Ottoman terms. The Karamanid state was eventually terminated by the Ottomans in 1487, as the power of their Egyptian allies was declining.
A list of Karamanid rulers reads as follows:
1. Nûre Sûfî Bey (Capital City: Ereğli) (1250-1256) [1]
2. Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey (Capital City: Ermenek) (1256?-1261)
3. Şemseddin I. Mehmed Bey (1261-1277)
4. Güneri Bey (1283-1300)
5. Bedreddin Mahmud Bey (1300-1308)
6. Yahşı Han Bey (1308-1312) (Capital City: Konya)
7. Bedreddin I. İbrahim Bey (1312-1333, 1348-1349)
8. Alâeddin Halil Mirza Bey (1333-1348)
9. Fahreddin Ahmed Bey (1349-1350)
10. Şemseddin Bey (1350-1351)
11. Hacı Sûfi Burhâneddin Musa Bey (Capital City: Mut) (1351-1356)
12. Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey (1356-1357)
13. Damad I. Alâeddin Ali Bey (1357-1398)
14. Sultanzâde Nâsıreddin II. Mehmed Bey (Gıyâseddin)(1398-1399)
15. Damad Bengi II. Alâeddin Ali Bey (1418-1419, 1423-1424)
16. Damad II. İbrahim Bey (1424-1464)
17. Sultanzâde İshak Bey (1464)
18. Sultanzâde Pîr Ahmed Bey (1464-1469)
19. Kasım Bey (1469-1483)
20. Turgutoğlu Mahmud Bey (1483-1487)
Qaraman-oghullari see Qaramanids
Karamanids see Qaramanids
Karamanoglu see Qaramanids
Qaramanli
Qaramanli (Karamanli) (Caramanli) (al-Qaramanli). Family of Turkish origin, several members of whom governed Tripolitania, Libya, from 1711 to 1835, constituting themselves into a real dynasty. They supported the Arabs against the Turks, without however rejecting Ottoman suzerainty.
The Qaramanli dynasty was a Turkish dynasty founded by the original Qaramanli, Ahmed Bey, which controlled Ottoman Tripolitania and, intermittently, Cyrenaica and Fezzan, from 1711 to 1835. Ahmed Bey had been appointed to a subprovincial administrative position and took advantage of disorders within the Ottoman military to usurp power. Efforts by Sultan Ahmed III to install a new governor were rebuffed, and Ahmed won recognition as pasha by 1722.
From this point to the end of the century, two Qaramanli successors, first Ahmed’s son Mehmed (r. 1745-1754) and then Mehmed’s son Ali (r. 1754-1793), obtained recognition of their control over Tripolitania. They gained even broader authority from their ability to suppress local uprisings in neighboring Cyrenaica and the Fezzan. Apparently this ability was based on different sources of military support for the Qaramanlis, including remaining imperial Janissary units as well as mercenary forces of diverse nationalities. At the same time, Tripoli became a base for pirates who, by contributing to the pasha’s coffers, enjoyed Qaramanli patronage. Symbiotic relations with pirates played an important role in Qaramanli history from the end of Ali’s reign to the dynasty’s fall four decades later.
Already under Ahmed Pasha, efforts had been made to secure trade relations with European powers. France and England, specifically, signed several bilateral agreements with Tripoli. By superseding Ottoman capitulations the rulers of Tripoli already held, such treaties in effect recognized the independence of the Qaramanlis. To maintain benefits offered by bilateral treaties, Tripoli often had to press protected pirate factions not to attack maritime traders operating under the flags of signatory nations. This led to diplomatic clashes with victims of Tripoli based piracy, particularly from neighboring Italian states and, most notably in 1800, the United States.
It was factors such as these that gradually weakened Qaramanli control. In 1790, the assassination of Ali Pasha’s heir apparent precipitated a succession struggle. Two sons and a total outsider from Algiers vied for Ali’s post. Expanding intrigues brought Hamuda Bey of the Ottoman Regency of Tunis into the succession struggle on the side of the Qaramanli family. Conflicting claims between Ali’s two sons Ahmed and Yusuf, and then among Yusuf’s descendants, continued to plague Qaramanli rule over the next few decades. At each stage of infighting, one finds external sponsorship for one or another of the candidates for the Tripoli governorship. From Napoleonic times until his abdication in 1832, Yusuf Pasha clearly preferred French sponsorship. His error was to offer France a formal treaty in 1830, soon after the French occupied the Algiers Regency. Alarmed critics of France’s advance into Algeria, led by the British, tried to undermine Yusuf’s pro-French posture by championing an heir who would reverse the Tripoli-Algiers-Paris alignment. When Yusuf attempted to pass his governorship on to his son Ali in 1832, his grandson Mehmed Bey counted on British support to thwart his grandfather’s preference for Ali.
After Istanbul failed to obtain Britain’s recognition of an imperial firman granting the succession of Ali, Sultan Mahmud II finally decided in 1835 to send an armed force to proclaim the end of Qaramanli ascendancy. The return to direct imperial rule was in part tied to pressures by Britain to oppose a Qaramanli successor who was openly receptive to French overtures. It is also likely, however, that the Ottoman sultan was reacting to another, more serious threat from Tripoli’s dominant neighbor to the east; this threat had taken form in 1831 when Muhammad ‘Ali, governor of Egypt, had expanded his control across Sinai in Syria.
A list of rulers of the Karamanli (Caramanli) Dynasty (1711-1835) reads:
* Ahmad I Pasha (July 29, 1711 - November 4, 1745)
* Mehmed Pasha (November 4, 1745 - July 24, 1754)
* Ali I Pasha (July 24, 1754 - July 30, 1793)
* Ali (II) Burghul Pasha Cezayrli (July 30, 1793 - January 20, 1795) (usurper)
* Ahmad II Pasha (January 20 - June 11, 1795)
* Yusuf Pasha (June 11, 1795 - August 20, 1832)
* Mehmed (1817) (1st time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed ibn 'Ali (1824) (1st time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed (1826) (2nd time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed (July 1832) (3rd time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed ibn 'Ali (1835) (2nd time, in rebellion)
* Ali II Pasha (August 20, 1832 - May 26, 1835)
Karamanli see Qaramanli
Caramanli see Qaramanli
Qaramanli, al- see Qaramanli
Qaramanli (Karamanli) (Caramanli) (al-Qaramanli). Family of Turkish origin, several members of whom governed Tripolitania, Libya, from 1711 to 1835, constituting themselves into a real dynasty. They supported the Arabs against the Turks, without however rejecting Ottoman suzerainty.
The Qaramanli dynasty was a Turkish dynasty founded by the original Qaramanli, Ahmed Bey, which controlled Ottoman Tripolitania and, intermittently, Cyrenaica and Fezzan, from 1711 to 1835. Ahmed Bey had been appointed to a subprovincial administrative position and took advantage of disorders within the Ottoman military to usurp power. Efforts by Sultan Ahmed III to install a new governor were rebuffed, and Ahmed won recognition as pasha by 1722.
From this point to the end of the century, two Qaramanli successors, first Ahmed’s son Mehmed (r. 1745-1754) and then Mehmed’s son Ali (r. 1754-1793), obtained recognition of their control over Tripolitania. They gained even broader authority from their ability to suppress local uprisings in neighboring Cyrenaica and the Fezzan. Apparently this ability was based on different sources of military support for the Qaramanlis, including remaining imperial Janissary units as well as mercenary forces of diverse nationalities. At the same time, Tripoli became a base for pirates who, by contributing to the pasha’s coffers, enjoyed Qaramanli patronage. Symbiotic relations with pirates played an important role in Qaramanli history from the end of Ali’s reign to the dynasty’s fall four decades later.
Already under Ahmed Pasha, efforts had been made to secure trade relations with European powers. France and England, specifically, signed several bilateral agreements with Tripoli. By superseding Ottoman capitulations the rulers of Tripoli already held, such treaties in effect recognized the independence of the Qaramanlis. To maintain benefits offered by bilateral treaties, Tripoli often had to press protected pirate factions not to attack maritime traders operating under the flags of signatory nations. This led to diplomatic clashes with victims of Tripoli based piracy, particularly from neighboring Italian states and, most notably in 1800, the United States.
It was factors such as these that gradually weakened Qaramanli control. In 1790, the assassination of Ali Pasha’s heir apparent precipitated a succession struggle. Two sons and a total outsider from Algiers vied for Ali’s post. Expanding intrigues brought Hamuda Bey of the Ottoman Regency of Tunis into the succession struggle on the side of the Qaramanli family. Conflicting claims between Ali’s two sons Ahmed and Yusuf, and then among Yusuf’s descendants, continued to plague Qaramanli rule over the next few decades. At each stage of infighting, one finds external sponsorship for one or another of the candidates for the Tripoli governorship. From Napoleonic times until his abdication in 1832, Yusuf Pasha clearly preferred French sponsorship. His error was to offer France a formal treaty in 1830, soon after the French occupied the Algiers Regency. Alarmed critics of France’s advance into Algeria, led by the British, tried to undermine Yusuf’s pro-French posture by championing an heir who would reverse the Tripoli-Algiers-Paris alignment. When Yusuf attempted to pass his governorship on to his son Ali in 1832, his grandson Mehmed Bey counted on British support to thwart his grandfather’s preference for Ali.
After Istanbul failed to obtain Britain’s recognition of an imperial firman granting the succession of Ali, Sultan Mahmud II finally decided in 1835 to send an armed force to proclaim the end of Qaramanli ascendancy. The return to direct imperial rule was in part tied to pressures by Britain to oppose a Qaramanli successor who was openly receptive to French overtures. It is also likely, however, that the Ottoman sultan was reacting to another, more serious threat from Tripoli’s dominant neighbor to the east; this threat had taken form in 1831 when Muhammad ‘Ali, governor of Egypt, had expanded his control across Sinai in Syria.
A list of rulers of the Karamanli (Caramanli) Dynasty (1711-1835) reads:
* Ahmad I Pasha (July 29, 1711 - November 4, 1745)
* Mehmed Pasha (November 4, 1745 - July 24, 1754)
* Ali I Pasha (July 24, 1754 - July 30, 1793)
* Ali (II) Burghul Pasha Cezayrli (July 30, 1793 - January 20, 1795) (usurper)
* Ahmad II Pasha (January 20 - June 11, 1795)
* Yusuf Pasha (June 11, 1795 - August 20, 1832)
* Mehmed (1817) (1st time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed ibn 'Ali (1824) (1st time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed (1826) (2nd time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed (July 1832) (3rd time, in rebellion)
* Mehmed ibn 'Ali (1835) (2nd time, in rebellion)
* Ali II Pasha (August 20, 1832 - May 26, 1835)
Karamanli see Qaramanli
Caramanli see Qaramanli
Qaramanli, al- see Qaramanli
Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu (Merzifonlu Qara Mustafa Pasha) (Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa) (Kara Mustafa) (b. 1634/1635 – d. December 25, 1683). Ottoman Grand Vizier. Brought up in the household of Koprulu Mehmed Pasha, his political fortunes steadily improved. In 1665, he was put in charge of naval preparations for the planned final reduction of Crete, and took part in the Polish campaign of 1672. He became Grand Vizier in 1676. Although animated by xenophobia, he showed deep interest in, and knowledge of, the affairs of Europe. After his successful second Russian campaign in 1678, he turned his attention to the affairs of Hungary and to the planning of offensive warfare against Austria. After the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683, his political enemies turned Sultan Muhammad IV against him, and he was executed at Belgrade.
Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa was an Ottoman military leader and grand vizier who was a central character in the empire's last attempts at expansion into both Central Europe and Eastern Europe.
In contemporary sources, Mustafa is universally described as both greedy and villainous. The veracity of this is naturally open to conjecture, although his nickname of Kara (black or handsome) can certainly be interpreted in this way.
He was adopted into the powerful Albanian Köprülü family at a young age, and served as a messenger to Damascus for his brother-in-law, the grand vizier Ahmed Köprülü. He directed in the name of Köprülü family's mukata' or tımar fields in Merzifon. After distinguishing himself, Mustafa became a vizier in his own right, and by 1663, commander of the Ottoman Grand Fleet of the Aegean Sea.
He served as a commander of ground troops in a war against Poland in 1672, negotiating a settlement that added the province of Podolia to the empire. The victory enabled the Ottomans to transform the Cossack regions of the southern Ukraine into a protectorate. In 1676, when the grand vizier died, Mustafa succeeded him.
He was less successful in combating a Cossack rebellion that began in 1678. After some initial victories, intervention by Russia turned the tide and forced the Turks to conclude peace in 1681, effectively returning the Cossack lands to Russian rule with the exception of a few forts on the Dnieper and Bug rivers.
In 1683, he launched a campaign northward into Austria in a last effort to expand the Ottoman empire after more than 150 years of war. By mid-July, his 100,000-man army had besieged Vienna (guarded by 10,000 Habsburg soldiers), following in the footsteps of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1529. By September, he had taken a portion of the walls and appeared to be on his way to victory.
On September 12, 1683, the Austrians and their Polish allies under King Jan Sobieski took advantage of dissent within the Turkish military command and poor disposition of his troops, winning the Battle of Vienna with a devastating flank attack led by Sobieski's Polish cavalry. The Turks retreated into Hungary, thereby leaving the kingdom for retaking by the Germans in 1686.
The defeat cost Mustafa his position, and ultimately, his life. On December 25, 1683, Kara Mustafa was executed in Belgrade by the order of the commander of the Janissaries. He suffered death by strangulation with a silk cord which was the capital punishment inflicted on high-ranking persons in the Ottoman Empire. His last words were, in effect, "Make sure you tie the knot right." Mustafa's head was presented to Sultan Mehmed IV in a velvet bag.
His headstone was originally in Belgrade. But it was eventually brought to Edirne, the second Ottoman capital.
As Mustafa Pasha's army retreated it left several large bags of green beans behind in Vienna. These sacks contained unroasted coffee beans which as legend has it, formed the nucleus from which the Viennese coffee trade began.
Merzifonlu Qara Mustafa Pasha see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Kara Mustafa see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu (Merzifonlu Qara Mustafa Pasha) (Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa) (Kara Mustafa) (b. 1634/1635 – d. December 25, 1683). Ottoman Grand Vizier. Brought up in the household of Koprulu Mehmed Pasha, his political fortunes steadily improved. In 1665, he was put in charge of naval preparations for the planned final reduction of Crete, and took part in the Polish campaign of 1672. He became Grand Vizier in 1676. Although animated by xenophobia, he showed deep interest in, and knowledge of, the affairs of Europe. After his successful second Russian campaign in 1678, he turned his attention to the affairs of Hungary and to the planning of offensive warfare against Austria. After the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683, his political enemies turned Sultan Muhammad IV against him, and he was executed at Belgrade.
Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa was an Ottoman military leader and grand vizier who was a central character in the empire's last attempts at expansion into both Central Europe and Eastern Europe.
In contemporary sources, Mustafa is universally described as both greedy and villainous. The veracity of this is naturally open to conjecture, although his nickname of Kara (black or handsome) can certainly be interpreted in this way.
He was adopted into the powerful Albanian Köprülü family at a young age, and served as a messenger to Damascus for his brother-in-law, the grand vizier Ahmed Köprülü. He directed in the name of Köprülü family's mukata' or tımar fields in Merzifon. After distinguishing himself, Mustafa became a vizier in his own right, and by 1663, commander of the Ottoman Grand Fleet of the Aegean Sea.
He served as a commander of ground troops in a war against Poland in 1672, negotiating a settlement that added the province of Podolia to the empire. The victory enabled the Ottomans to transform the Cossack regions of the southern Ukraine into a protectorate. In 1676, when the grand vizier died, Mustafa succeeded him.
He was less successful in combating a Cossack rebellion that began in 1678. After some initial victories, intervention by Russia turned the tide and forced the Turks to conclude peace in 1681, effectively returning the Cossack lands to Russian rule with the exception of a few forts on the Dnieper and Bug rivers.
In 1683, he launched a campaign northward into Austria in a last effort to expand the Ottoman empire after more than 150 years of war. By mid-July, his 100,000-man army had besieged Vienna (guarded by 10,000 Habsburg soldiers), following in the footsteps of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1529. By September, he had taken a portion of the walls and appeared to be on his way to victory.
On September 12, 1683, the Austrians and their Polish allies under King Jan Sobieski took advantage of dissent within the Turkish military command and poor disposition of his troops, winning the Battle of Vienna with a devastating flank attack led by Sobieski's Polish cavalry. The Turks retreated into Hungary, thereby leaving the kingdom for retaking by the Germans in 1686.
The defeat cost Mustafa his position, and ultimately, his life. On December 25, 1683, Kara Mustafa was executed in Belgrade by the order of the commander of the Janissaries. He suffered death by strangulation with a silk cord which was the capital punishment inflicted on high-ranking persons in the Ottoman Empire. His last words were, in effect, "Make sure you tie the knot right." Mustafa's head was presented to Sultan Mehmed IV in a velvet bag.
His headstone was originally in Belgrade. But it was eventually brought to Edirne, the second Ottoman capital.
As Mustafa Pasha's army retreated it left several large bags of green beans behind in Vienna. These sacks contained unroasted coffee beans which as legend has it, formed the nucleus from which the Viennese coffee trade began.
Merzifonlu Qara Mustafa Pasha see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Kara Mustafa see Qara Mustafa Pasha, Merzifonlu
Qara ‘Othman-oghlu
Qara ‘Othman-oghlu. Family active in Manisa, Turkey, from the end of the seventeenth century until 1861.
Qara ‘Othman-oghlu. Family active in Manisa, Turkey, from the end of the seventeenth century until 1861.
Qara Qoyunlu
Qara Qoyunlu. See Karakoyunlu.
Qara Qoyunlu. See Karakoyunlu.
Qaraqush, Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi
Qaraqush, Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi (Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi Qaraqush) (d.1201). One of Saladin’s officers. Described as the ablest man of his day, he built the citadel of Cairo, and the bridge at Gizeh out of stones from the pyramids at Memphis. He also extended the city walls and fortified Acre, where he was taken prisoner at the fall of the town in 1191. Saladin ransomed him for a high sum.
Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi Qaraqush see Qaraqush, Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi
Qaraqush, Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi (Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi Qaraqush) (d.1201). One of Saladin’s officers. Described as the ablest man of his day, he built the citadel of Cairo, and the bridge at Gizeh out of stones from the pyramids at Memphis. He also extended the city walls and fortified Acre, where he was taken prisoner at the fall of the town in 1191. Saladin ransomed him for a high sum.
Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi Qaraqush see Qaraqush, Baha’ al-Din al-Asadi
Qarasi
Qarasi. Name of a Turkish chief in Asia Minor and of the dynasty arising from him. His territory, comprising the ancient Mysia, the coastland and hinterland of the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, has retained this name until the present time. The territory was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire around 1360, but the history of the dynasty, the first of those which were to be suppressed by the Ottomans, is wrapped in obscurity.
Qarasi. Name of a Turkish chief in Asia Minor and of the dynasty arising from him. His territory, comprising the ancient Mysia, the coastland and hinterland of the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, has retained this name until the present time. The territory was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire around 1360, but the history of the dynasty, the first of those which were to be suppressed by the Ottomans, is wrapped in obscurity.
Qarata
Qarata (Karata). Small Ibero-Caucasian people akin to the Avars and living in Dagestan. Islam was introduced in the Avar country at the end of the eleventh century.
The Karata people are a small people from Dagestan, Russia. They primarily speak the Karata language. Karata is an Andic language of the Northeast Caucasian language family spoken in southern Dagestan, Russia by approximately 5,000 people in 1990 and by 6,400 people in 2006. It has two dialects, Karatin and Tokitin, which are quite different. Speakers use Avar as their literary language.
There are ten towns in which the language is traditionally spoken: Karata, Anchix, Tukita, Rachabalda, Lower Inxelo, Mashtada, Archo, Chabakovo, Racitl, and formerly Siux.
Karata see Qarata
Qarata (Karata). Small Ibero-Caucasian people akin to the Avars and living in Dagestan. Islam was introduced in the Avar country at the end of the eleventh century.
The Karata people are a small people from Dagestan, Russia. They primarily speak the Karata language. Karata is an Andic language of the Northeast Caucasian language family spoken in southern Dagestan, Russia by approximately 5,000 people in 1990 and by 6,400 people in 2006. It has two dialects, Karatin and Tokitin, which are quite different. Speakers use Avar as their literary language.
There are ten towns in which the language is traditionally spoken: Karata, Anchix, Tukita, Rachabalda, Lower Inxelo, Mashtada, Archo, Chabakovo, Racitl, and formerly Siux.
Karata see Qarata
Qarluqs
Qarluqs (Karluks) (Karluqs) (Qarluks). Turkish tribal group in Central Asia from whose ranks the Ilek-Khans may have come. Together with the Uyghurs they brought about the disintegration of the eastern Turkish Empire in 743 to 745. They were in turn defeated by the Uyghurs and compelled to move westwards towards Transoxiana. In the ninth century they became disposed to reception of Islamic faith and culture
The origins of the Qarluq Turkmens are somewhat obscure. About 745 they rose in rebellion against the Türküt, then the dominant tribal confederation in the region, and established a new tribal confederation with the Turkic Uighur and Basmil tribes.
The internal political organization of the Qarluq confederation was based on a system of social organization known as dual kingship. The western, paramount branch of the Qarluq confederation was centered at Balāsāghūn (now in Kyrgyzstan). The eastern branch was centered at Kashgar (now in the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang, China). Each branch had its own tribal chief and a distinct hierarchy of offices and functions, based on various sections of the tribes. Upon promotion from a lower to a higher office, an officeholder would change his regnal name; thus certain names were always held by the holders of certain offices. The eastern tribal leader was always called arslan (“lion”), while the western tribal chief, the paramount leader of the Qarluq, held the title of bughra (“camel”).
The western branch of the Qarluq came into increasing contact with the Iranian Sāmānid dynasty in the 9th century. With the disintegration of the Sāmānid polity at the end of the 10th century, the Qarluq established themselves as the new ruling dynasty in Transoxania.
Karluks see Qarluqs
Karluqs see Qarluqs
Qarluks see Qarluqs
Qarluqs (Karluks) (Karluqs) (Qarluks). Turkish tribal group in Central Asia from whose ranks the Ilek-Khans may have come. Together with the Uyghurs they brought about the disintegration of the eastern Turkish Empire in 743 to 745. They were in turn defeated by the Uyghurs and compelled to move westwards towards Transoxiana. In the ninth century they became disposed to reception of Islamic faith and culture
The origins of the Qarluq Turkmens are somewhat obscure. About 745 they rose in rebellion against the Türküt, then the dominant tribal confederation in the region, and established a new tribal confederation with the Turkic Uighur and Basmil tribes.
The internal political organization of the Qarluq confederation was based on a system of social organization known as dual kingship. The western, paramount branch of the Qarluq confederation was centered at Balāsāghūn (now in Kyrgyzstan). The eastern branch was centered at Kashgar (now in the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang, China). Each branch had its own tribal chief and a distinct hierarchy of offices and functions, based on various sections of the tribes. Upon promotion from a lower to a higher office, an officeholder would change his regnal name; thus certain names were always held by the holders of certain offices. The eastern tribal leader was always called arslan (“lion”), while the western tribal chief, the paramount leader of the Qarluq, held the title of bughra (“camel”).
The western branch of the Qarluq came into increasing contact with the Iranian Sāmānid dynasty in the 9th century. With the disintegration of the Sāmānid polity at the end of the 10th century, the Qarluq established themselves as the new ruling dynasty in Transoxania.
Karluks see Qarluqs
Karluqs see Qarluqs
Qarluks see Qarluqs
Qarmatians
Qarmatians (Qaramita) (Qarmathians) (Karmatians) (Karmathians) (Qarmitah). Qarmatian is a member of an Isma‘ili Shi‘a group that established a republic, allegedly practicing communism of property and spouses, in tenth century Bahrain and Arabia. The term “Qarmatians” is a derogatory name given to members of an Isma‘ili secret revolutionary organization that demanded social reform and justice based on equality. They were “Seveners,” that is, they believe that the seventh and last imam was Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, grandson of Ja’far al-Sadiq, and that he was to be the Mahdi. They also held to esoteric interpretations of the Qur’an.
The movement began in southern Arabia in the ninth century of the Christian calendar, spread by intensive missionary efforts to many regions of the Muslim world, and was of significance until the end of the eleventh century. Under the leadership of Hamdan Qarmat, from whom it seems to have taken its name, the Qarmatian movement prospered in the area of Kufa, Iraq, from 877 until it was suppressed there around 900 of the Christian calendar. Hamdan proclaimed a communal society, admission to which was by initiation. His followers supported the movement by contributions and by a tax of one fifth of all earnings.
The Qarmatian “summons to truth” was carried to Yemen, where it developed centers of strength, and as far west as Algeria, where with the support of a Berber tribe it laid the foundation for the Fatimid dynasty. A second Qarmatian movement arose in Bahrein around 900 under one of Hamdan’s followers, Abu Sa’id al-Jannabi, who founded a Qarmatian state there. This state organized the nomads of eastern Arabia into a powerful military force that conquered the oasis towns of that area and established a prosperous and egalitarian society. Upon the appearance of the Fatimid Mahdi in Algeria, Hamdan and his brother-in-law ‘Abdan rejected Fatimid claims and withdrew their support, creating a schism in Ismailism. The Ismailis in Bahrein and western Iran also refused to recognized the Fatimid claim to the imamate.
In 930, the Qarmatians of Bahrain committed the shocking act of looting the Ka’ba and carrying away the sacred Black Stone, which they did not return until some twenty years later (951). Subsequently, the Qarmatians declined in power but lived on quietly until the end of their independence in 1077.
The Qarmatian movement left a deep mark on the intellectual history of Islam, since Qarmatian authors, especially members of Ikhwan al-Safa, exerted considerable influence on a variety of Muslim thinkers. Qarmatian doctrines were also adopted by other extremist sects, such as the Assassins and the Druzes. The Fatimids retained some Qarmatian rituals which had been introduced by the early leaders of the movement in western North Africa. The rapid spread of these doctrines in the Muslim world was seen by Sunnite authors as a threat to the unity of the community, and, for that reason, they denounced the Qarmatian doctrines as contrary to the interests of Islam and sought to trace their origins to pre-Islamic heresies.
Qarmatian, also spelled Qarmathian, Karmatian, or Karmathian, Arabic Qarmatī, plural Qarāmiṭah, a member of the Shīʿite Muslim sect known as the Ismāʿīlites. The Qarmatians flourished in Iraq, Yemen, and especially Bahrain during the 9th to 11th centuries, taking their name from Ḥamdān Qarmaṭ, who led the sect in southern Iraq in the second half of the 9th century. The Qarmatians became notorious for an insurrection in Syria and Iraq in 903–906 and for the exploits of two Bahraini leaders, Abū Saʿīd al-Jannābī and his son and successor, Abū Ṭāhir Sulaymān, who invaded Iraq several times and in 930 sacked Mecca and carried off the Black Stone of the Kaʿbah.
Qaramita see Qarmatians
Qarmathians see Qarmatians
Karmatians see Qarmatians
Karmathians see Qarmatians
Qarmitah see Qarmatians
Qarmatians (Qaramita) (Qarmathians) (Karmatians) (Karmathians) (Qarmitah). Qarmatian is a member of an Isma‘ili Shi‘a group that established a republic, allegedly practicing communism of property and spouses, in tenth century Bahrain and Arabia. The term “Qarmatians” is a derogatory name given to members of an Isma‘ili secret revolutionary organization that demanded social reform and justice based on equality. They were “Seveners,” that is, they believe that the seventh and last imam was Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, grandson of Ja’far al-Sadiq, and that he was to be the Mahdi. They also held to esoteric interpretations of the Qur’an.
The movement began in southern Arabia in the ninth century of the Christian calendar, spread by intensive missionary efforts to many regions of the Muslim world, and was of significance until the end of the eleventh century. Under the leadership of Hamdan Qarmat, from whom it seems to have taken its name, the Qarmatian movement prospered in the area of Kufa, Iraq, from 877 until it was suppressed there around 900 of the Christian calendar. Hamdan proclaimed a communal society, admission to which was by initiation. His followers supported the movement by contributions and by a tax of one fifth of all earnings.
The Qarmatian “summons to truth” was carried to Yemen, where it developed centers of strength, and as far west as Algeria, where with the support of a Berber tribe it laid the foundation for the Fatimid dynasty. A second Qarmatian movement arose in Bahrein around 900 under one of Hamdan’s followers, Abu Sa’id al-Jannabi, who founded a Qarmatian state there. This state organized the nomads of eastern Arabia into a powerful military force that conquered the oasis towns of that area and established a prosperous and egalitarian society. Upon the appearance of the Fatimid Mahdi in Algeria, Hamdan and his brother-in-law ‘Abdan rejected Fatimid claims and withdrew their support, creating a schism in Ismailism. The Ismailis in Bahrein and western Iran also refused to recognized the Fatimid claim to the imamate.
In 930, the Qarmatians of Bahrain committed the shocking act of looting the Ka’ba and carrying away the sacred Black Stone, which they did not return until some twenty years later (951). Subsequently, the Qarmatians declined in power but lived on quietly until the end of their independence in 1077.
The Qarmatian movement left a deep mark on the intellectual history of Islam, since Qarmatian authors, especially members of Ikhwan al-Safa, exerted considerable influence on a variety of Muslim thinkers. Qarmatian doctrines were also adopted by other extremist sects, such as the Assassins and the Druzes. The Fatimids retained some Qarmatian rituals which had been introduced by the early leaders of the movement in western North Africa. The rapid spread of these doctrines in the Muslim world was seen by Sunnite authors as a threat to the unity of the community, and, for that reason, they denounced the Qarmatian doctrines as contrary to the interests of Islam and sought to trace their origins to pre-Islamic heresies.
Qarmatian, also spelled Qarmathian, Karmatian, or Karmathian, Arabic Qarmatī, plural Qarāmiṭah, a member of the Shīʿite Muslim sect known as the Ismāʿīlites. The Qarmatians flourished in Iraq, Yemen, and especially Bahrain during the 9th to 11th centuries, taking their name from Ḥamdān Qarmaṭ, who led the sect in southern Iraq in the second half of the 9th century. The Qarmatians became notorious for an insurrection in Syria and Iraq in 903–906 and for the exploits of two Bahraini leaders, Abū Saʿīd al-Jannābī and his son and successor, Abū Ṭāhir Sulaymān, who invaded Iraq several times and in 930 sacked Mecca and carried off the Black Stone of the Kaʿbah.
Qaramita see Qarmatians
Qarmathians see Qarmatians
Karmatians see Qarmatians
Karmathians see Qarmatians
Qarmitah see Qarmatians
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