Ata Malik Juvaini
Ata Malik Juvaini (Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni) (1226–1283). Persian historian who wrote an account of the Mongol Empire entitled Ta' rīkh-i jahān-gushā (History of the World Conqueror).
Ata-Malik Juvaini was born in Juvain, a city in Khorasan in northeastern Iran. Both his grandfather and his father, Baha al-Din, held the post of sahib-divan or Minister of Finance for Muhammad Jalal al-Din and Ögedei Khan respectively. Baha al-Din also acted as deputy ca. 1246 for his immediate superior, the emir Arghun, in which role he oversaw a large area including Georgia and Armenia.
Juvaini too became an important official of the empire. He visited the Mongol capital of Karakorum twice, beginning his history of the Mongols conquests on one such visit (c. 1252-53). He was with Ilkhan Hulagu in 1256 at the taking of Alamut and was responsible for saving part of its celebrated library. He had also accompanied Hulagu during the sack of Baghdad in 1258, and the next year was appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower Mesopotamia, and Khuzistan. Around 1282, Juvaini attended a Mongol quriltai, or assembly, held in the Ala-Taq pastures northeast of Lake Van. He died the following year in Mughan or Arran in Azarbaijan.
Juvaini's brother was the powerful Shams al-Din, who served as Minister of Finance under Hulagu and Abaqa Khan. A skillful leader in his own right, Shams al-Din also had influential in-laws: his wife Khoshak was the daughter of Awak Zak'arean-Mkhargrdzeli, Lord High Constable of Georgia, and Gvantsa, a noblewoman who went on to become queen of Georgia. Juvaini's own position at court and his family connections made him privy to information unavailable to other historians. For unknown reasons Juvaini's personal history terminates in 1260, more than twenty years before his death.
Juvaini, Ata Malik see Ata Malik Juvaini
Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni see Ata Malik Juvaini
Juvayni, Ala'iddin Ata-Malik see Ata Malik Juvaini
Ata-Malik Juvaini was born in Juvain, a city in Khorasan in northeastern Iran. Both his grandfather and his father, Baha al-Din, held the post of sahib-divan or Minister of Finance for Muhammad Jalal al-Din and Ögedei Khan respectively. Baha al-Din also acted as deputy ca. 1246 for his immediate superior, the emir Arghun, in which role he oversaw a large area including Georgia and Armenia.
Juvaini too became an important official of the empire. He visited the Mongol capital of Karakorum twice, beginning his history of the Mongols conquests on one such visit (c. 1252-53). He was with Ilkhan Hulagu in 1256 at the taking of Alamut and was responsible for saving part of its celebrated library. He had also accompanied Hulagu during the sack of Baghdad in 1258, and the next year was appointed governor of Baghdad, Lower Mesopotamia, and Khuzistan. Around 1282, Juvaini attended a Mongol quriltai, or assembly, held in the Ala-Taq pastures northeast of Lake Van. He died the following year in Mughan or Arran in Azarbaijan.
Juvaini's brother was the powerful Shams al-Din, who served as Minister of Finance under Hulagu and Abaqa Khan. A skillful leader in his own right, Shams al-Din also had influential in-laws: his wife Khoshak was the daughter of Awak Zak'arean-Mkhargrdzeli, Lord High Constable of Georgia, and Gvantsa, a noblewoman who went on to become queen of Georgia. Juvaini's own position at court and his family connections made him privy to information unavailable to other historians. For unknown reasons Juvaini's personal history terminates in 1260, more than twenty years before his death.
Juvaini, Ata Malik see Ata Malik Juvaini
Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni see Ata Malik Juvaini
Juvayni, Ala'iddin Ata-Malik see Ata Malik Juvaini
Ataturk
Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal Ataturk) (1881 - November 10, 1938). Turkish soldier, nationalist leader, and statesman. Ataturk is credited with founding the modern republic of Turkey and he served as the republic’s first president (1923-1938). The name “Ataturk” (“Father Turk”) was bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal in 1934 by the Grand National Assembly as a tribute to his unique service to the Turkish nation.
Mustafa Kemal became known as an extremely capable military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish national movement in what would become known as the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His successful military campaigns led to the liberation of the country and to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. During his presidency, Atatürk embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms. An admirer of the Age of Enlightenment, Atatürk sought to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, democratic and secular nation-state. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Mustafa Kemal was born in Salonika (now Thessaloniki, Greece). He was the son of a minor official who became a timber merchant. When Mustafa Kemal was 12 years old, he went to military schools in Salonika and Monastir, centers of anti-Turkish Greek and Slavic nationalism. In 1899, Mustafa Kemal attended the military academy in Istanbul, graduating as staff captain in January 1905.
Because of his activities in the secret Young Turk movement against the autocratic government of the Ottoman Empire, of which Turkey was a part, Mustafa Kemal was posted to Syria, in virtual exile. There he founded the secret Fatherland and Freedom Society (1906). Transferred to Salonika the following year, Mustafa Kemal joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) that carried out the Young Turk revolution in July 1908. He was not, however, in the inner circle of the CUP and therefore played no role in the actual revolution.
In the 1909 coup that ousted the Sultan, Kemal was a central and active participant.
From 1911 to 1912, Mustafa Kemal fought in Libya against Italy. He distinguished himself in the defence of Tripolitania and was promoted to major in November 1911.
He organized the defense of the Dardanelles during the Balkan Wars (1912-13) and was military attache in Bulgaria in October 1913. During World War I, in which the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) sided with Germany, Mustafa Kemal enhanced his military reputation at Gallipoli (1915), where he played a crucial role in repelling the Allied invasion. He then served in the Caucasus and Syria, where he was given command of a special army group just before the armistice was signed in October 1918.
Returning to Istanbul, Mustafa Kemal watched in anxiety as the victorious Allied powers prepared to partition Anatolia -- to divide Turkey. Mustafa Kemal did not agree with such draconian terms of the Armistice and made up his mind to fight for the total independence of Turkey.
A Greek army occupied Izmir on the Anatolian coast on May 15, 1919. Mustafa Kemal, who had been appointed inspector of the Third Army in Anatolia, reached Samsun on May 19. He immediately set about uniting the Turkish national movement and creating an army for defense. First, however, the nationalists had to wage a struggle against the Ottoman sultan’s regime in Istanbul, which seemed willing to allow the dismemberment of the national territory.
By 1920, the Istanbul government had been discredited for acquiescing to the Allied occupation of the capital and signing the Treaty of Sevres, which recognized Greek control over parts of Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal, meanwhile, had organized congresses at Erzurum and Sivas and had set up a provisional government in Ankara in April 1920. After initial setbacks, he won decisive battles against Greek forces at Sakarya (in August 1921) and Dumlupinar (in August 1922). Finally, his forces reoccupied Izmir in September 1922.
Having dealt with the external threat, Mustafa Kemal next turned to the internal one posed by the conservative forces around the sultan. The sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and the republic was proclaimed on October 29, 1923, with Mustafa Kemal -- the Ataturk -- as president. Ataturk founded the People’s party (renamed Republican People’s party in 1924) in August 1923 and established a single party regime that, except for two brief experiments in 1924-5 and 1930 with opposition parties, lasted until 1945.
Ataturk created a modern and secular state, using his great prestige and charisma to introduce a vast program of reforms. These included abolishing the caliphate, which embodied the religious authority of the sultans, and all other Islamic institutions; introducing Western law codes, dress and calendar; using the Latin alphabet; and removing (in 1928) the constitutional provision naming Islam as the state religion. Ataturk also introduced the vote for women and formulated new civil, criminal and commercial codes. In 1934, a law was enacted which required all citizens to use family names and it was in this year that the Grand National Assembly accorded Mustafa Kemal the name of “Ataturk” -- “Father of the Turks.”
Ataturk’s achievements were many, but most were based on Western models. Ataturk believed that the traditional way of running Muslim countries had outlived itself, and that Turkey’s chances of surviving the future as well as gaining new strength would only be through adopting principles from the European countries, which at that time had outdistanced Turkey in all fields.
His reforms included imposing regulations that hindered the use of central elements of Muslim clothing style, the introduction of the Latin alphabet, a reduction of the centrality of Islam in Turkish public life, equality of all citizens regardless of religion, emancipation of women and regular education of the masses. He introduced a political system that had many elements from Western systems, but he never allowed political pluralism, allowing only his own Republican People’s party. Ataturk’s system of government had a unicameral parliament, a government that had to answer for the quality of its achievements, as well as an effective bureaucracy.
By 1931, the ideology of the Turkish regime, known as Kemalism or Ataturkism, was articulated and defined by six principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and revolutionism. In 1919, Mustafa Kemal had been first among equals, but by 1926, Ataturk had eliminated all political rivals, using an alleged assassination conspiracy as the excuse. Thereafter, although he ruled as an autocrat, his regime was in fact based on an alliance of the civil and military bureaucracy, the newly developed bourgeoisie, and the landowners.
Ataturk’s principal aim had been to save his people from humiliation and to transform Turkey into a modern, twentieth century nation. Ataturk pursued this aim with total determination and political finesse. Perhaps Ataturk’s most essential trait was his political realism which enabled him to carry out his reforms without disastrous adventures and allowed Turkey to live at peace with its neighbors. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk died in Istanbul on November 10, 1938.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk see Ataturk
“Father Turk” see Ataturk
“Father of the Turks” see Ataturk
Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal Ataturk) (1881 - November 10, 1938). Turkish soldier, nationalist leader, and statesman. Ataturk is credited with founding the modern republic of Turkey and he served as the republic’s first president (1923-1938). The name “Ataturk” (“Father Turk”) was bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal in 1934 by the Grand National Assembly as a tribute to his unique service to the Turkish nation.
Mustafa Kemal became known as an extremely capable military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish national movement in what would become known as the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His successful military campaigns led to the liberation of the country and to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. During his presidency, Atatürk embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms. An admirer of the Age of Enlightenment, Atatürk sought to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, democratic and secular nation-state. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Mustafa Kemal was born in Salonika (now Thessaloniki, Greece). He was the son of a minor official who became a timber merchant. When Mustafa Kemal was 12 years old, he went to military schools in Salonika and Monastir, centers of anti-Turkish Greek and Slavic nationalism. In 1899, Mustafa Kemal attended the military academy in Istanbul, graduating as staff captain in January 1905.
Because of his activities in the secret Young Turk movement against the autocratic government of the Ottoman Empire, of which Turkey was a part, Mustafa Kemal was posted to Syria, in virtual exile. There he founded the secret Fatherland and Freedom Society (1906). Transferred to Salonika the following year, Mustafa Kemal joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) that carried out the Young Turk revolution in July 1908. He was not, however, in the inner circle of the CUP and therefore played no role in the actual revolution.
In the 1909 coup that ousted the Sultan, Kemal was a central and active participant.
From 1911 to 1912, Mustafa Kemal fought in Libya against Italy. He distinguished himself in the defence of Tripolitania and was promoted to major in November 1911.
He organized the defense of the Dardanelles during the Balkan Wars (1912-13) and was military attache in Bulgaria in October 1913. During World War I, in which the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) sided with Germany, Mustafa Kemal enhanced his military reputation at Gallipoli (1915), where he played a crucial role in repelling the Allied invasion. He then served in the Caucasus and Syria, where he was given command of a special army group just before the armistice was signed in October 1918.
Returning to Istanbul, Mustafa Kemal watched in anxiety as the victorious Allied powers prepared to partition Anatolia -- to divide Turkey. Mustafa Kemal did not agree with such draconian terms of the Armistice and made up his mind to fight for the total independence of Turkey.
A Greek army occupied Izmir on the Anatolian coast on May 15, 1919. Mustafa Kemal, who had been appointed inspector of the Third Army in Anatolia, reached Samsun on May 19. He immediately set about uniting the Turkish national movement and creating an army for defense. First, however, the nationalists had to wage a struggle against the Ottoman sultan’s regime in Istanbul, which seemed willing to allow the dismemberment of the national territory.
By 1920, the Istanbul government had been discredited for acquiescing to the Allied occupation of the capital and signing the Treaty of Sevres, which recognized Greek control over parts of Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal, meanwhile, had organized congresses at Erzurum and Sivas and had set up a provisional government in Ankara in April 1920. After initial setbacks, he won decisive battles against Greek forces at Sakarya (in August 1921) and Dumlupinar (in August 1922). Finally, his forces reoccupied Izmir in September 1922.
Having dealt with the external threat, Mustafa Kemal next turned to the internal one posed by the conservative forces around the sultan. The sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and the republic was proclaimed on October 29, 1923, with Mustafa Kemal -- the Ataturk -- as president. Ataturk founded the People’s party (renamed Republican People’s party in 1924) in August 1923 and established a single party regime that, except for two brief experiments in 1924-5 and 1930 with opposition parties, lasted until 1945.
Ataturk created a modern and secular state, using his great prestige and charisma to introduce a vast program of reforms. These included abolishing the caliphate, which embodied the religious authority of the sultans, and all other Islamic institutions; introducing Western law codes, dress and calendar; using the Latin alphabet; and removing (in 1928) the constitutional provision naming Islam as the state religion. Ataturk also introduced the vote for women and formulated new civil, criminal and commercial codes. In 1934, a law was enacted which required all citizens to use family names and it was in this year that the Grand National Assembly accorded Mustafa Kemal the name of “Ataturk” -- “Father of the Turks.”
Ataturk’s achievements were many, but most were based on Western models. Ataturk believed that the traditional way of running Muslim countries had outlived itself, and that Turkey’s chances of surviving the future as well as gaining new strength would only be through adopting principles from the European countries, which at that time had outdistanced Turkey in all fields.
His reforms included imposing regulations that hindered the use of central elements of Muslim clothing style, the introduction of the Latin alphabet, a reduction of the centrality of Islam in Turkish public life, equality of all citizens regardless of religion, emancipation of women and regular education of the masses. He introduced a political system that had many elements from Western systems, but he never allowed political pluralism, allowing only his own Republican People’s party. Ataturk’s system of government had a unicameral parliament, a government that had to answer for the quality of its achievements, as well as an effective bureaucracy.
By 1931, the ideology of the Turkish regime, known as Kemalism or Ataturkism, was articulated and defined by six principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and revolutionism. In 1919, Mustafa Kemal had been first among equals, but by 1926, Ataturk had eliminated all political rivals, using an alleged assassination conspiracy as the excuse. Thereafter, although he ruled as an autocrat, his regime was in fact based on an alliance of the civil and military bureaucracy, the newly developed bourgeoisie, and the landowners.
Ataturk’s principal aim had been to save his people from humiliation and to transform Turkey into a modern, twentieth century nation. Ataturk pursued this aim with total determination and political finesse. Perhaps Ataturk’s most essential trait was his political realism which enabled him to carry out his reforms without disastrous adventures and allowed Turkey to live at peace with its neighbors. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk died in Istanbul on November 10, 1938.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk see Ataturk
“Father Turk” see Ataturk
“Father of the Turks” see Ataturk
Atay, Falih Rifqi
Atay, Falih Rifqi. See Falih Rifqi Atay.
Atay, Falih Rifqi. See Falih Rifqi Atay.
Atsiz ibn Uvak
Atsiz ibn Uvak (d.1079). Turkmen chief. At the appeal of the Fatimids, he occupied Jerusalem, Palestine and southern Syria, conquered Damascus in 1076 and attacked Egypt itself in 1077, but was defeated. He appealed to the Great Seljuk Malik-Shah, who decided to make Syria an appanage for his own brother Tutush ibn Alp Arslan, who had Atsiz killed.
Atsiz ibn Uvak (d.1079). Turkmen chief. At the appeal of the Fatimids, he occupied Jerusalem, Palestine and southern Syria, conquered Damascus in 1076 and attacked Egypt itself in 1077, but was defeated. He appealed to the Great Seljuk Malik-Shah, who decided to make Syria an appanage for his own brother Tutush ibn Alp Arslan, who had Atsiz killed.
Attahiru Ahmadu
Attahiru Ahmadu (d. 1903). Ruler of the Sokoto Caliphate at the time of the British conquest from 1902 to 1903. His predecessor, Abdurrahman (1891-1902), had died shortly after Frederick Lugard had begun the British conquest of Northern Nigeria. Because of internal dissension the Sokoto army could not put up a strong defense against Lugard’s forces, and Attahiru was forced to flee (1903). Lugard entered the capital afterwards, and persuaded the people to elect a new ruler. Attahiru reminded the citizens of Sokoto that the founder of the caliphate, ‘Uthman dan Fodio, had prophesied that one day the faithful would be called to take the hijra (flight) to the east. He soon gathered a large following of people willing to abandon their homes to join him on the journey. British forces followed and were beaten off six times by Attahiru’s army before the British finally defeated and killed the deposed ruler about 1000 kilometers from Sokoto. As many as 25,000 of his followers continued the journey, however, traveling to the Blue Nile in modern Sudan where their descendants live today.
Ahmadu, Attahiru see Attahiru Ahmadu
Attahiru Ahmadu (d. 1903). Ruler of the Sokoto Caliphate at the time of the British conquest from 1902 to 1903. His predecessor, Abdurrahman (1891-1902), had died shortly after Frederick Lugard had begun the British conquest of Northern Nigeria. Because of internal dissension the Sokoto army could not put up a strong defense against Lugard’s forces, and Attahiru was forced to flee (1903). Lugard entered the capital afterwards, and persuaded the people to elect a new ruler. Attahiru reminded the citizens of Sokoto that the founder of the caliphate, ‘Uthman dan Fodio, had prophesied that one day the faithful would be called to take the hijra (flight) to the east. He soon gathered a large following of people willing to abandon their homes to join him on the journey. British forces followed and were beaten off six times by Attahiru’s army before the British finally defeated and killed the deposed ruler about 1000 kilometers from Sokoto. As many as 25,000 of his followers continued the journey, however, traveling to the Blue Nile in modern Sudan where their descendants live today.
Ahmadu, Attahiru see Attahiru Ahmadu
'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim (Farid al-Din ‘Attar) (Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur – died c. 1221), much better known by his pen-names Farīd ud-Dīn and ‘Attār (the pharmacist), was a Persian Muslim poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer from Nīshāpūr who left an everlasting influence on Persian poetry and Sufism..
He was born and spent most of his life in Nishapur in north-east Persia. By profession a pharmacist (Arabic “‘attar”) and physician, ‘Attar spent many years collecting the tales and sayings of Muslim mystic saints, putting together 97 biographies in his one prose work, Tadhkirat al-Awliya. Attar was also a believer in the theosophical tenets of the mystical Sufi movement. He traveled widely throughout Egypt, Turkestan, and India, always returning to Nishapur.
‘Attar was an extremely prolific writer. His most celebrated work is Mantiq al-Tayr (“The Conference of Birds”) [Mantiq ut-Tair (“Language of Birds”)], a poem of 4600 couplets that expounds through allegory the Sufist doctrine of human and divine union. Mantiq al-Tayr is an elaborate allegory with numerous digressions. Mantiq al-Tayr became a much imitated and commented on work in the Muslim world. In Mantiq al-Tayr, ‘Attar, the born storyteller, describes how all the birds (i.e., human souls) set out in search of the Simurgh (a mythical bird, i.e., the Godhead). All but thirty of the birds die and the survivors realize that they are themselves the Simurgh.
‘Attar’s other important writings are Pandnamah (“Book of Counsel”); Bulbul Namah (“Book of the Nightingale”); Ilahi-nama (“The Book of the Divine”), the parable of the quest for happiness of a king’s six sons; Musibat-nama (“The Book of Affliction”), an allegory of the soul’s ascent to God; and Asrar-nama (“The Book of Secrets”).
Information about Attar's life is rare. He is mentioned by only two of his contemporaries, `Awfi and Nasir ud-Din Tusi. However, all sources confirm that he was from Nishapur, a major city of medieval Khorasan (now located in the northeast of Iran), and according to `Awfi, he was a poet of the Seljuq period. It seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except in his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th century.
`Attar was probably the son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in various fields. While his works say little else about his life, they tell us that he practiced the profession of pharmacy and personally attended to a very large number of customers. The people he helped in the pharmacy used to confide their troubles to `Attar and this affected him deeply. Eventually, he abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely - to Kufa, Mecca, Damascus, Turkistan, and India, meeting with Sufi Shaykhs - and returned promoting Sufi ideas.
`Attar's initiation into Sufi practices is subject to much speculation and fabrication. Of all the famous Sufi Shaykhs supposed to have been his teachers, only one - Majd ud-Din Baghdadi - comes within the bounds of possibility. The only certainty in this regard is `Attar's own statement that he once met him. Nevertheless, from childhood onward `Attar, encouraged by his father, was interested in the Sufis and their sayings and way of life, and regarded their saints as his spiritual guides.
`Attar reached an age of over 70 and died a violent death in the massacre which the Mongols inflicted on Nishabur in April 1221. Today, his mausoleum is located in Nishapur. It was built by Ali-Shir Nava'i in the 16th century.
The thought-world depicted in `Attar's works reflects the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. The starting point is the idea that the body-bound soul's awaited release and return to its source in the other world can be experienced during the present life in mystic union attainable through inward purification. In explaining his thoughts, 'Attar uses material not only from specifically Sufi sources but also from older ascetic legacies. Although his heroes are for the most part Sufis and ascetics, he also introduces stories from historical chronicles, collections of anecdotes, and all types of high-esteemed literature. His talent for perception of deeper meanings behind outward appearances enables him to turn details of everyday life into illustrations of his thoughts. The idiosyncrasy of `Attar's presentations invalidates his works as sources for study of the historical persons whom he introduces. As sources on the hagiology and phenomenology of Sufism, however, his works have immense value.
Farid al-Din ‘Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim 'Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar, Farid al-Din see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Abu Hamid bin Abu Bakr Ibrahim see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Farid ud-Din see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim (Farid al-Din ‘Attar) (Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur – died c. 1221), much better known by his pen-names Farīd ud-Dīn and ‘Attār (the pharmacist), was a Persian Muslim poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer from Nīshāpūr who left an everlasting influence on Persian poetry and Sufism..
He was born and spent most of his life in Nishapur in north-east Persia. By profession a pharmacist (Arabic “‘attar”) and physician, ‘Attar spent many years collecting the tales and sayings of Muslim mystic saints, putting together 97 biographies in his one prose work, Tadhkirat al-Awliya. Attar was also a believer in the theosophical tenets of the mystical Sufi movement. He traveled widely throughout Egypt, Turkestan, and India, always returning to Nishapur.
‘Attar was an extremely prolific writer. His most celebrated work is Mantiq al-Tayr (“The Conference of Birds”) [Mantiq ut-Tair (“Language of Birds”)], a poem of 4600 couplets that expounds through allegory the Sufist doctrine of human and divine union. Mantiq al-Tayr is an elaborate allegory with numerous digressions. Mantiq al-Tayr became a much imitated and commented on work in the Muslim world. In Mantiq al-Tayr, ‘Attar, the born storyteller, describes how all the birds (i.e., human souls) set out in search of the Simurgh (a mythical bird, i.e., the Godhead). All but thirty of the birds die and the survivors realize that they are themselves the Simurgh.
‘Attar’s other important writings are Pandnamah (“Book of Counsel”); Bulbul Namah (“Book of the Nightingale”); Ilahi-nama (“The Book of the Divine”), the parable of the quest for happiness of a king’s six sons; Musibat-nama (“The Book of Affliction”), an allegory of the soul’s ascent to God; and Asrar-nama (“The Book of Secrets”).
Information about Attar's life is rare. He is mentioned by only two of his contemporaries, `Awfi and Nasir ud-Din Tusi. However, all sources confirm that he was from Nishapur, a major city of medieval Khorasan (now located in the northeast of Iran), and according to `Awfi, he was a poet of the Seljuq period. It seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except in his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th century.
`Attar was probably the son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in various fields. While his works say little else about his life, they tell us that he practiced the profession of pharmacy and personally attended to a very large number of customers. The people he helped in the pharmacy used to confide their troubles to `Attar and this affected him deeply. Eventually, he abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely - to Kufa, Mecca, Damascus, Turkistan, and India, meeting with Sufi Shaykhs - and returned promoting Sufi ideas.
`Attar's initiation into Sufi practices is subject to much speculation and fabrication. Of all the famous Sufi Shaykhs supposed to have been his teachers, only one - Majd ud-Din Baghdadi - comes within the bounds of possibility. The only certainty in this regard is `Attar's own statement that he once met him. Nevertheless, from childhood onward `Attar, encouraged by his father, was interested in the Sufis and their sayings and way of life, and regarded their saints as his spiritual guides.
`Attar reached an age of over 70 and died a violent death in the massacre which the Mongols inflicted on Nishabur in April 1221. Today, his mausoleum is located in Nishapur. It was built by Ali-Shir Nava'i in the 16th century.
The thought-world depicted in `Attar's works reflects the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. The starting point is the idea that the body-bound soul's awaited release and return to its source in the other world can be experienced during the present life in mystic union attainable through inward purification. In explaining his thoughts, 'Attar uses material not only from specifically Sufi sources but also from older ascetic legacies. Although his heroes are for the most part Sufis and ascetics, he also introduces stories from historical chronicles, collections of anecdotes, and all types of high-esteemed literature. His talent for perception of deeper meanings behind outward appearances enables him to turn details of everyday life into illustrations of his thoughts. The idiosyncrasy of `Attar's presentations invalidates his works as sources for study of the historical persons whom he introduces. As sources on the hagiology and phenomenology of Sufism, however, his works have immense value.
Farid al-Din ‘Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim 'Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar, Farid al-Din see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Abu Hamid bin Abu Bakr Ibrahim see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Farid ud-Din see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
'Attar see 'Attar, Farid ud-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
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