Aristotle
Aristotle (in Arabic, Aristu(talis)). Greek philosopher whose writings, with a very few exceptions, became known to the Arabs in translation. Most Arab philosophers regard him as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy. Ibn Rushd called him “the example of what nature invented to show final human perfection.”
Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 B.C.T. – 322 B.C.T.) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology.
Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. He was the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian Physics. In the biological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the nineteenth century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late nineteenth century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today.
Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
Aristu see Aristotle
Aristutalis see Aristotle
Aristotle (in Arabic, Aristu(talis)). Greek philosopher whose writings, with a very few exceptions, became known to the Arabs in translation. Most Arab philosophers regard him as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy. Ibn Rushd called him “the example of what nature invented to show final human perfection.”
Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 B.C.T. – 322 B.C.T.) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology.
Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. He was the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian Physics. In the biological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the nineteenth century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late nineteenth century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today.
Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
Aristu see Aristotle
Aristutalis see Aristotle
Arkam
Arkam. An early Meccan convert to Islam.
Arkam. An early Meccan convert to Islam.
Arkoun, Mohammed
Arkoun, Mohammed (b. February 1, 1928). Algerian Islamic scholar and writer. One of the leading Arab Muslim intellectuals of his time, Arkoun was involved in the sensitive task of re-interpreting and recasting the classical religious, legal, and philosophical traditions through a sophisticated hermeneutical system inspired by contemporary Western critical methodologies, a task that made him a controversial participant in the creation of a modern Arabo-Islamic critical discourse.
Arkoun was born on January 2, 1928, in the Berber village of Taourirt-Mimoun in Kabylia. From his modest beginnings as the son of a spice merchant, Arkoun went on to become a highly successful international scholar and thinker. He began Arabic studies in his native country and completed them in Paris. He was associated with the Sorbonne where he was the Professor of the History of Islamic Thought and was formerly Director of the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies there. He was also the editor in chief of the French scholarly journal Arabica for many years. Arkoun’s international visibility has brought lectures and visiting appointments at academic institutions worldwide, including the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. His adopted homeland appointed Arkoun Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur and Officier des Palmes Academiques.
What distinguished Arkoun from many other contemporary Arab and Muslim intellectuals was precisely what qualified him to be editor of Arabica – his serious training as a medievalist. Arkoun established himself as a foremost student of medieval Islamic thought with his work on the philosopher and thinker Miskawayh (d. 1030). He edited two treatises by Miskawayh and translated his Tahdhib al-akhlaq, a work whose close relationship to Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics compels anyone attempting to deal with the Arabic text to also grapple with Greek philosophy.
With this philosophical background combined with the resources of French criticism, Arkoun began his own intellectual crusade. His re-readings of the rich Islamic religious and legal traditions are an extension of this dual intellectual allegiance to the modern humanities and social sciences and to medieval studies. Arkoun also wrote widely on topics ranging from the twelfth-century Andalusian philosopher and physician Ibn Tufayl to Orientalism.
Arkoun’s Lectures du Coran was perhaps his most challenging and important work. The author pled eloquently and passionately for clear analytical distinctions in dealing with the Muslim holy book. According to Arkoun, too many levels of production of the sacred text are amalgated under the title of the Qur’an. There is the word of God, the Logos, of which the revelations of the three monotheistic religions are but fragments. There are also the Qur’anic discourse, the actual written text of the Qur’an, and the commentaries on this text. These distinctions permit a much more sophisticated reading of the scriptures.
Arkoun’s ideas did not go unchallenged by the intellectual leaders of the contemporary Islamist movement. An impassioned debate occurred between Arkoun and the Egyptian Shaykh Muhammad al-Ghazali in Algeria. Almost as quickly as the works of al-Ghazali became available to an international audience, so Arkoun’s works were re-edited in French in North Africa, translated into Arabic, and published in London. Arkoun’s impact on the contemporary Arab Muslim intellectual scene became increasingly important as the Islamist movement grew in strength. Arkoun defined the Islamic concept of the jihad al-nafs (personal jihad) as the work of the intellectual who feels a sense of solidarity with the society to which he belongs. This jihad al-nafs was Arkoun’s mission.
Arkoun was decorated as an Officer of the French Légion d'honneur in July 1996. In 2001, Professor Arkoun was asked to deliver the Gifford Lectures, which enable a notable scholar to contribute to the advancement of theological and philosophical thought and was announced as the recipient of the Seventeenth Georgio Levi Della Vida Award for his lifelong contribution to the field of Islamic Studies.
Mohammed Arkoun see Arkoun, Mohammed
Arkoun, Mohammed (b. February 1, 1928). Algerian Islamic scholar and writer. One of the leading Arab Muslim intellectuals of his time, Arkoun was involved in the sensitive task of re-interpreting and recasting the classical religious, legal, and philosophical traditions through a sophisticated hermeneutical system inspired by contemporary Western critical methodologies, a task that made him a controversial participant in the creation of a modern Arabo-Islamic critical discourse.
Arkoun was born on January 2, 1928, in the Berber village of Taourirt-Mimoun in Kabylia. From his modest beginnings as the son of a spice merchant, Arkoun went on to become a highly successful international scholar and thinker. He began Arabic studies in his native country and completed them in Paris. He was associated with the Sorbonne where he was the Professor of the History of Islamic Thought and was formerly Director of the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies there. He was also the editor in chief of the French scholarly journal Arabica for many years. Arkoun’s international visibility has brought lectures and visiting appointments at academic institutions worldwide, including the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. His adopted homeland appointed Arkoun Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur and Officier des Palmes Academiques.
What distinguished Arkoun from many other contemporary Arab and Muslim intellectuals was precisely what qualified him to be editor of Arabica – his serious training as a medievalist. Arkoun established himself as a foremost student of medieval Islamic thought with his work on the philosopher and thinker Miskawayh (d. 1030). He edited two treatises by Miskawayh and translated his Tahdhib al-akhlaq, a work whose close relationship to Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics compels anyone attempting to deal with the Arabic text to also grapple with Greek philosophy.
With this philosophical background combined with the resources of French criticism, Arkoun began his own intellectual crusade. His re-readings of the rich Islamic religious and legal traditions are an extension of this dual intellectual allegiance to the modern humanities and social sciences and to medieval studies. Arkoun also wrote widely on topics ranging from the twelfth-century Andalusian philosopher and physician Ibn Tufayl to Orientalism.
Arkoun’s Lectures du Coran was perhaps his most challenging and important work. The author pled eloquently and passionately for clear analytical distinctions in dealing with the Muslim holy book. According to Arkoun, too many levels of production of the sacred text are amalgated under the title of the Qur’an. There is the word of God, the Logos, of which the revelations of the three monotheistic religions are but fragments. There are also the Qur’anic discourse, the actual written text of the Qur’an, and the commentaries on this text. These distinctions permit a much more sophisticated reading of the scriptures.
Arkoun’s ideas did not go unchallenged by the intellectual leaders of the contemporary Islamist movement. An impassioned debate occurred between Arkoun and the Egyptian Shaykh Muhammad al-Ghazali in Algeria. Almost as quickly as the works of al-Ghazali became available to an international audience, so Arkoun’s works were re-edited in French in North Africa, translated into Arabic, and published in London. Arkoun’s impact on the contemporary Arab Muslim intellectual scene became increasingly important as the Islamist movement grew in strength. Arkoun defined the Islamic concept of the jihad al-nafs (personal jihad) as the work of the intellectual who feels a sense of solidarity with the society to which he belongs. This jihad al-nafs was Arkoun’s mission.
Arkoun was decorated as an Officer of the French Légion d'honneur in July 1996. In 2001, Professor Arkoun was asked to deliver the Gifford Lectures, which enable a notable scholar to contribute to the advancement of theological and philosophical thought and was announced as the recipient of the Seventeenth Georgio Levi Della Vida Award for his lifelong contribution to the field of Islamic Studies.
Mohammed Arkoun see Arkoun, Mohammed
Armed Islamic Group
Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Arme) (GIA). Having initiated terrorist activities in 1992 following Algiers’ refusal to accept a democratically elected Islamist government, the GIA has conducted multiple mass killings of civilians and assassinations of Algerian leaders. While present in areas such as Yemen, the GIA reportedly does not target the United States directly. However, it is possible that GIA splinter movements or personnel may become involved in anti-United States action.
The Armed Islamic Group (GIA, al-Jama'ah al-Islamiyah al-Musallaha, from French Groupe Islamique Armé) was a Muslim organization that sought to overthrow the Algerian government and replace it with an Islamic state. The GIA adopted violent tactics in 1992 after the military government voided the victory of the Islamic Salvation Front, the largest Islamic opposition party, in the first round of legislative elections held in December 1991. During their 1994 hijack of Air France Flight 8969 the GIA announced "We are the Soldiers of Mercy".
Between 1992 and 1998 the GIA conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres, sometimes wiping out entire villages in its area of operation. After announcing its campaign against foreigners living in Algeria in 1993, the GIA killed more than 100 expatriate men and women in the country. The group used assassinations and bombings, including car bombs, and it was known to favor kidnapping victims and slitting their throats. The GIA was considered a terrorist organisation by the governments of Algeria, France and the United States. Outside of Algeria, the GIA established a presence in France, Belgium, Britain, Italy and the United States.
Early in 1992, Mansour Meliani, with many "Afghans", broke with his former friend Abdelkader Heresay and left the MIA (Islamic Armed Movement), founding the first Armed Islamic Group (GIA) around July 1992. This group dispersed after his arrest that month, but the idea was revived in January 1993 by Abdelhak Layada, who declared his group independent of Heresay and not obedient to his orders. This group became particularly prominent around Algiers and its suburbs, in urban environments. It adopted the radical Omar El-Eulmi as a spiritual guide, affirming that "political pluralism is equivalent to sedition" It was far less selective than the MIA, which insisted on ideological training; as a result, it was regularly infiltrated by the security forces, resulting in a rapid leadership turnover as successive heads were killed. It explicitly affirmed that it "did not represent the armed wing of the FIS", and issued death threats against several FIS and MIA members, including MIA's Heresay and FIS's Kebir and Redjam.
From its inception on, the GIA called for and implemented the killing of anyone collaborating with or supporting the authorities, including government employees such as teachers and civil servants. It named and assassinated specific journalists and intellectuals (such as Tahar Djaout), saying that "The journalists who fight against Islamism through the pen will perish by the sword.". It soon broadened its attacks to civilians who refused to live by their prohibitions, and in later 1993 began killing foreigners.
Under Cherif Gousmi (its leader since March), the GIA became the most high-profile guerrilla army in 1994. In May, FIS suffered an apparent blow as Abderrezak Redjam, Mohammed Said, the exiled Anwar Haddam, and the MEI's Said Makhloufi joined the GIA; since the GIA had been issuing death threats against them since November 1993, this came as a surprise to many observers, who interpreted it either as the result of intra-FIS competition or as an attempt to change the GIA's course from within. On August 26, it declared a "Caliphate", or Islamic government for Algeria, with Gousmi as Commander of the Faithful, Mohammed Said as head of government, the US-based Haddam as foreign minister, and Mekhloufi as provisional interior minister. However, the very next day Said Mekhloufi announced his withdrawal from the GIA, claiming that the GIA had deviated from Islam and that this "Caliphate" was an effort by Mohammed Said to take over the GIA, and Haddam soon afterwards denied ever having joined it, asserting that this Caliphate was an invention of the security services. The GIA continued attacking its usual targets, notably assassinating artists, such as Cheb Hasni, and in late August added a new one to its list, threatening schools which allowed mixed classes, music, gym for girls, or not wearing hijab with arson.
Cherif Gousmi was eventually succeeded by Djamel Zitouni as GIA head. Zitouni extended the GIA's attacks on civilians to French soil, beginning with the hijacking of Air France Flight 8969 at the end of December 1994 and continuing with several bombings and attempted bombings throughout 1995. In Algeria itself, he continued likewise, with car bombs, assassinations of musicians, sportsmen, and unveiled women as well as the usual victims. Even at this stage, the seemingly counterproductive nature of many of its attacks led to speculation (encouraged by FIS members abroad) that the group had been infiltrated by Algerian secret services. The region south of Algiers, in particular, came to be virtually dominated by the GIA. The area was initially called the "liberated zone" but later it would be known as the "triangle of death". During this period, the GIA worked out ever broader ideological justifications for killing civilians, with the help of fatwas from such figures as Abu Qatada.
Reports of battles between the AIS and GIA increased (resulting in an estimated 60 deaths in March 1995 alone), and the GIA reiterated its death threats against FIS and AIS leaders, claiming to be the "sole prosecutor of jihad" and angered by their negotiation attempts. On July 11, a co-founder of FIS, Abdelbaki Sahraoui, was assassinated in Paris.
During the 1995 election, the GIA threatened to kill anyone who voted (using the slogan "one vote, one bullet".) Soon afterwards, the GIA was shaken by internal dissension. Shortly after the election, its leadership killed the FIS leaders who had joined the GIA - Mohammed Saïd, Abderrezak Redjam, and their supporters, accusing them of attempting a takeover. Other Islamists suggested that they had objected to the GIA's indiscriminate violence. This purge accelerated the disintegration of the GIA, leading to suspicion of Zitouni's leadership: Mustapha Kartali, Ali Benhadjar, and Hassan Hattab's factions all refused to recognize Zitouni's leadership starting around late 1995, although they would not formally break away until somewhat later. The GIA killed the AIS leader for central Algeria, Azzedine Baa, in December, and in January pledged to fight the AIS as an enemy; particularly in the west.
In July 1996, GIA leader Djamel Zitouni was killed by one of the breakaway factions - Ali Benhadjar's Medea brigade, later to become the AIS-aligned Islamic League for Da'wa and Jihad - and was succeeded by Antar Zouabri. Djamel Zitouni had earned notoriety for such acts as the killing of the seven Monks of Tibhirine in March, but his successor would prove to be far bloodier.
In Algeria, the GIA's repeated massacres of civilians had drained popular support (although rumors persist that security forces were involved in some of the massacres, or even controlled the group). Meanwhile, a 1999 amnesty law that was officially rejected by the GIA was accepted by many rank-and-file Islamist fighters; an estimated 85 percent surrendered their arms and returned to civilian life.
Under the leadership of Antar Zouabri, its longest serving "emir" (1996-2002), the GIA became a "takfiri" group, considering Algerian society to be in violation of Islamic precepts, therefore justifying the killing of members of that society as a form of purification of heretical elements. Like some of his predecessors, Zouabri was himself killed in a gun battle with security forces, in February 2002. The group's leadership next passed on to Rachid Abou Tourab, who was allegedly killed by close aides in July 2004. Next, Boulenouar Oukil was designated leader of the group. On April 7, the GIA killed 14 civilians at a fake road block. On April 29, Oukil was arrested. Nourredine Boudiafi was the last known leader of the GIA. He was arrested sometime in November of 2004 and the Algerian government announced his arrest in early January 2005. According to the Algerian government, "almost all" of the GIA is now "broken up."
GIA see Armed Islamic Group
Groupe Islamique Arme see Armed Islamic Group
Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Arme) (GIA). Having initiated terrorist activities in 1992 following Algiers’ refusal to accept a democratically elected Islamist government, the GIA has conducted multiple mass killings of civilians and assassinations of Algerian leaders. While present in areas such as Yemen, the GIA reportedly does not target the United States directly. However, it is possible that GIA splinter movements or personnel may become involved in anti-United States action.
The Armed Islamic Group (GIA, al-Jama'ah al-Islamiyah al-Musallaha, from French Groupe Islamique Armé) was a Muslim organization that sought to overthrow the Algerian government and replace it with an Islamic state. The GIA adopted violent tactics in 1992 after the military government voided the victory of the Islamic Salvation Front, the largest Islamic opposition party, in the first round of legislative elections held in December 1991. During their 1994 hijack of Air France Flight 8969 the GIA announced "We are the Soldiers of Mercy".
Between 1992 and 1998 the GIA conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres, sometimes wiping out entire villages in its area of operation. After announcing its campaign against foreigners living in Algeria in 1993, the GIA killed more than 100 expatriate men and women in the country. The group used assassinations and bombings, including car bombs, and it was known to favor kidnapping victims and slitting their throats. The GIA was considered a terrorist organisation by the governments of Algeria, France and the United States. Outside of Algeria, the GIA established a presence in France, Belgium, Britain, Italy and the United States.
Early in 1992, Mansour Meliani, with many "Afghans", broke with his former friend Abdelkader Heresay and left the MIA (Islamic Armed Movement), founding the first Armed Islamic Group (GIA) around July 1992. This group dispersed after his arrest that month, but the idea was revived in January 1993 by Abdelhak Layada, who declared his group independent of Heresay and not obedient to his orders. This group became particularly prominent around Algiers and its suburbs, in urban environments. It adopted the radical Omar El-Eulmi as a spiritual guide, affirming that "political pluralism is equivalent to sedition" It was far less selective than the MIA, which insisted on ideological training; as a result, it was regularly infiltrated by the security forces, resulting in a rapid leadership turnover as successive heads were killed. It explicitly affirmed that it "did not represent the armed wing of the FIS", and issued death threats against several FIS and MIA members, including MIA's Heresay and FIS's Kebir and Redjam.
From its inception on, the GIA called for and implemented the killing of anyone collaborating with or supporting the authorities, including government employees such as teachers and civil servants. It named and assassinated specific journalists and intellectuals (such as Tahar Djaout), saying that "The journalists who fight against Islamism through the pen will perish by the sword.". It soon broadened its attacks to civilians who refused to live by their prohibitions, and in later 1993 began killing foreigners.
Under Cherif Gousmi (its leader since March), the GIA became the most high-profile guerrilla army in 1994. In May, FIS suffered an apparent blow as Abderrezak Redjam, Mohammed Said, the exiled Anwar Haddam, and the MEI's Said Makhloufi joined the GIA; since the GIA had been issuing death threats against them since November 1993, this came as a surprise to many observers, who interpreted it either as the result of intra-FIS competition or as an attempt to change the GIA's course from within. On August 26, it declared a "Caliphate", or Islamic government for Algeria, with Gousmi as Commander of the Faithful, Mohammed Said as head of government, the US-based Haddam as foreign minister, and Mekhloufi as provisional interior minister. However, the very next day Said Mekhloufi announced his withdrawal from the GIA, claiming that the GIA had deviated from Islam and that this "Caliphate" was an effort by Mohammed Said to take over the GIA, and Haddam soon afterwards denied ever having joined it, asserting that this Caliphate was an invention of the security services. The GIA continued attacking its usual targets, notably assassinating artists, such as Cheb Hasni, and in late August added a new one to its list, threatening schools which allowed mixed classes, music, gym for girls, or not wearing hijab with arson.
Cherif Gousmi was eventually succeeded by Djamel Zitouni as GIA head. Zitouni extended the GIA's attacks on civilians to French soil, beginning with the hijacking of Air France Flight 8969 at the end of December 1994 and continuing with several bombings and attempted bombings throughout 1995. In Algeria itself, he continued likewise, with car bombs, assassinations of musicians, sportsmen, and unveiled women as well as the usual victims. Even at this stage, the seemingly counterproductive nature of many of its attacks led to speculation (encouraged by FIS members abroad) that the group had been infiltrated by Algerian secret services. The region south of Algiers, in particular, came to be virtually dominated by the GIA. The area was initially called the "liberated zone" but later it would be known as the "triangle of death". During this period, the GIA worked out ever broader ideological justifications for killing civilians, with the help of fatwas from such figures as Abu Qatada.
Reports of battles between the AIS and GIA increased (resulting in an estimated 60 deaths in March 1995 alone), and the GIA reiterated its death threats against FIS and AIS leaders, claiming to be the "sole prosecutor of jihad" and angered by their negotiation attempts. On July 11, a co-founder of FIS, Abdelbaki Sahraoui, was assassinated in Paris.
During the 1995 election, the GIA threatened to kill anyone who voted (using the slogan "one vote, one bullet".) Soon afterwards, the GIA was shaken by internal dissension. Shortly after the election, its leadership killed the FIS leaders who had joined the GIA - Mohammed Saïd, Abderrezak Redjam, and their supporters, accusing them of attempting a takeover. Other Islamists suggested that they had objected to the GIA's indiscriminate violence. This purge accelerated the disintegration of the GIA, leading to suspicion of Zitouni's leadership: Mustapha Kartali, Ali Benhadjar, and Hassan Hattab's factions all refused to recognize Zitouni's leadership starting around late 1995, although they would not formally break away until somewhat later. The GIA killed the AIS leader for central Algeria, Azzedine Baa, in December, and in January pledged to fight the AIS as an enemy; particularly in the west.
In July 1996, GIA leader Djamel Zitouni was killed by one of the breakaway factions - Ali Benhadjar's Medea brigade, later to become the AIS-aligned Islamic League for Da'wa and Jihad - and was succeeded by Antar Zouabri. Djamel Zitouni had earned notoriety for such acts as the killing of the seven Monks of Tibhirine in March, but his successor would prove to be far bloodier.
In Algeria, the GIA's repeated massacres of civilians had drained popular support (although rumors persist that security forces were involved in some of the massacres, or even controlled the group). Meanwhile, a 1999 amnesty law that was officially rejected by the GIA was accepted by many rank-and-file Islamist fighters; an estimated 85 percent surrendered their arms and returned to civilian life.
Under the leadership of Antar Zouabri, its longest serving "emir" (1996-2002), the GIA became a "takfiri" group, considering Algerian society to be in violation of Islamic precepts, therefore justifying the killing of members of that society as a form of purification of heretical elements. Like some of his predecessors, Zouabri was himself killed in a gun battle with security forces, in February 2002. The group's leadership next passed on to Rachid Abou Tourab, who was allegedly killed by close aides in July 2004. Next, Boulenouar Oukil was designated leader of the group. On April 7, the GIA killed 14 civilians at a fake road block. On April 29, Oukil was arrested. Nourredine Boudiafi was the last known leader of the GIA. He was arrested sometime in November of 2004 and the Algerian government announced his arrest in early January 2005. According to the Algerian government, "almost all" of the GIA is now "broken up."
GIA see Armed Islamic Group
Groupe Islamique Arme see Armed Islamic Group
Arme Islamique du Salut
Arme Islamique du Salut (AIS). An Algerian political group. AIS was a militant subdivision of the Front Islamique du Salut (FIS). However, it should not be confused with the far more active and brutal Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Arme -- GIA). The AIS was organized in 1993 because of a conflict between the FIS and the GIA. After the formation of the AIS, the GIA escalated its terrorist activities. In 1995, both the AIS and the FIS claimed that they did not participate in any killings of innocent foreigners or Algerian civilians. Thus, officially, the AIS took no credit for killing foreigners, innocent civilians, journalists, women and children. It, theoretically, limited its killing to representatives of the Algerian government.
AIS see Arme Islamique du Salut
Arme Islamique du Salut (AIS). An Algerian political group. AIS was a militant subdivision of the Front Islamique du Salut (FIS). However, it should not be confused with the far more active and brutal Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Arme -- GIA). The AIS was organized in 1993 because of a conflict between the FIS and the GIA. After the formation of the AIS, the GIA escalated its terrorist activities. In 1995, both the AIS and the FIS claimed that they did not participate in any killings of innocent foreigners or Algerian civilians. Thus, officially, the AIS took no credit for killing foreigners, innocent civilians, journalists, women and children. It, theoretically, limited its killing to representatives of the Algerian government.
AIS see Arme Islamique du Salut
Armenian Catholics
Armenian Catholics. Members of the Armenian Catholic Church, a semi-independent Christian church that is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Eastern Rite Church. The Armenian Catholic Church has members in Southwest Asia and adherents scattered throughout the world, but mainly living in Armenia, the United States and France.
In Lebanon, the center for the Armenian Catholics is in Beirut, but the church is spread all over the central parts of the country. In Syria, the majority lives in Aleppo. In Iraq, they are centered in Baghdad. The Iranian center is in Esfahan.
The Armenian Catholic Church has retained its identity. This identity is distinct from the Roman Catholic Church, and the liturgy is performed in Classical Armenian. Today, the leader of the church, the Patriarch of the Catholic Armenians and Katholikos of Cilicia resides in Beirut, Lebanon. There are three archdioceses: Aleppo (Syria), Baghdad (Iraq) and Istanbul (Turkey). There are also three dioceses: Alexandria (Egypt), Esfahan (Iran) and Qamishle (Syria).
The early history of the Armenian Catholic Church is linked with that of the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, beginning in the twelfth century of the Christian calendar the histories began to diverge.
In the twelfth century, some of the Armenians were reported to be Catholics. They formed the kingdom of Little Armenia in Cilicia. In 1375, Little Armenia collapsed, and for about 350 years there were few if any Armenian Catholics.
In 1742, Abraham Artzivian, who was a Catholic, was elected patriarch of Sis. He formed the Armenian Catholic Church and became the Bishop of Aleppo.
In 1911, the Armenian Catholic Church was divided into nineteen dioceses.
From 1915 to 1918, the Armenian people suffered from the heavy persecution (some say genocide) which was perpetrated against them by the Ottoman Empire. Some one million Armenians died. During these times, many dioceses disappeared. Many adherents left for Europe and the United States.
In 1932, the head of the Catholic Church, now called the Patriarch of the Catholic Armenians and Katholikos of Cilicia, moved to Beirut.
After the Armenian Apostolic Church, along with the rest of Oriental Orthodoxy, formally broke off communion from the Chalcedonian churches, numerous Armenian bishops made attempts to restore communion with the Catholic Church (Rome). In 1195 during the Crusades, the church of the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia entered into a union with the Catholic Church which lasted until Cilicia was conquered by the Mamluks in 1375. The union was later re-established during the Council of Florence in 1439, but did not have any real effects for centuries.
In 1740, Abraham-Pierre I Ardzivian, who had earlier become a Catholic, was elected as the patriarch of Sis. Two years later Pope Benedict XIV formally established the Armenian Catholic Church. The headquarters of the patriarchate was later moved to Antelias, north of Beirut. In 1749, the Armenian Catholic Church built a convent in Bzoummar, Lebanon. During the horrific Armenian genocide in 1915–1918 the Church scattered among neighboring countries, mainly Lebanon and Syria.
The Armenian Catholic Church can also refer to the church formed by Armenians living in Poland in 1620 after the union of Leopolis by Mikołaj (Nicholas) Torosowicz, which has since established bonds with the older Armenian Catholic Church. The church which had been historically centered in Galicia as well as in the pre-1939 Polish borderlands in the east, now has two primary centers; one in Gdansk, and the other in Gliwice. A number of its members migrated to Sweden, which holds its own chapter.
Armenian Catholic Church see Armenian Catholics.
Armenian Catholics. Members of the Armenian Catholic Church, a semi-independent Christian church that is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Eastern Rite Church. The Armenian Catholic Church has members in Southwest Asia and adherents scattered throughout the world, but mainly living in Armenia, the United States and France.
In Lebanon, the center for the Armenian Catholics is in Beirut, but the church is spread all over the central parts of the country. In Syria, the majority lives in Aleppo. In Iraq, they are centered in Baghdad. The Iranian center is in Esfahan.
The Armenian Catholic Church has retained its identity. This identity is distinct from the Roman Catholic Church, and the liturgy is performed in Classical Armenian. Today, the leader of the church, the Patriarch of the Catholic Armenians and Katholikos of Cilicia resides in Beirut, Lebanon. There are three archdioceses: Aleppo (Syria), Baghdad (Iraq) and Istanbul (Turkey). There are also three dioceses: Alexandria (Egypt), Esfahan (Iran) and Qamishle (Syria).
The early history of the Armenian Catholic Church is linked with that of the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, beginning in the twelfth century of the Christian calendar the histories began to diverge.
In the twelfth century, some of the Armenians were reported to be Catholics. They formed the kingdom of Little Armenia in Cilicia. In 1375, Little Armenia collapsed, and for about 350 years there were few if any Armenian Catholics.
In 1742, Abraham Artzivian, who was a Catholic, was elected patriarch of Sis. He formed the Armenian Catholic Church and became the Bishop of Aleppo.
In 1911, the Armenian Catholic Church was divided into nineteen dioceses.
From 1915 to 1918, the Armenian people suffered from the heavy persecution (some say genocide) which was perpetrated against them by the Ottoman Empire. Some one million Armenians died. During these times, many dioceses disappeared. Many adherents left for Europe and the United States.
In 1932, the head of the Catholic Church, now called the Patriarch of the Catholic Armenians and Katholikos of Cilicia, moved to Beirut.
After the Armenian Apostolic Church, along with the rest of Oriental Orthodoxy, formally broke off communion from the Chalcedonian churches, numerous Armenian bishops made attempts to restore communion with the Catholic Church (Rome). In 1195 during the Crusades, the church of the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia entered into a union with the Catholic Church which lasted until Cilicia was conquered by the Mamluks in 1375. The union was later re-established during the Council of Florence in 1439, but did not have any real effects for centuries.
In 1740, Abraham-Pierre I Ardzivian, who had earlier become a Catholic, was elected as the patriarch of Sis. Two years later Pope Benedict XIV formally established the Armenian Catholic Church. The headquarters of the patriarchate was later moved to Antelias, north of Beirut. In 1749, the Armenian Catholic Church built a convent in Bzoummar, Lebanon. During the horrific Armenian genocide in 1915–1918 the Church scattered among neighboring countries, mainly Lebanon and Syria.
The Armenian Catholic Church can also refer to the church formed by Armenians living in Poland in 1620 after the union of Leopolis by Mikołaj (Nicholas) Torosowicz, which has since established bonds with the older Armenian Catholic Church. The church which had been historically centered in Galicia as well as in the pre-1939 Polish borderlands in the east, now has two primary centers; one in Gdansk, and the other in Gliwice. A number of its members migrated to Sweden, which holds its own chapter.
Armenian Catholic Church see Armenian Catholics.
Armenian Christians
Armenian Christians. Members of the Armenian Orthodox Church, a Christian sect with members in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Turkey, Iraq and Kuwait. However, approximately sixty-five percent live in Western countries like the United States.
In Lebanon, Armenian Orthodox Christians live in central parts of the country. In Iraq, they mainly live in Baghdad. In Israel, most live in Jerusalem. In Palestine, the Armenian Orthodox adherents live in Bethlehem and Ramallah. The Armenian Orthodox Church is also called the Armenian Apostolic Church. This name is based upon the belief that Armenia was Christianized by the two Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus.
The Armenian Orthodox Church has one of the oldest traditions in the Christian world. But it has not developed in a vacuum, there have been close contacts with the Syrian church, from which the Armenian Church has received scriptures, liturgy and much of its theology. The organization of the Armenian Orthodox Church is unusually complex. This is the result of much internal tension, where opposing groups often founded new institutions and positions.
Today, the highest position is the Katholikos, a sort of archbishop. There are two Katholikos, the supreme in Echmiadzin, Armenia, and the Katholikos of the Middle East, located in Antelias, Lebanon. Then there are two patriarchs, one in Istanbul, Turkey and one in Jerusalem, Israel/Palestine. While the Katholikos of Echmiadzin is officially the head of the church, many believers support the Katholikos in Antelias.
A brief history of the Armenian Orthodox Church reads as follows:
Around 300 of the Christian calendar, Christianity became the state religion of Armenia, when the King of Armenia was converted by Gregory the Illuminator. Gregory had his headquarters in Echmiadzin (in modern day Armenia).
In the fourth century of the Christian calendar, the Armenian Orthodox Church broke from the Eastern Orthodox Church. At this time, the Armenian Church maintained close ties with the Syrian church. The Armenian church even used the Syriac alphabet.
In the fifth century, an Armenian alphabet was invented. During this time, many scriptures were translated into Armenian. In 485, the headquarters of the Armenian Orthodox Church were moved to Dvin.
Around 500 of the Christian calendar, the Armenian Church rejected the conclusion of the Council of Chalcedon (arrived at in 451) which defined Jesus as having two natures, divine and human, co-existing in one body. However, in 506, the Church did finally adopt the Monophysite doctrine.
During the seventh century, the Georgian branch of the Armenian Orthodox Church broke away from the Armenian Church and joined the Greek Orthodox Church. The Armenian Church continued to cooperate with the Coptic Church and the Syrian Jacobite churches.
In 1293, the headquarters of the Armenian Orthodox Church were moved to Sis (now Kozan, Turkey).
In the fourteenth century, the patriarchate of Jerusalem was founded by local Christians. In 1441, the headquarters of the church moved to Echmiadzin. There a new institution was established, the “Katholicos of all Armenians.”
In 1461, the patriarchate of Constantinople (now Istanbul) was created by sultan Mehmed II, in order to have a leader of Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire, so that it would be easier to govern his Armenian subjects.
In 1742, a part of the Armenian Orthodox Church broke away to form the Armenian Catholic Church.
From 1915 to 1918, the Armenians suffered from heavy persecution from the Ottoman regime, where about 1 million were killed.
In 1930, the Katholikos of Sis moved to Antelias in Lebanon, as a way of seeking refuge from possible future oppression from Muslim rulers.
The Armenian Apostolic Church is the world's oldest National Church and is one of the most ancient Christian communities. Armenia was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion in 301 C.C., in establishing this church. The Armenian Apostolic Church traces its origins to the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus in the 1st century.
The official name of the Church is the One Holy Universal Apostolic Orthodox Armenian Church. It is sometimes referred to as the Gregorian Church, but the latter name is not preferred by the Church, as it views the Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus as the founders, and St. Gregory the Illuminator as merely the first official head of the Church.
Various legends tie the origin of the Armenian Church to the Apostles. Though these stories are considered historically questionable by modern scholars, Christianity must have reached Armenia at an early date as persecutions against Christians in 110, 230, and 287 were recorded by outside writers Eusebius and Tertullian.
The Kingdom of Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion when St. Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III and members of his court, an event traditionally dated to 301, though now believed by most scholars to have occurred somewhat later, but by 314. Gregory, trained and ordained in Christianity at Caesarea returned to his native land to preach about 287, the same time that Tiridates III took the throne. Tiridates owed his position to the Roman Emperor Diocletian, a noted persecutor of Christianity. In addition, he became aware that Gregory was a son of Anak, the man who assassinated his father. Consequently Tiridates imprisoned Gregory in an underground pit, called Khor Virap, for 13 years. In 301, 37 Christian virgins, fleeing Roman persecution, came to Armenia. Tiridates desired one of them, Rhipsime, to be his wife, but she turned him down. In a rage, he martyred the whole group of them. Soon afterward, according to legend, God struck him with an illness that left him crawling around like a beast. (The story is reminiscent of Nebudchadnezzar in Daniel 4.) Xosroviduxt, the king’s sister, had a dream in which she was told that the persecution of Christians must stop. She related this to Tiridates, who released Gregory from prison. Gregory then healed Tiridates and converted him to Christianity. Tiridates immediately declared Armenia to be a Christian nation, becoming the first official Christian state.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated. Upon his return, Gregory tore down idol centers, built churches and monasteries, and ordained hundreds of priests and bishops. While meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ coming down to the earth to strike it with a hammer. From the spot rose a great Christian temple with a huge cross. He was convinced that God wanted him to build the main Armenian church there. With the king's help, he did so, along the lines of what he saw in the vision at the spot he saw the hammer strike. He renamed the city Etchmiadzin which means "the place of the descent of the only-begotten".
Initially the Armenian church participated in the larger church world. Its Catholicos was represented at the First Council of Nicea and the First Council of Constantinople. Although he could not attend the Council of Ephesus, the Catholicos Isaac Parthiev sent a message agreeing with its decisions. The Armenian Church began to retreat from the larger church world in 373 when King Pap appointed Catholicos Yusik without first sending him to Caesarea for commissioning.
Christianity was strengthened in Armenia by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the Armenian theologian, monk, and scholar St. Mesrob Mashtots. Prior to the fifth century, Armenians had their own spoken language, but it was not written. The Bible and liturgy were in Greek. The Catholicos Sahak commissioned Mesrob to create an Armenian alphabet, which he completed in 406. Subsequently the Bible and liturgy were translated into Armenian and written down in its new script. The translation of the Bible, along with the translation of other works of history, literature and philosophy, caused a flowering of Armenian literature and a broader cultural renaissance.
Unlike the Bible used in other Eastern Churches, the Armenian Bible originally had 39 books in the Old Testament. What are commonly called the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books were not translated until the 8th century and not read in the churches until the 12th century.
Historically, the Armenian Church has been referred to as monophysite by both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theologians because it (as well as all Oriental Orthodox Churches) rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, which condemned the belief of one incarnate nature of Christ (monophysis). The Armenian Church officially severed ties with Rome and Constantinople in 554, during the second Council of Dvin where the dyophysite formula of the Council of Chalcedon was rejected due to its acceptance by Nestorians.
However, the Armenian Orthodox Church argues that this is an incorrect description of its position[citation needed], as it considers Monophysitism, as taught by Eutyches and condemned at Chalcedon, a heresy and only disagrees with the formula defined by the Council of Chalcedon. The Armenian Church instead adheres to the doctrine defined by Cyril of Alexandria, considered as a saint by the Chalcedonian Churches as well, who described Christ as being of one incarnate nature, where both divine and human nature are united (miaphysis). To distinguish this from Eutychian and other versions of Monophysitism this position is called miaphysitism. Whereas the prefix "mono" refers to a singular one, the prefix "mia" refers to a compound one.
In recent times, both Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian churches have developed a deeper understanding for each other's positions, recognizing their substantial agreement while maintaining their respective theological language. Hence, the "Monophysite" label is avoided when describing the Oriental Orthodox belief of the Armenian Church regarding the Nature of Christ.
Armenian Orthodox Church see Armenian Christians.
Armenian Apostolic Church see Armenian Christians.
One Holy Universal Apostolic Orthodox Armenian Church see Armenian Christians.
Gregorian Church see Armenian Christians.
Armenian Christians. Members of the Armenian Orthodox Church, a Christian sect with members in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Turkey, Iraq and Kuwait. However, approximately sixty-five percent live in Western countries like the United States.
In Lebanon, Armenian Orthodox Christians live in central parts of the country. In Iraq, they mainly live in Baghdad. In Israel, most live in Jerusalem. In Palestine, the Armenian Orthodox adherents live in Bethlehem and Ramallah. The Armenian Orthodox Church is also called the Armenian Apostolic Church. This name is based upon the belief that Armenia was Christianized by the two Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus.
The Armenian Orthodox Church has one of the oldest traditions in the Christian world. But it has not developed in a vacuum, there have been close contacts with the Syrian church, from which the Armenian Church has received scriptures, liturgy and much of its theology. The organization of the Armenian Orthodox Church is unusually complex. This is the result of much internal tension, where opposing groups often founded new institutions and positions.
Today, the highest position is the Katholikos, a sort of archbishop. There are two Katholikos, the supreme in Echmiadzin, Armenia, and the Katholikos of the Middle East, located in Antelias, Lebanon. Then there are two patriarchs, one in Istanbul, Turkey and one in Jerusalem, Israel/Palestine. While the Katholikos of Echmiadzin is officially the head of the church, many believers support the Katholikos in Antelias.
A brief history of the Armenian Orthodox Church reads as follows:
Around 300 of the Christian calendar, Christianity became the state religion of Armenia, when the King of Armenia was converted by Gregory the Illuminator. Gregory had his headquarters in Echmiadzin (in modern day Armenia).
In the fourth century of the Christian calendar, the Armenian Orthodox Church broke from the Eastern Orthodox Church. At this time, the Armenian Church maintained close ties with the Syrian church. The Armenian church even used the Syriac alphabet.
In the fifth century, an Armenian alphabet was invented. During this time, many scriptures were translated into Armenian. In 485, the headquarters of the Armenian Orthodox Church were moved to Dvin.
Around 500 of the Christian calendar, the Armenian Church rejected the conclusion of the Council of Chalcedon (arrived at in 451) which defined Jesus as having two natures, divine and human, co-existing in one body. However, in 506, the Church did finally adopt the Monophysite doctrine.
During the seventh century, the Georgian branch of the Armenian Orthodox Church broke away from the Armenian Church and joined the Greek Orthodox Church. The Armenian Church continued to cooperate with the Coptic Church and the Syrian Jacobite churches.
In 1293, the headquarters of the Armenian Orthodox Church were moved to Sis (now Kozan, Turkey).
In the fourteenth century, the patriarchate of Jerusalem was founded by local Christians. In 1441, the headquarters of the church moved to Echmiadzin. There a new institution was established, the “Katholicos of all Armenians.”
In 1461, the patriarchate of Constantinople (now Istanbul) was created by sultan Mehmed II, in order to have a leader of Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire, so that it would be easier to govern his Armenian subjects.
In 1742, a part of the Armenian Orthodox Church broke away to form the Armenian Catholic Church.
From 1915 to 1918, the Armenians suffered from heavy persecution from the Ottoman regime, where about 1 million were killed.
In 1930, the Katholikos of Sis moved to Antelias in Lebanon, as a way of seeking refuge from possible future oppression from Muslim rulers.
The Armenian Apostolic Church is the world's oldest National Church and is one of the most ancient Christian communities. Armenia was the first country to adopt Christianity as its official religion in 301 C.C., in establishing this church. The Armenian Apostolic Church traces its origins to the missions of Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus in the 1st century.
The official name of the Church is the One Holy Universal Apostolic Orthodox Armenian Church. It is sometimes referred to as the Gregorian Church, but the latter name is not preferred by the Church, as it views the Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus as the founders, and St. Gregory the Illuminator as merely the first official head of the Church.
Various legends tie the origin of the Armenian Church to the Apostles. Though these stories are considered historically questionable by modern scholars, Christianity must have reached Armenia at an early date as persecutions against Christians in 110, 230, and 287 were recorded by outside writers Eusebius and Tertullian.
The Kingdom of Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion when St. Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III and members of his court, an event traditionally dated to 301, though now believed by most scholars to have occurred somewhat later, but by 314. Gregory, trained and ordained in Christianity at Caesarea returned to his native land to preach about 287, the same time that Tiridates III took the throne. Tiridates owed his position to the Roman Emperor Diocletian, a noted persecutor of Christianity. In addition, he became aware that Gregory was a son of Anak, the man who assassinated his father. Consequently Tiridates imprisoned Gregory in an underground pit, called Khor Virap, for 13 years. In 301, 37 Christian virgins, fleeing Roman persecution, came to Armenia. Tiridates desired one of them, Rhipsime, to be his wife, but she turned him down. In a rage, he martyred the whole group of them. Soon afterward, according to legend, God struck him with an illness that left him crawling around like a beast. (The story is reminiscent of Nebudchadnezzar in Daniel 4.) Xosroviduxt, the king’s sister, had a dream in which she was told that the persecution of Christians must stop. She related this to Tiridates, who released Gregory from prison. Gregory then healed Tiridates and converted him to Christianity. Tiridates immediately declared Armenia to be a Christian nation, becoming the first official Christian state.
Tiridates declared Gregory to be the first Catholicos of the church and sent him to Caesarea to be consecrated. Upon his return, Gregory tore down idol centers, built churches and monasteries, and ordained hundreds of priests and bishops. While meditating in the old capital city of Vagharshapat, Gregory had a vision of Christ coming down to the earth to strike it with a hammer. From the spot rose a great Christian temple with a huge cross. He was convinced that God wanted him to build the main Armenian church there. With the king's help, he did so, along the lines of what he saw in the vision at the spot he saw the hammer strike. He renamed the city Etchmiadzin which means "the place of the descent of the only-begotten".
Initially the Armenian church participated in the larger church world. Its Catholicos was represented at the First Council of Nicea and the First Council of Constantinople. Although he could not attend the Council of Ephesus, the Catholicos Isaac Parthiev sent a message agreeing with its decisions. The Armenian Church began to retreat from the larger church world in 373 when King Pap appointed Catholicos Yusik without first sending him to Caesarea for commissioning.
Christianity was strengthened in Armenia by the translation of the Bible into the Armenian language by the Armenian theologian, monk, and scholar St. Mesrob Mashtots. Prior to the fifth century, Armenians had their own spoken language, but it was not written. The Bible and liturgy were in Greek. The Catholicos Sahak commissioned Mesrob to create an Armenian alphabet, which he completed in 406. Subsequently the Bible and liturgy were translated into Armenian and written down in its new script. The translation of the Bible, along with the translation of other works of history, literature and philosophy, caused a flowering of Armenian literature and a broader cultural renaissance.
Unlike the Bible used in other Eastern Churches, the Armenian Bible originally had 39 books in the Old Testament. What are commonly called the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books were not translated until the 8th century and not read in the churches until the 12th century.
Historically, the Armenian Church has been referred to as monophysite by both Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theologians because it (as well as all Oriental Orthodox Churches) rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, which condemned the belief of one incarnate nature of Christ (monophysis). The Armenian Church officially severed ties with Rome and Constantinople in 554, during the second Council of Dvin where the dyophysite formula of the Council of Chalcedon was rejected due to its acceptance by Nestorians.
However, the Armenian Orthodox Church argues that this is an incorrect description of its position[citation needed], as it considers Monophysitism, as taught by Eutyches and condemned at Chalcedon, a heresy and only disagrees with the formula defined by the Council of Chalcedon. The Armenian Church instead adheres to the doctrine defined by Cyril of Alexandria, considered as a saint by the Chalcedonian Churches as well, who described Christ as being of one incarnate nature, where both divine and human nature are united (miaphysis). To distinguish this from Eutychian and other versions of Monophysitism this position is called miaphysitism. Whereas the prefix "mono" refers to a singular one, the prefix "mia" refers to a compound one.
In recent times, both Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian churches have developed a deeper understanding for each other's positions, recognizing their substantial agreement while maintaining their respective theological language. Hence, the "Monophysite" label is avoided when describing the Oriental Orthodox belief of the Armenian Church regarding the Nature of Christ.
Armenian Orthodox Church see Armenian Christians.
Armenian Apostolic Church see Armenian Christians.
One Holy Universal Apostolic Orthodox Armenian Church see Armenian Christians.
Gregorian Church see Armenian Christians.
Arruma
Arruma. Afro-Brazilian leader of the revolts of the Muslim Hausa slaves from 1807 to 1816. The revolts were centered around Bahia.
Arruma. Afro-Brazilian leader of the revolts of the Muslim Hausa slaves from 1807 to 1816. The revolts were centered around Bahia.
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