Khatami, Mohammed
Khatami, Mohammed (Mohammad Khatami) (Muḥammad Khātamī) (Seved Mohammad Khatami) (b. September 29/October 14, 1943, Ardakān, Iran). Iranian political leader, who was president of Iran (1997–2005). He served as the fifth President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005. He also served as Iran's Minister of Culture in both the 1980s and 1990s..
The son of a well-known religious teacher, Khatami studied at a traditional madrasah (religious school) in the holy city of Qom, where he later taught. However, he also received degrees in philosophy from Eṣfahān University and the University of Tehrān, both secular institutions, a somewhat unusual accomplishment for a member of Iran’s Shīʿite clergy. Khatami held the title hojatoleslām, signifying his position as a cleric, and, as a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, he wore a black turban.
During the 1960s and ’70s Khatami gained a reputation as an opponent of the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. In 1978 he was appointed head of the Islamic Center Hamburg in Germany, and after the 1979 Islamic revolution he was elected to the Majlis, the Iranian national assembly. Khatami held several positions in the Iranian government during the 1980s, including that of minister of culture and Islamic guidance, which he held again in the early 1990s before being forced to resign in 1992 amid allegations that he permitted too much un-Islamic sentiment. He then became the director of the National Library and served as an adviser to President Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani.
In the 1997 elections Khatami was one of four candidates to run for the presidency and was the most moderate on social issues. With strong support from the country’s youth, women, and intellectuals, he was elected by almost 70 percent of the vote. Some of the moderates he appointed to the cabinet were controversial but nonetheless were approved by Iran’s conservative Majlis. Tension between the president and conservatives grew, however, and, beginning in 1998, a number of key Khatami supporters were prosecuted and harassed as a result. He advocated increased contact with the United States, but his domestic opponents hindered rapprochement between the two countries. Khatami was re-elected in 2001 by an overwhelming majority of the vote. Constitutionally barred from a third consecutive term as president, he left office in 2005. In February 2009 he announced his candidacy in the presidential election set for later that year, although he reversed his decision the following month in order to strengthen the chances of Mir-Hossein Mousavi, a reformist candidate expected to have a better chance at victory.
During Khatami’s regime, Iran opened up to the West, and political, cultural and economical ties were improved. On home ground, Khatami eased religious sanctions on life styles and cultural activities and opened up Iranian society for more freedom of speech. Khatami was active in Islamic revolutionary work, and was, for many years, one of the active members of the revolutionary movement headed by Khomeini.
Khatami is known for his proposal of Dialogue Among Civilizations. The United Nations proclaimed the year 2001 as the United Nations' Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations, on Khatami's suggestion.
On October 2009, Mohammad Khatami along with Dariush Shayegan was awarded 2009 Global Dialogue Prize, one of the world’s largest awards for research in the humanities. The award is given biannually "for excellence in research and research communication on the conditions and content of a global intercultural dialogue on values".
Mohammad Khatami see Khatami, Mohammed
Muḥammad Khātamī see Khatami, Mohammed
Seved Mohammad Khatami see Khatami, Mohammed
Khatami, Mohammed (Mohammad Khatami) (Muḥammad Khātamī) (Seved Mohammad Khatami) (b. September 29/October 14, 1943, Ardakān, Iran). Iranian political leader, who was president of Iran (1997–2005). He served as the fifth President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005. He also served as Iran's Minister of Culture in both the 1980s and 1990s..
The son of a well-known religious teacher, Khatami studied at a traditional madrasah (religious school) in the holy city of Qom, where he later taught. However, he also received degrees in philosophy from Eṣfahān University and the University of Tehrān, both secular institutions, a somewhat unusual accomplishment for a member of Iran’s Shīʿite clergy. Khatami held the title hojatoleslām, signifying his position as a cleric, and, as a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, he wore a black turban.
During the 1960s and ’70s Khatami gained a reputation as an opponent of the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. In 1978 he was appointed head of the Islamic Center Hamburg in Germany, and after the 1979 Islamic revolution he was elected to the Majlis, the Iranian national assembly. Khatami held several positions in the Iranian government during the 1980s, including that of minister of culture and Islamic guidance, which he held again in the early 1990s before being forced to resign in 1992 amid allegations that he permitted too much un-Islamic sentiment. He then became the director of the National Library and served as an adviser to President Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani.
In the 1997 elections Khatami was one of four candidates to run for the presidency and was the most moderate on social issues. With strong support from the country’s youth, women, and intellectuals, he was elected by almost 70 percent of the vote. Some of the moderates he appointed to the cabinet were controversial but nonetheless were approved by Iran’s conservative Majlis. Tension between the president and conservatives grew, however, and, beginning in 1998, a number of key Khatami supporters were prosecuted and harassed as a result. He advocated increased contact with the United States, but his domestic opponents hindered rapprochement between the two countries. Khatami was re-elected in 2001 by an overwhelming majority of the vote. Constitutionally barred from a third consecutive term as president, he left office in 2005. In February 2009 he announced his candidacy in the presidential election set for later that year, although he reversed his decision the following month in order to strengthen the chances of Mir-Hossein Mousavi, a reformist candidate expected to have a better chance at victory.
During Khatami’s regime, Iran opened up to the West, and political, cultural and economical ties were improved. On home ground, Khatami eased religious sanctions on life styles and cultural activities and opened up Iranian society for more freedom of speech. Khatami was active in Islamic revolutionary work, and was, for many years, one of the active members of the revolutionary movement headed by Khomeini.
Khatami is known for his proposal of Dialogue Among Civilizations. The United Nations proclaimed the year 2001 as the United Nations' Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations, on Khatami's suggestion.
On October 2009, Mohammad Khatami along with Dariush Shayegan was awarded 2009 Global Dialogue Prize, one of the world’s largest awards for research in the humanities. The award is given biannually "for excellence in research and research communication on the conditions and content of a global intercultural dialogue on values".
Mohammad Khatami see Khatami, Mohammed
Muḥammad Khātamī see Khatami, Mohammed
Seved Mohammad Khatami see Khatami, Mohammed
Khath‘am
Khath‘am. An Arab tribe which inhabited the mountainous territory between al-Ta’if and Najran. They played a part in Abraha’s expedition against Mecca and, after initial hostility, recognized the Prophet’s mission.
Khath‘am. An Arab tribe which inhabited the mountainous territory between al-Ta’if and Najran. They played a part in Abraha’s expedition against Mecca and, after initial hostility, recognized the Prophet’s mission.
Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al- (Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al-Baghdadi) (Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn `Ali ibn Thabit ibn Ahmad ibn Mahdi al-Shafi`i) (May 10, 1002 - 1071). Biographer and critical systematizer of hadith methodology. His fame is based on his biographical encyclopedia of more than 7,800 scholars and other personalities connected with the cultural and political life of Baghdad.
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, or the lecturer from Baghdad, was a Sunni Muslim scholar and historian.
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi was born on May 10, 1002 in Hanikiya, a village south of Baghdad. He was the son of a preacher of Darzidjan and he began studying at an early age with his father and other shaykhs. Over time he studied other sciences but his primary interest was hadith. There is not a lot of information available about what he did while he was studying under his father. At the age of 20, his father died and he went to Basra to search for hadith. In 1024, he set out on a second journey to Nishapur and he collected more hadith in Rayy and Isfahan. It is unclear how long he traveled but his own accounts put him back in Baghdad in 1028. While he was an authority on hadith it was his preaching that gave him fame that would help him later in life. One biographer, Al-Dhahabi, says that teachers and preachers of tradition usually submitted what they had collected to Al-Baghdadi before they used them in their lectures or sermons.
Al-Baghdadi was born Hanbali but switched his view to Shafi'i because of theological opinions. This change in philosophy caused Imam Hanbal's followers to become disenchanted with him and there was a certain hostility between them and al-Baghdadi. Despite the problems that existed, al-Baghdadi had protection under Caliph Al-Qa'im and Ibn al-Muslima and, under that protection, he presented a lot of lectures on hadith in the Mansur Mosque. Al-Baghdadi used these opportunities to make malicious insinuations against Hanbal and his followers. Later generations would view this open attack as a form of legal and theological bias from the courts but that is uncertain as al-Baghdadi did not enter into situations with the courts until after a journey in search of hadith in 1053.
In 1059 Basasiri's rebellion was successful and he overthrew Ibn Muslima for control of Baghdad. This loss of protection caused al-Baghdadi to go to Damascus. He spent eight years lecturing in the Umayyad Mosque before some type of mishap took place. There is a controversy surrounding what that mishap was exactly. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, al-Dhahabi, as-Safadi, and Ibn Taghribirdi all contend that the mishap involved al-Baghdadi frequenting a youth which naturally caused a problem in Damascus. Sibt ibn al-Jawzi contends that the youth in question came along with al-Baghdadi from Baghdad. Yaqut goes on to explain that the story reached the ruler of Damascus who was Rafidi who, in turn, ordered his chief of police to kill al-Baghdadi. The police chief was a Sunni and he advised al-Baghdadi to gain the protection of Shari ibn Abi al-Hasan al-'Alawi. The reason, from what we know, that the police gave him the advice was because al-Baghdadi was an important person and killing him would lead to a retaliation against the Shi'i. Al-Baghdadi took the advice and fled to Sur, Lebanon. He stayed there for about a year before he returned to Baghdad where he died on September 5, 1071. He was buried next to Bishr al-Hafi.
Another major controversy associated with al-Baghdadi is the validity of his writings. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Taghribirdi believe that al-Baghdadi only finished the work of an author named as-Suri. While Yaqut contends that al-Baghdadi took the work from as-Suri's sister and claimed them as his own, Ibn Kathir believes that the works in question were borrowed from as-Suri's wife but he does not give an opinion as to the authenticity of them. Al-Baghdadi was also accused of being dishonest in relation to the hadiths by Ibn al-Jawzi.
The following is a short list of some of al-Baghdadi's works. Some accounts have him authoring over 80 titles.
* Ta'rikh Baghdad: The History of Baghdad
* al-Kifaya fi ma'rifat usul 'ilm al-riwaya: an early work dealing with Hadith terminology, which Ibn Hajar praised as influential in the field;
* al-Djami' li-akhlak al-rawi wa-adab al-sami
* Takyid al-'ilm: Questions whether putting traditions into writing is forbidden
* Sharaf ashab al-hadith: Centers around the significance of traditionalists;
* al-Sabik wa 'l-lahik: dealing with hadith narrators of a particular type;
* al-Mu'tanif fi takmilat al-Mu'talif wa 'l-mukhtalif: Correct spelling and pronunciation of names
* al-Muttafik wa 'l-muftarik
* Talkhis al-mutashabih fi 'l-rasm wa-himayat ma ashkala minhu min nawadir al-tashif wa 'l-wahm
* al-Asma' al-mubhama fi 'l-anba' al-muhkama: identifying unnamed individuals mentioned in hadith
* al-Rihla fi talab al-hadith
* Iktida' al-'ilm al-'amal
Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al-Baghdadi see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al- see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn `Ali ibn Thabit ibn Ahmad ibn Mahdi al-Shafi`i see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al- (Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al-Baghdadi) (Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn `Ali ibn Thabit ibn Ahmad ibn Mahdi al-Shafi`i) (May 10, 1002 - 1071). Biographer and critical systematizer of hadith methodology. His fame is based on his biographical encyclopedia of more than 7,800 scholars and other personalities connected with the cultural and political life of Baghdad.
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, or the lecturer from Baghdad, was a Sunni Muslim scholar and historian.
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi was born on May 10, 1002 in Hanikiya, a village south of Baghdad. He was the son of a preacher of Darzidjan and he began studying at an early age with his father and other shaykhs. Over time he studied other sciences but his primary interest was hadith. There is not a lot of information available about what he did while he was studying under his father. At the age of 20, his father died and he went to Basra to search for hadith. In 1024, he set out on a second journey to Nishapur and he collected more hadith in Rayy and Isfahan. It is unclear how long he traveled but his own accounts put him back in Baghdad in 1028. While he was an authority on hadith it was his preaching that gave him fame that would help him later in life. One biographer, Al-Dhahabi, says that teachers and preachers of tradition usually submitted what they had collected to Al-Baghdadi before they used them in their lectures or sermons.
Al-Baghdadi was born Hanbali but switched his view to Shafi'i because of theological opinions. This change in philosophy caused Imam Hanbal's followers to become disenchanted with him and there was a certain hostility between them and al-Baghdadi. Despite the problems that existed, al-Baghdadi had protection under Caliph Al-Qa'im and Ibn al-Muslima and, under that protection, he presented a lot of lectures on hadith in the Mansur Mosque. Al-Baghdadi used these opportunities to make malicious insinuations against Hanbal and his followers. Later generations would view this open attack as a form of legal and theological bias from the courts but that is uncertain as al-Baghdadi did not enter into situations with the courts until after a journey in search of hadith in 1053.
In 1059 Basasiri's rebellion was successful and he overthrew Ibn Muslima for control of Baghdad. This loss of protection caused al-Baghdadi to go to Damascus. He spent eight years lecturing in the Umayyad Mosque before some type of mishap took place. There is a controversy surrounding what that mishap was exactly. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, al-Dhahabi, as-Safadi, and Ibn Taghribirdi all contend that the mishap involved al-Baghdadi frequenting a youth which naturally caused a problem in Damascus. Sibt ibn al-Jawzi contends that the youth in question came along with al-Baghdadi from Baghdad. Yaqut goes on to explain that the story reached the ruler of Damascus who was Rafidi who, in turn, ordered his chief of police to kill al-Baghdadi. The police chief was a Sunni and he advised al-Baghdadi to gain the protection of Shari ibn Abi al-Hasan al-'Alawi. The reason, from what we know, that the police gave him the advice was because al-Baghdadi was an important person and killing him would lead to a retaliation against the Shi'i. Al-Baghdadi took the advice and fled to Sur, Lebanon. He stayed there for about a year before he returned to Baghdad where he died on September 5, 1071. He was buried next to Bishr al-Hafi.
Another major controversy associated with al-Baghdadi is the validity of his writings. Biographers Yaqut, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Taghribirdi believe that al-Baghdadi only finished the work of an author named as-Suri. While Yaqut contends that al-Baghdadi took the work from as-Suri's sister and claimed them as his own, Ibn Kathir believes that the works in question were borrowed from as-Suri's wife but he does not give an opinion as to the authenticity of them. Al-Baghdadi was also accused of being dishonest in relation to the hadiths by Ibn al-Jawzi.
The following is a short list of some of al-Baghdadi's works. Some accounts have him authoring over 80 titles.
* Ta'rikh Baghdad: The History of Baghdad
* al-Kifaya fi ma'rifat usul 'ilm al-riwaya: an early work dealing with Hadith terminology, which Ibn Hajar praised as influential in the field;
* al-Djami' li-akhlak al-rawi wa-adab al-sami
* Takyid al-'ilm: Questions whether putting traditions into writing is forbidden
* Sharaf ashab al-hadith: Centers around the significance of traditionalists;
* al-Sabik wa 'l-lahik: dealing with hadith narrators of a particular type;
* al-Mu'tanif fi takmilat al-Mu'talif wa 'l-mukhtalif: Correct spelling and pronunciation of names
* al-Muttafik wa 'l-muftarik
* Talkhis al-mutashabih fi 'l-rasm wa-himayat ma ashkala minhu min nawadir al-tashif wa 'l-wahm
* al-Asma' al-mubhama fi 'l-anba' al-muhkama: identifying unnamed individuals mentioned in hadith
* al-Rihla fi talab al-hadith
* Iktida' al-'ilm al-'amal
Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al-Baghdadi see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-Khatib al- see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn `Ali ibn Thabit ibn Ahmad ibn Mahdi al-Shafi`i see Khatib al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr Ahmad al-
Khatmiyah
Khatmiyah. Sufi order (tariqah) which was introduced into the Sudan in 1817 by its founder Muhammad ‘Uthman al-Mirghani. The founder’s family, the Mirghani, is thought to have come to Mecca from Central Asia and claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad. The founder was educated in Mecca as a pupil of the reformist teacher Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi (1760-1837) and was initiated into the Qadiriyah, Shadhiliyah, Naqshbandiyah, Junaydiyah, and Mirghaniyah Sufi orders. He asserted that the Khatmiyah was the “seal” (khatm) of all Sufi orders, whose secret (sirr) became the prerogative of the Mirghani family. Al-Hasan (1819-1869), the founder’s son, whose mother was Sudanese, was responsible for the spread of the order in the Sudan and for the founding of the Khatmiyah town in Kasala province, which became an important seat of the order. The Khatmiyah spread its influence among the river communities of northern Sudan and the nomadic and settled peoples of eastern Sudan. Some followers are also found in Eritrea, Egypt, and western Sudan.
The Khatmiyah prescribes devotion and quiet contemplation of al-nur al-Muhammadiyah (the light of the prophet Muhammad), as well as the performance of a twice weekly ritual in which the mawlid, the poetic biography of the prophet Muhammad written by Muhammad ‘Uthman, is recited. The mawlid is performed on various secular and religious occasions to give spiritual rejuvenation and reaffirm belief. Recitation of litanies (award) written by the founder and some of his descendants is also recommended. The Khatmiyah Youth organization brings young men into the order, but its influence has declined with the spread of secular education. Urban dwellers maintain affiliation, and educated members are especially active politically. Allegiance to the Khatmiyah cuts across tribal and geographic boundaries, bringing together its followers through a loosely organized religio-political structure.
Under Turco-Egyptian rule (1820/21-1885) the Khatmiyah assumed the role of intermediary between its followers and the authorities. During the establishment of the Mahdist state (1885-1898), the Khatmiyah refused to join the Mahdists, and the order’s head went to Egypt. With the collapse of the Mahdist state in 1898, the Khatmiyah regained its prominence during the Anglo-Egyptian condominium (1898-1956). Its religious status remained unchanged, and it joined other political forces – including those of its rival, the Mahdiyah (commonly known as the Ansar) – in the years before Sudan’s independence. Recognizing the cultural and religious diversity of Sudan, it saw the necessity for such political dialogue.
‘Ali al-Mirghani (1878-1968), the great-grandson of the founder, played an important role in the nationalist movement for independence. Under his leadership, the Khatmiyah’s political wing, the People’s Democratic Party, was formed in 1958. He later agreed to its merger in 1967 with the National Unionist Party, and the combined forces came to be known as the Democratic Unionist Party. ‘Ali’s son Muhammad ‘Uthman (b. 1936), the head of the order in the early 1990s, took a more direct political role, and his brother Ahmad (b. 1941) accepted the chairmanship of the Council of State in 1986. This overt political activity aroused some criticism.
Since independence the Khatmiyah has played an important role in government, either in coalition, sometimes with Ansar, or in opposition. Successive military regimes (1958-1964, 1969-1985, and since 1989) have tried to weaken its political influence, but with limited success. The failure of military rule and the one-party system strengthened the position of the Khatmiyah. Muhammad ‘Uthman was praised for concluding an agreement with the leadership of the Sudan People’s Liberartion Army in Addis Ababa in 1988 in an attempt to resolve the civil war in southern Sudan. However, this came too late to prevent a military coup in 1989.
Khatmiyah. Sufi order (tariqah) which was introduced into the Sudan in 1817 by its founder Muhammad ‘Uthman al-Mirghani. The founder’s family, the Mirghani, is thought to have come to Mecca from Central Asia and claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad. The founder was educated in Mecca as a pupil of the reformist teacher Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi (1760-1837) and was initiated into the Qadiriyah, Shadhiliyah, Naqshbandiyah, Junaydiyah, and Mirghaniyah Sufi orders. He asserted that the Khatmiyah was the “seal” (khatm) of all Sufi orders, whose secret (sirr) became the prerogative of the Mirghani family. Al-Hasan (1819-1869), the founder’s son, whose mother was Sudanese, was responsible for the spread of the order in the Sudan and for the founding of the Khatmiyah town in Kasala province, which became an important seat of the order. The Khatmiyah spread its influence among the river communities of northern Sudan and the nomadic and settled peoples of eastern Sudan. Some followers are also found in Eritrea, Egypt, and western Sudan.
The Khatmiyah prescribes devotion and quiet contemplation of al-nur al-Muhammadiyah (the light of the prophet Muhammad), as well as the performance of a twice weekly ritual in which the mawlid, the poetic biography of the prophet Muhammad written by Muhammad ‘Uthman, is recited. The mawlid is performed on various secular and religious occasions to give spiritual rejuvenation and reaffirm belief. Recitation of litanies (award) written by the founder and some of his descendants is also recommended. The Khatmiyah Youth organization brings young men into the order, but its influence has declined with the spread of secular education. Urban dwellers maintain affiliation, and educated members are especially active politically. Allegiance to the Khatmiyah cuts across tribal and geographic boundaries, bringing together its followers through a loosely organized religio-political structure.
Under Turco-Egyptian rule (1820/21-1885) the Khatmiyah assumed the role of intermediary between its followers and the authorities. During the establishment of the Mahdist state (1885-1898), the Khatmiyah refused to join the Mahdists, and the order’s head went to Egypt. With the collapse of the Mahdist state in 1898, the Khatmiyah regained its prominence during the Anglo-Egyptian condominium (1898-1956). Its religious status remained unchanged, and it joined other political forces – including those of its rival, the Mahdiyah (commonly known as the Ansar) – in the years before Sudan’s independence. Recognizing the cultural and religious diversity of Sudan, it saw the necessity for such political dialogue.
‘Ali al-Mirghani (1878-1968), the great-grandson of the founder, played an important role in the nationalist movement for independence. Under his leadership, the Khatmiyah’s political wing, the People’s Democratic Party, was formed in 1958. He later agreed to its merger in 1967 with the National Unionist Party, and the combined forces came to be known as the Democratic Unionist Party. ‘Ali’s son Muhammad ‘Uthman (b. 1936), the head of the order in the early 1990s, took a more direct political role, and his brother Ahmad (b. 1941) accepted the chairmanship of the Council of State in 1986. This overt political activity aroused some criticism.
Since independence the Khatmiyah has played an important role in government, either in coalition, sometimes with Ansar, or in opposition. Successive military regimes (1958-1964, 1969-1985, and since 1989) have tried to weaken its political influence, but with limited success. The failure of military rule and the one-party system strengthened the position of the Khatmiyah. Muhammad ‘Uthman was praised for concluding an agreement with the leadership of the Sudan People’s Liberartion Army in Addis Ababa in 1988 in an attempt to resolve the civil war in southern Sudan. However, this came too late to prevent a military coup in 1989.
Khattabiyya
Khattabiyya. Extremist Shi‘a sect in Kufa, founded by Abu’l-Khattab al-Asadi.
Khattabiyya. Extremist Shi‘a sect in Kufa, founded by Abu’l-Khattab al-Asadi.
Khattala, Ahmed Abu
Ahmed Abu Khattala (born c. 1971) was a Islamist militia commander in Libya, a commander of Ansar al-Sharia militia. He is suspected of participating in the 2012 Benghazi attack on the American diplomatic mission at Benghazi, in which the American Ambassador and three other Americans were killed. In a December 2013 investigation of the attack, the New York Times described Abu Khattala as a central figure. However, Abu Khattala denied killing the Americans or being part of the attack.
Abu Khattala spent most of his adult life in Abu Salim prison in Tripoli, jailed by the Qaddafi government for his Islamist views. During the 2011 uprising against Qaddafi in Libya, he formed his own militia of perhaps two dozen fighters, naming it Obeida Ibn Al Jarra for an early Islamic general. He later became involved in Ansar al-Shariah, a group of as many as 200 militants who, had broken away from the other militias in 2012 in protest of those militia's support for parliamentary elections in Libya. Abu Khattala opposed American involvement in Libya and in interviews with the New York Times stated that “the enmity between the American government and the peoples of the world is an old case.” In regards to the role of the air campaign of NATO that overthrew Colonel Qaddafi, he believed that if NATO had not intervened, “God would have helped us.” He also claimed that, “We know the United States was working with both sides” and considering “splitting up" Libya.
Witnesses of the September 11, 2012 attack on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi say they saw Abu Khattala leading the attack. On August 6, 2013, United States officials confirmed that Abu Khattala had been charged with playing a significant role in the attack.
On the weekend of June 14 to June 15, 2014, U.S. Special Forces captured Abu Khattala in a covert mission in Libya. Khattala is one of the suspected leaders of the 2012 Benghazi attack.
Khawarij
Khawarij. See Kharijites.
Kharijites see Khawarij.
Khawarij. See Kharijites.
Kharijites see Khawarij.
Khawlani, Abu Idris al-
Khawlani, Abu Idris al- (Abu Idris al-Khawlani) (629-699). Muslim of the first generation after the Prophet’s time, judge and transmitter of hadith.
Abu Idris al-Khawlani see Khawlani, Abu Idris al-
Khawlani, Abu Idris al- (Abu Idris al-Khawlani) (629-699). Muslim of the first generation after the Prophet’s time, judge and transmitter of hadith.
Abu Idris al-Khawlani see Khawlani, Abu Idris al-
Khawlani, Abu Muslim al-
Khawlani, Abu Muslim al- (Abu Muslim al-Khawlani) (d. 684). Muslim of the first generation after the Prophet’s time, famous for his asceticism. He was a prominent religious figure in Damascus, Syria, and he was one of the Eight Ascetics.
Abu Muslim Al-Khawlani was a well known tabi'i and a very prominent religious figure in Damascus, Syria. He was one of the 'Eight Ascetics,' who included (usual list) Amir ibn Abd al-Qays, Abu Muslim al-Khawlani, Uways al-Qarani, Al-Rabi ibn Khuthaym, al-Aswad ibn Yazid, Masruq ibn al-Ajda', Sufyan al-Thawrt ibn Said and Hasan al-Basri.
Abu Muslim al-Khawlani see Khawlani, Abu Muslim al-
Khawlani, Abu Muslim al- (Abu Muslim al-Khawlani) (d. 684). Muslim of the first generation after the Prophet’s time, famous for his asceticism. He was a prominent religious figure in Damascus, Syria, and he was one of the Eight Ascetics.
Abu Muslim Al-Khawlani was a well known tabi'i and a very prominent religious figure in Damascus, Syria. He was one of the 'Eight Ascetics,' who included (usual list) Amir ibn Abd al-Qays, Abu Muslim al-Khawlani, Uways al-Qarani, Al-Rabi ibn Khuthaym, al-Aswad ibn Yazid, Masruq ibn al-Ajda', Sufyan al-Thawrt ibn Said and Hasan al-Basri.
Abu Muslim al-Khawlani see Khawlani, Abu Muslim al-
Khayr al-Din
Khayr al-Din (Khidr Pasha) (Barbarossa) (Hayreddin Barbarossa) (Redbeard) (Yakupoglu Hizir) (c. 1478- July 4, 1546). Turkish corsair and Grand Admiral. In his fight against the Spanish, he sought help from the Ottoman sultan, whose suzerainty over Algeria was recognized in 1520. From the island of the Jerba, he ravaged the coasts of the western Mediterranean, and in 1529, took the island of Penon facing Algiers and still in the hands of the Spanish. In 1534, he conquered Tunis, from where he was driven away by Charles V in 1535. In 1537, the fleet which had been put together by the Emperor, the Pope and Venice, under the command of Andrea Doria, retreated after some skirmishing with Khayr al-Din’s fleet. His mausoleum in Istanbul was built by the architect Sinan.
Barbarossa was a Barbary pirate and later admiral of the Ottoman fleet, by whose initiative Algeria and Tunisia became part of the Ottoman Empire. For three centuries after his death, Mediterranean coastal towns and villages were ravaged by his pirate successors.
Khayr al-Din was one of four sons of a Turk from the island of Lesbos. Hatred of the Spanish and Portuguese who attacked North Africa between 1505 and 1511 encouraged Khiḍr and his brother ʿArūj to intensify their piracy. They hoped, with the aid of Turks and Muslim emigrants from Spain, to wrest an African domain for themselves and had begun to succeed in this design when ʿArūj was killed by the Spanish in 1518. Khiḍr, who had been his brother’s lieutenant, then assumed the title Khayr ad-Dīn. Fearing he would lose his possessions to the Spanish, he offered homage to the Ottoman sultan and in return was granted the title beylerbey and sent military reinforcements (1518). With this aid Khayr ad-Dīn was able to capture Algiers in 1529 and make it the great stronghold of Mediterranean piracy. In 1533, he was appointed admiral in chief of the Ottoman Empire, and the next year he conquered the whole of Tunisia for the Turks, Tunis itself becoming the base of piracy against the Italian coast. The Holy Roman emperor Charles V led a crusade that captured Tunis and Goletta in 1535, but Barbarossa defeated Charles V’s fleet at the Battle of Preveza (1538), thereby securing the eastern Mediterranean for
the Turks (until their defeat at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571). Barbarossa remained one of the great figures of the court at Istanbul until his death.
Khidr Pasha see Khayr al-Din
Barbarossa see Khayr al-Din
Din, Khayr al- see Khayr al-Din
Hayreddin Barbarossa see Khayr al-Din
Redbeard see Khayr al-Din
Yakupoglu Hizir see Khayr al-Din
Khidr Pasha see Khayr al-Din
Barbarossa see Khayr al-Din
Din, Khayr al- see Khayr al-Din
Hayreddin Barbarossa see Khayr al-Din
Redbeard see Khayr al-Din
Yakupoglu Hizir see Khayr al-Din
Khayr al-Din
Khayr al-Din (Ustad Isa) ("Master Isa") ("Master Jesus"). Ottoman architect, popularly considered as the founder of Turkish architecture during the sixteenth century. He built complexes of religious and educational buildings in Amasya, Edirne and Istanbul. He may also have participated in the construction of the Taj Mahal.
Ustad Isa see Khayr al-Din
Isa, Ustad see Khayr al-Din
Din, Khayr al- see Khayr al-Din
Master Isa see Khayr al-Din
Master Jesus see Khayr al-Din
Khayr al-Din (Ustad Isa) ("Master Isa") ("Master Jesus"). Ottoman architect, popularly considered as the founder of Turkish architecture during the sixteenth century. He built complexes of religious and educational buildings in Amasya, Edirne and Istanbul. He may also have participated in the construction of the Taj Mahal.
Ustad Isa see Khayr al-Din
Isa, Ustad see Khayr al-Din
Din, Khayr al- see Khayr al-Din
Master Isa see Khayr al-Din
Master Jesus see Khayr al-Din
Khayr al-Din Pasha
Khayr al-Din Pasha (1822-1890). Prime minister of Tunisia (1873 - 1877) and grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1878 - 1879). Tunisian and Ottoman statesman from the Caucasian tribe of the Abkhaz. In 1839, he went to Tunis and became, in 1857, Minister of the Navy. He was a vigorous proponent of the modernization of the Tunisian political system and a firm supporter of close links between the Tunisian Bey’s official suzerain, the Ottoman sultan, and Tunis. He was made Grand Vizier in 1878 but was dismissed in 1879.
Khayr al-Din, a Circassian from the Caucasus Mountains, was sold as a slave in Istanbul at a young age. He was then resold to an agent of the bey of Tunis. As a teenager he arrived as a Mameluke at the court of Ahmad Bey. After receiving an education at the military school established by Ahmad Bey, Khayr al-Din rose through the military ranks to cavalry commander (fariq). He spent the years 1853 - 1857 in Paris arguing Tunisia's position against Mahmud ibn Ayad, who had defrauded the government of millions of dinars. Under Ahmad Bey's successor, Muhammad Bey, Khayr al-Din served as minister of marine (wazir al-bahr) from 1857 to 1859. He later presided over the Majlis al-Akbar (Great Council), a parliamentary body established in 1860.
In conflict with Prime Minister Mustafa Khaznader (his father-in-law), whose ruinous policy of incurring foreign loans was just beginning, Khayr al-Din resigned in 1862 and spent the next seven years in Europe. In response to his European experience, and in hopes of reforming the political system in Tunisia, he wrote The Surest Path to Knowledge Concerning the Condition of Countries (1868). In it, he discussed the economic superiority of the West and offered a practical guide for improving the political system in Tunisia. He saw the ulama as the key guarantors of the political system who would ensure that the shura ideal of Islam would be upheld, and urged them to fulfill this role.
Khayr al-Din returned to Tunisia in 1869 in order to preside over the International Debt Commission. In his new political capacity, he conspired to discredit and replace Khaznader as prime minister. Faced with mounting pressures from foreign consuls and the disastrous state of Tunisia's finances, the bey retired Khaznader in 1873 and made Khayr al-Din prime minister. As prime minister, Khayr al-Din had to contend with the machinations of foreign consuls (particularly those of France, Britain, and Italy), the press campaign of his father-in-law to discredit him, his Mameluke rivals, and the economic downturn of the mid-1870s. Furthermore, he had lost faith in the pact of security of 1857 and the constitution of 1861. He realized that these liberal reforms were merely camouflage behind which Khaznader had been able to hide his ambition to become the wealthiest and most powerful member of the bey's government, and that they had been implemented to enhance foreign influence in Tunisia. Having witnessed firsthand Europe's aggressive intentions toward Africa, as well as the machinations of the foreign consuls in Tunis, Khayr al-Din had come to perceive that Europe was the paramount threat to Tunisia's existence and that the reincorporation of Tunisia into the Ottoman Empire was perhaps the country's one hope to avoid being occupied.
Khayr al-Din's disillusionment with constitutionalism led him to conclude that reforms should be directed to a wise elite in cooperation with an enlightened ulama. These two groups could limit the arbitrariness of absolutist rule and implement principles of justice and freedom according to the shariʿa (Islamic religious law). He then advocated a selective incorporation of those elements of Western civilization compatible with Islam. His final goal was the implementation of the Islamic concept of maslaha (the public good).
To help him introduce his reforms, Khayr al-Din appointed his Circassian and military school colleagues to positions of authority. He was also supported by Muhammad Bayram V, whom he appointed to direct the Hubus Administration, the government press, and al-Raʾid al-Tunisi, the official gazette of the government.
Khayr al-Din tackled administrative, financial, and tax reform, and ended the expensive mahalla military taxation expeditions against the tribes. To improve the country's economy, he expanded land under cultivation from 60,000 to 1 million hectares (132,000 - 2.2 million acres), reformed the customs system to protect Tunisia's handicraft and other industries, and launched public works projects such as paving the streets of Tunis. He founded Sadiqi College in 1875, and established a public library (al-Abdaliya). He briefly instituted a complaint box for citizens and sought to introduce a mixed judicial system to prevent foreign efforts to protect minorities in Tunisian courts. In his attempts to limit tyranny, he tried to persuade the bey to acquiesce to Ottoman claims of sovereignty and to restrictions on his arbitrary rule.
Khayr al-Din's efforts turned Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey against his reformist minister. Khayr al-Din's support of the Ottomans in the Russian - Turkish War of 1877 provided the bey with an excuse to dismiss him. Complicating his pro-Ottoman stance and loss of the bey's confidence were economic and financial difficulties, intrigues of foreign consuls and of the bey's favorite, Mustafa ibn Ismaʿil, and Khaznader's vilification campaign. All of these factors finally forced Khayr al-Din to resign on July 2, 1877. He went into self-imposed exile in Istanbul, where, because of his pro-Ottoman viewpoint, he was rewarded with a brief appointment as Ottoman grand vizier in 1878 and 1879. After his removal as grand vizier, Khayr al-Din retired to private life and spent his final years in Istanbul, where he died.
Khayr al-Din's legacy in Tunisia proved an inspiration for later reformers such as the Young Tunisians. Sadiqi College was the most enduring of his accomplishments. Young Tunisians and later Tunisian nationalists, including Habib Bourguiba, were educated there.
Khayr al-Din Pasha (1822-1890). Prime minister of Tunisia (1873 - 1877) and grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1878 - 1879). Tunisian and Ottoman statesman from the Caucasian tribe of the Abkhaz. In 1839, he went to Tunis and became, in 1857, Minister of the Navy. He was a vigorous proponent of the modernization of the Tunisian political system and a firm supporter of close links between the Tunisian Bey’s official suzerain, the Ottoman sultan, and Tunis. He was made Grand Vizier in 1878 but was dismissed in 1879.
Khayr al-Din, a Circassian from the Caucasus Mountains, was sold as a slave in Istanbul at a young age. He was then resold to an agent of the bey of Tunis. As a teenager he arrived as a Mameluke at the court of Ahmad Bey. After receiving an education at the military school established by Ahmad Bey, Khayr al-Din rose through the military ranks to cavalry commander (fariq). He spent the years 1853 - 1857 in Paris arguing Tunisia's position against Mahmud ibn Ayad, who had defrauded the government of millions of dinars. Under Ahmad Bey's successor, Muhammad Bey, Khayr al-Din served as minister of marine (wazir al-bahr) from 1857 to 1859. He later presided over the Majlis al-Akbar (Great Council), a parliamentary body established in 1860.
In conflict with Prime Minister Mustafa Khaznader (his father-in-law), whose ruinous policy of incurring foreign loans was just beginning, Khayr al-Din resigned in 1862 and spent the next seven years in Europe. In response to his European experience, and in hopes of reforming the political system in Tunisia, he wrote The Surest Path to Knowledge Concerning the Condition of Countries (1868). In it, he discussed the economic superiority of the West and offered a practical guide for improving the political system in Tunisia. He saw the ulama as the key guarantors of the political system who would ensure that the shura ideal of Islam would be upheld, and urged them to fulfill this role.
Khayr al-Din returned to Tunisia in 1869 in order to preside over the International Debt Commission. In his new political capacity, he conspired to discredit and replace Khaznader as prime minister. Faced with mounting pressures from foreign consuls and the disastrous state of Tunisia's finances, the bey retired Khaznader in 1873 and made Khayr al-Din prime minister. As prime minister, Khayr al-Din had to contend with the machinations of foreign consuls (particularly those of France, Britain, and Italy), the press campaign of his father-in-law to discredit him, his Mameluke rivals, and the economic downturn of the mid-1870s. Furthermore, he had lost faith in the pact of security of 1857 and the constitution of 1861. He realized that these liberal reforms were merely camouflage behind which Khaznader had been able to hide his ambition to become the wealthiest and most powerful member of the bey's government, and that they had been implemented to enhance foreign influence in Tunisia. Having witnessed firsthand Europe's aggressive intentions toward Africa, as well as the machinations of the foreign consuls in Tunis, Khayr al-Din had come to perceive that Europe was the paramount threat to Tunisia's existence and that the reincorporation of Tunisia into the Ottoman Empire was perhaps the country's one hope to avoid being occupied.
Khayr al-Din's disillusionment with constitutionalism led him to conclude that reforms should be directed to a wise elite in cooperation with an enlightened ulama. These two groups could limit the arbitrariness of absolutist rule and implement principles of justice and freedom according to the shariʿa (Islamic religious law). He then advocated a selective incorporation of those elements of Western civilization compatible with Islam. His final goal was the implementation of the Islamic concept of maslaha (the public good).
To help him introduce his reforms, Khayr al-Din appointed his Circassian and military school colleagues to positions of authority. He was also supported by Muhammad Bayram V, whom he appointed to direct the Hubus Administration, the government press, and al-Raʾid al-Tunisi, the official gazette of the government.
Khayr al-Din tackled administrative, financial, and tax reform, and ended the expensive mahalla military taxation expeditions against the tribes. To improve the country's economy, he expanded land under cultivation from 60,000 to 1 million hectares (132,000 - 2.2 million acres), reformed the customs system to protect Tunisia's handicraft and other industries, and launched public works projects such as paving the streets of Tunis. He founded Sadiqi College in 1875, and established a public library (al-Abdaliya). He briefly instituted a complaint box for citizens and sought to introduce a mixed judicial system to prevent foreign efforts to protect minorities in Tunisian courts. In his attempts to limit tyranny, he tried to persuade the bey to acquiesce to Ottoman claims of sovereignty and to restrictions on his arbitrary rule.
Khayr al-Din's efforts turned Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey against his reformist minister. Khayr al-Din's support of the Ottomans in the Russian - Turkish War of 1877 provided the bey with an excuse to dismiss him. Complicating his pro-Ottoman stance and loss of the bey's confidence were economic and financial difficulties, intrigues of foreign consuls and of the bey's favorite, Mustafa ibn Ismaʿil, and Khaznader's vilification campaign. All of these factors finally forced Khayr al-Din to resign on July 2, 1877. He went into self-imposed exile in Istanbul, where, because of his pro-Ottoman viewpoint, he was rewarded with a brief appointment as Ottoman grand vizier in 1878 and 1879. After his removal as grand vizier, Khayr al-Din retired to private life and spent his final years in Istanbul, where he died.
Khayr al-Din's legacy in Tunisia proved an inspiration for later reformers such as the Young Tunisians. Sadiqi College was the most enduring of his accomplishments. Young Tunisians and later Tunisian nationalists, including Habib Bourguiba, were educated there.
Khayyam, Omar
Khayyam, Omar (“Omar, the tentmaker") (Ghiyas od-Din Abol Fath Omar ibn Ebrahim Khayyam Neyshaburi) (born May 18, 1048, Neyshābūr [also spelled Nīshāpūr], Khorāsān [now Iran]—died December 4, 1131, Neyshapur, Iran) . One of the most elusive and important figures of Iranian cultural history. A prominent scholar and scientist from Nishapur, Khayyam was connected with the court of the Seljuk Malikshah and was appointed by the vizier Nizam al-Mulk to reform the calendar system. He is credited with the institution and refinement of the solar calendar and with a number of scientific works in Arabic. His works in algebra and geometry also gave him an elevated position during his own time.
In 1077, Khayyam issued an important work that solved problems with the mathematics of Euclid, problems mathematicians in Europe would not manage to solve until some 500 to 600 years later. From 1074 to 1079, Khayyam worked on a reform of the calendar system. The revised calendar would be used in Persia (Iran) until 1925.
Omar Khayyam's Ruba’iyyat (“quatrains”) enjoy a great status in the body of Persian poetry; over a thousand have been attributed to him, although in recent reliable editions they number between 140 (Hidayat) and 250 (Arberry). The authorship of this or any poetry at all by Khayyam is engulfed in an enduring controversy; so, too, is his philosophical orientation. The facts as well as the legendary accounts of Khayyam’s life, however, point to a highly gifted man well capable of producing the complex but brilliantly lucid quatrains. An inspired, if at times arbitrarily free, translation of the Ruba’iyyat (Rabayat) by Edward Fitzgerald (1859) introduced Khayyam to the West, creating an almost cultish interest in “Oriental” poetry.
Omar Khayyam was born in all likelihood in Nishapur, which was then a major city in the northeastern corner of Iran. At his birth, a new Turkish dynasty from Central Asia called the Seljuks was in the process of establishing control over the whole Iranian plateau. In 1055, when their leader, Toghril Beg (Toghril I), entered Baghdad, the Seljuks became masters of the Muslim caliphate and empire. Of Omar’s family and education, few specifics are known. His given name indicates that he was a Sunni Muslim, for his namesake was the famous second caliph under whose reign (634-644) the dramatic Islamic expansion throughout the Middle East and beyond had begun. The name Khayyam means “tentmaker,” possibly designating the occupation of his forbears. Omar received a good education, including study of Arabic, the Qur’an, the various religious sciences, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and literature.
At Toghril Beg’s death, his nephew Alp Arslan succeeded to the Seljuk throne, in part through the machinations of Nizam al-Mulk (1020-1092), another famous man from Nishapur, who was to serve the Seljuks for more than thirty years as a vizier. Alp Arslan, who ruled from 1063 to 1072, was succeeded by his son Malik Shah, who ruled until 1092.
During this period of rule, Omar Khayyam studied first in Nishapur, then in Balkh, a major eastern city in today’s Afghanistan. From there, he went farther northeast to Samarkand. There, under the patronage of the chief local magistrate, he wrote a treatise in Arabic on algebra, classifying types of cubic equations and presenting systematic solutions to them. Recognized by historians of science and mathematics as a significant study, it is the most important of Khayyam’s extant works (which comprise about ten short treatises). None of them, however, offers glimpses into Khayyam’s personality, except to affirm his importance as a mathematician and astronomer whose published views were politically and religiously orthodox.
From Samarkand, Omar Khayyam proceeded to Bukhara and was probably still in the royal court there when peace was concluded between the Qarakhanids and the Seljuks in 1073 and 1074. At this time, he presumably entered the service of Malik-Shah, who had become Seljuk sultan in 1072.
Two of Malik-Shah’s projects on which Khayyam presumably worked were the construction of an astronomy observatory in the Seljuk capital at Esfahan in 1074 and the reform of the Persian solar calendar. Called Maleki after the monarch, the new calendar proved more accurate than the Gregorian system created centuries later.
Khayyam was one of Malik-Shah’s favorite courtiers, but after the latter’s death Khayyam apparently never again held important positions under subsequent Seljuk rulers. In the mid-1090's, he made the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and then returned to private life and teaching in Nishapur. It is known that Khayyam was in Balkh in 1112 or 1113. Several years later, he was in Merv, where a Seljuk ruler had summoned him to forecast the weather for a hunting expedition. After 1118, the year of Sanjar’s accession, no record exists of anything Khayyam did. He died in his late seventies.
Some of the meager information available today regarding Khayyam was recorded by an admirer named Nizami ‘Aruzi (fl. 1110-1161) in a book called Chahar Maqala (c. 1155). Nizami tells of visiting Khayyam’s gravesite in 1135 or 1136. Surprisingly, given Khayyam’s reputation as a poet, the anecdotes regarding him appear in Nizami’s “Third Discourse: On Astrologers,” and no mention of him is made in the “Second Discourse: On Poets.” In other words, though in the the West Omar Khayyam is known for his poetry, no evidence in Persian suggests that he was a professional court poet or that he ever was more involved with poetry than through the occasional, perhaps extemporaneous, composition of quatrains (ruba‘i or roba‘i, plural rubaiyat. Because the quatrains first attributed to Khayyam are thematically of a piece and are distinct from panegyric, love, and Sufi quatrains, they can be usefully designated as “Khayyamic” even if authorship of many individual quatrains is impossible to determine definitively.
In the centuries following Khayyam’s death, increasing numbers of quatrains attributed to him appeared in manuscripts. Several of these manuscripts came to the attention of Edward FitzGerald (1809-1883), a serious student of Persian, who found them particularly appealing. His study of them inspired him to compose The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the first edition of which consisted of seventy-five quatrains and appeared in 1859. A second edition, expanded to 110 quatrains, appeared in 1868. The third edition in 1872 and the fourth in 1879 contained 101 quatrains, and the latter is the standard text. By FitzGerald’s death, Khayyam's work had begun to receive favorable critical attention, but its extraordinary fame, making it the single most popular poem of the Victorian Age, did not commence until later. A comparison of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam with the Khayyamic Persian quatrains which FitzGerald had read and studied reveals that the themes, tone, and imagery of his poem are very close to those in the Persian quatrains, but that FitzGerald’s poem is not a translation in any sense. It was the worldwide popularity of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam that drew scholarly attention to Khayyam as a poet, so that he now is recognized as a leading figure in the Persian literary pantheon, along with Firdausi (c. 940- c.1020), Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273), Sa’di (c.1200-c.1291), and Hafiz (c.1320-c.1390).
The Persian quatrains attributed to Omar Khayyam express the point of view of a rationalist intellectual who sees no reason to believe in a human soul or an afterlife. The speaker would like to live a springtime gardern life, but his continuing awareness of his own mortality and his inability to find answers in either science or religion lead him to a modified carpe diem stance: In this far-from-perfect world, in which human beings do not have a decent chance at happiness, one should nevertheless endeavor to make the best of things. Some slight consolation is offered in appreciating the fact that human beings have faced this situation from the beginning of time.
In the orthodox Seljuk age, Khayyamic quatrains constituted a bold, individualistic voicing of skepticism. Because literary Iranians throughout history have admired individualist and free spirits, Omar Khayyam has been mythologized into a figure quite different from what the known facts about his biography imply. For example, he was a hero and inspiration to Sadiq Hidayat, Iran’s most accliamed twentieth century author, in whose novel Buf-i kur (The Blind Owl -- 1941) are palpable Khayyamic echoes.
Regardless of the historical facts, the view of Hidayat and many others is that Khayyam bucked the tide of religious orthodoxy and dared to say what many secular-minded people believe: that religion, science, and government fail to give an adequate explanation of the mystery of the individual lives of human beings.
Omar, the tentmaker see Khayyam, Omar
Omar Khayyam see Khayyam, Omar
Ghiyas od-Din Abol Fath Omar ibn Ebrahim Khayyam Neyshaburi see Khayyam, Omar
Khayyam, Omar (“Omar, the tentmaker") (Ghiyas od-Din Abol Fath Omar ibn Ebrahim Khayyam Neyshaburi) (born May 18, 1048, Neyshābūr [also spelled Nīshāpūr], Khorāsān [now Iran]—died December 4, 1131, Neyshapur, Iran) . One of the most elusive and important figures of Iranian cultural history. A prominent scholar and scientist from Nishapur, Khayyam was connected with the court of the Seljuk Malikshah and was appointed by the vizier Nizam al-Mulk to reform the calendar system. He is credited with the institution and refinement of the solar calendar and with a number of scientific works in Arabic. His works in algebra and geometry also gave him an elevated position during his own time.
In 1077, Khayyam issued an important work that solved problems with the mathematics of Euclid, problems mathematicians in Europe would not manage to solve until some 500 to 600 years later. From 1074 to 1079, Khayyam worked on a reform of the calendar system. The revised calendar would be used in Persia (Iran) until 1925.
Omar Khayyam's Ruba’iyyat (“quatrains”) enjoy a great status in the body of Persian poetry; over a thousand have been attributed to him, although in recent reliable editions they number between 140 (Hidayat) and 250 (Arberry). The authorship of this or any poetry at all by Khayyam is engulfed in an enduring controversy; so, too, is his philosophical orientation. The facts as well as the legendary accounts of Khayyam’s life, however, point to a highly gifted man well capable of producing the complex but brilliantly lucid quatrains. An inspired, if at times arbitrarily free, translation of the Ruba’iyyat (Rabayat) by Edward Fitzgerald (1859) introduced Khayyam to the West, creating an almost cultish interest in “Oriental” poetry.
Omar Khayyam was born in all likelihood in Nishapur, which was then a major city in the northeastern corner of Iran. At his birth, a new Turkish dynasty from Central Asia called the Seljuks was in the process of establishing control over the whole Iranian plateau. In 1055, when their leader, Toghril Beg (Toghril I), entered Baghdad, the Seljuks became masters of the Muslim caliphate and empire. Of Omar’s family and education, few specifics are known. His given name indicates that he was a Sunni Muslim, for his namesake was the famous second caliph under whose reign (634-644) the dramatic Islamic expansion throughout the Middle East and beyond had begun. The name Khayyam means “tentmaker,” possibly designating the occupation of his forbears. Omar received a good education, including study of Arabic, the Qur’an, the various religious sciences, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and literature.
At Toghril Beg’s death, his nephew Alp Arslan succeeded to the Seljuk throne, in part through the machinations of Nizam al-Mulk (1020-1092), another famous man from Nishapur, who was to serve the Seljuks for more than thirty years as a vizier. Alp Arslan, who ruled from 1063 to 1072, was succeeded by his son Malik Shah, who ruled until 1092.
During this period of rule, Omar Khayyam studied first in Nishapur, then in Balkh, a major eastern city in today’s Afghanistan. From there, he went farther northeast to Samarkand. There, under the patronage of the chief local magistrate, he wrote a treatise in Arabic on algebra, classifying types of cubic equations and presenting systematic solutions to them. Recognized by historians of science and mathematics as a significant study, it is the most important of Khayyam’s extant works (which comprise about ten short treatises). None of them, however, offers glimpses into Khayyam’s personality, except to affirm his importance as a mathematician and astronomer whose published views were politically and religiously orthodox.
From Samarkand, Omar Khayyam proceeded to Bukhara and was probably still in the royal court there when peace was concluded between the Qarakhanids and the Seljuks in 1073 and 1074. At this time, he presumably entered the service of Malik-Shah, who had become Seljuk sultan in 1072.
Two of Malik-Shah’s projects on which Khayyam presumably worked were the construction of an astronomy observatory in the Seljuk capital at Esfahan in 1074 and the reform of the Persian solar calendar. Called Maleki after the monarch, the new calendar proved more accurate than the Gregorian system created centuries later.
Khayyam was one of Malik-Shah’s favorite courtiers, but after the latter’s death Khayyam apparently never again held important positions under subsequent Seljuk rulers. In the mid-1090's, he made the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and then returned to private life and teaching in Nishapur. It is known that Khayyam was in Balkh in 1112 or 1113. Several years later, he was in Merv, where a Seljuk ruler had summoned him to forecast the weather for a hunting expedition. After 1118, the year of Sanjar’s accession, no record exists of anything Khayyam did. He died in his late seventies.
Some of the meager information available today regarding Khayyam was recorded by an admirer named Nizami ‘Aruzi (fl. 1110-1161) in a book called Chahar Maqala (c. 1155). Nizami tells of visiting Khayyam’s gravesite in 1135 or 1136. Surprisingly, given Khayyam’s reputation as a poet, the anecdotes regarding him appear in Nizami’s “Third Discourse: On Astrologers,” and no mention of him is made in the “Second Discourse: On Poets.” In other words, though in the the West Omar Khayyam is known for his poetry, no evidence in Persian suggests that he was a professional court poet or that he ever was more involved with poetry than through the occasional, perhaps extemporaneous, composition of quatrains (ruba‘i or roba‘i, plural rubaiyat. Because the quatrains first attributed to Khayyam are thematically of a piece and are distinct from panegyric, love, and Sufi quatrains, they can be usefully designated as “Khayyamic” even if authorship of many individual quatrains is impossible to determine definitively.
In the centuries following Khayyam’s death, increasing numbers of quatrains attributed to him appeared in manuscripts. Several of these manuscripts came to the attention of Edward FitzGerald (1809-1883), a serious student of Persian, who found them particularly appealing. His study of them inspired him to compose The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the first edition of which consisted of seventy-five quatrains and appeared in 1859. A second edition, expanded to 110 quatrains, appeared in 1868. The third edition in 1872 and the fourth in 1879 contained 101 quatrains, and the latter is the standard text. By FitzGerald’s death, Khayyam's work had begun to receive favorable critical attention, but its extraordinary fame, making it the single most popular poem of the Victorian Age, did not commence until later. A comparison of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam with the Khayyamic Persian quatrains which FitzGerald had read and studied reveals that the themes, tone, and imagery of his poem are very close to those in the Persian quatrains, but that FitzGerald’s poem is not a translation in any sense. It was the worldwide popularity of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam that drew scholarly attention to Khayyam as a poet, so that he now is recognized as a leading figure in the Persian literary pantheon, along with Firdausi (c. 940- c.1020), Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273), Sa’di (c.1200-c.1291), and Hafiz (c.1320-c.1390).
The Persian quatrains attributed to Omar Khayyam express the point of view of a rationalist intellectual who sees no reason to believe in a human soul or an afterlife. The speaker would like to live a springtime gardern life, but his continuing awareness of his own mortality and his inability to find answers in either science or religion lead him to a modified carpe diem stance: In this far-from-perfect world, in which human beings do not have a decent chance at happiness, one should nevertheless endeavor to make the best of things. Some slight consolation is offered in appreciating the fact that human beings have faced this situation from the beginning of time.
In the orthodox Seljuk age, Khayyamic quatrains constituted a bold, individualistic voicing of skepticism. Because literary Iranians throughout history have admired individualist and free spirits, Omar Khayyam has been mythologized into a figure quite different from what the known facts about his biography imply. For example, he was a hero and inspiration to Sadiq Hidayat, Iran’s most accliamed twentieth century author, in whose novel Buf-i kur (The Blind Owl -- 1941) are palpable Khayyamic echoes.
Regardless of the historical facts, the view of Hidayat and many others is that Khayyam bucked the tide of religious orthodoxy and dared to say what many secular-minded people believe: that religion, science, and government fail to give an adequate explanation of the mystery of the individual lives of human beings.
Omar, the tentmaker see Khayyam, Omar
Omar Khayyam see Khayyam, Omar
Ghiyas od-Din Abol Fath Omar ibn Ebrahim Khayyam Neyshaburi see Khayyam, Omar
Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-
Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al- (Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-Khayyat). Arab astrologer, known in the West as Albohali.
Abu 'Ali Yahya al-Khayyat see Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-
Albohali see Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-
Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al- (Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-Khayyat). Arab astrologer, known in the West as Albohali.
Abu 'Ali Yahya al-Khayyat see Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-
Albohali see Khayyat, Abu ‘Ali Yahya al-
Khayyat, Abu’l-Husayn al-
Khayyat, Abu’l-Husayn al- (Abu’l-Husayn al-Khayyat) (c. 835-c.913). Theologian and jurist. He was a foremost representative of the Baghdad school of the Mu‘tazila.
Abu'l-Husayn al-Khayyat see Khayyat, Abu’l-Husayn al-
Khayyat, Abu’l-Husayn al- (Abu’l-Husayn al-Khayyat) (c. 835-c.913). Theologian and jurist. He was a foremost representative of the Baghdad school of the Mu‘tazila.
Abu'l-Husayn al-Khayyat see Khayyat, Abu’l-Husayn al-
Khayzuran bint ‘Ata’ al-Jurashiyya, al
Khayzuran bint ‘Ata’ al-Jurashiyya, al (Al-Khayzuran bint Atta) (d. c. 789). Former slave of Yemeni origin who came to be married to the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi, to whom she bore the future caliphs al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, the most famous of the 'Abbasids.
Al-Khayzuran was kidnapped from her home by a Bedouin who then sold her in a slave market near Mecca to al-Mahdi during his pilgrimage. .Later the caliph fell in love with her and married her. Al-Khayzuran was a woman of strong personality. She was able to persuade her husband to appoint her sons as the next caliphs over his sons by other wives. At the court, she was an ally of the Barmakids. She greatly influenced both of her sons and the affairs of the empire to the extent that her son al-Hadi attempted to have her killed by poisoning her. Al-Khayzuran was subsequently suspected of involvement in al-Hadi's death.
Al-Khayzuran and her personality is believed by many historians to be the inspiration for the literary heroine, Scheherezade of The Arabian Nights. Many of the stories that appear in The Arabian Nights were also inspired by the fabulous court of Harun al-Rashid, the son of al-Khayzuran.
Al-Khayzuran bint Atta was the wife of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mother of both Caliphs Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, the most famous of the Abbasids. She was from Jorash, Yemen.
Al-Khayzuran bint Atta see Khayzuran bint ‘Ata’ al-Jurashiyya, al
Khayzuran bint ‘Ata’ al-Jurashiyya, al (Al-Khayzuran bint Atta) (d. c. 789). Former slave of Yemeni origin who came to be married to the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi, to whom she bore the future caliphs al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, the most famous of the 'Abbasids.
Al-Khayzuran was kidnapped from her home by a Bedouin who then sold her in a slave market near Mecca to al-Mahdi during his pilgrimage. .Later the caliph fell in love with her and married her. Al-Khayzuran was a woman of strong personality. She was able to persuade her husband to appoint her sons as the next caliphs over his sons by other wives. At the court, she was an ally of the Barmakids. She greatly influenced both of her sons and the affairs of the empire to the extent that her son al-Hadi attempted to have her killed by poisoning her. Al-Khayzuran was subsequently suspected of involvement in al-Hadi's death.
Al-Khayzuran and her personality is believed by many historians to be the inspiration for the literary heroine, Scheherezade of The Arabian Nights. Many of the stories that appear in The Arabian Nights were also inspired by the fabulous court of Harun al-Rashid, the son of al-Khayzuran.
Al-Khayzuran bint Atta was the wife of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mother of both Caliphs Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, the most famous of the Abbasids. She was from Jorash, Yemen.
Al-Khayzuran bint Atta see Khayzuran bint ‘Ata’ al-Jurashiyya, al
Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan (Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan Khaz ‘al Khan) (Khaz'al Khan ibn Haji Jabir Khan) (Muaz us-Sultana) (Sardar-e-Aqdas -- "Most Sacred Officer of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas") (Khazal Khan) (August 18, 1863 - May 24/May 27, 1936). Shaykh of Muhammara, now Khurramshahr, in Iran. As leader of the Muhasayn tribe, he objected strongly against the proposal of the Persian government to introduce Belgian customs officials into ‘Arabistan. He received support from the British diplomatic mission in Tehran, but later lost it. His power was subsequently extinguished by Reza Khan (later Shah) Pahlavi.
Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan Khaz'al Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khaz'al Khan ibn Haji Jabir Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Muaz us-Sultana see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Sardar-e-Aqdas see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Most Sacred Officer of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khazal Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan (Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan Khaz ‘al Khan) (Khaz'al Khan ibn Haji Jabir Khan) (Muaz us-Sultana) (Sardar-e-Aqdas -- "Most Sacred Officer of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas") (Khazal Khan) (August 18, 1863 - May 24/May 27, 1936). Shaykh of Muhammara, now Khurramshahr, in Iran. As leader of the Muhasayn tribe, he objected strongly against the proposal of the Persian government to introduce Belgian customs officials into ‘Arabistan. He received support from the British diplomatic mission in Tehran, but later lost it. His power was subsequently extinguished by Reza Khan (later Shah) Pahlavi.
Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan Khaz'al Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khaz'al Khan ibn Haji Jabir Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Muaz us-Sultana see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Sardar-e-Aqdas see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Most Sacred Officer of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khazal Khan see Khaz ‘al Khan, Ibn Hajji Jabir Khan
Khazars
Khazars. Nomadic people in the South Russian steppes who flourished in the early Islamic period. Khazar also refers to a Turkic tribe north of the Caspian which converted to Judaism in the eighth century. The term khazar appears to be linked to a Turkic verb meaning "wandering."
In the seventh century of the Christian calendar, the Khazars founded an independent khanganate in the Northern Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. Although the Khazars were initially shamanists, many of them converted to Christianity, Islam, and other religions. During the eighth or ninth century, the state religion became Judaism.
Khazar, a member of a confederation of Turkic-speaking tribes that in the late 6th century of the Christian calendar established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia. Although the origin of the term Khazar and the early history of the Khazar people are obscure, it is fairly certain that the Khazars were originally located in the northern Caucasus region and were part of the western Turkic empire (in Turkistan). The Khazars were in contact with the Persians in the mid-6th century, and they aided the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (reigned 610–641) in his campaign against the Persians.
By the beginning of the 7th century, the Khazars had become independent of the Turkic empire to the east. But by the middle of that century, the expanding empire of the Arabs had penetrated as far northward as the northern Caucasus, and from then on until the mid-8th century the Khazars engaged in a series of wars with the Arab empire. The Arabs initially forced the Khazars to abandon Derbent (661), but around 685 the Khazars counterattacked, penetrating southward of the Caucasus into present-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Khazars and Arabs fought each other directly in Armenia in the 720s, and, though victory passed repeatedly from one side to the other, Arab counterattacks eventually compelled the Khazars to permanently withdraw north of the Caucasus. The Khazars’ initial victories were important, though, since they had the effect of permanently blocking Arab expansion northward into eastern Europe. Having been compelled to shift the center of their empire northward, the Khazars after 737 established their capital at Itil (located near the mouth of the Volga River) and accepted the Caucasus Mountains as their southern boundary.
During the same period, however, they expanded westward. By the second half of the 8th century, their empire had reached the peak of its power—it extended along the northern shore of the Black Sea from the lower Volga and the Caspian Sea in the east to the Dnieper River in the west. The Khazars controlled and exacted tribute from the Alani and other northern Caucasian peoples (dwelling between the mountains and the Kuban River); from the Magyars (Hungarians) inhabiting the area around the Donets River; from the Goths; and from the Greek colonies in the Crimea. The Volga Bulgars and numerous Slavic tribes also recognized the Khazars as their overlords.
Although basically Turkic, the Khazar state bore little resemblance to the other Turkic empires of central Eurasia. It was headed by a secluded supreme ruler of semi-religious character called a khagan—who wielded little real power—and by tribal chieftains, each known as a beg. The state’s military organization also seems to have lacked the forcefulness of those of the greater Turkic-Mongol empires. The Khazars seem to have been more inclined to a sedentary way of life, building towns and fortresses, tilling the soil, and planting gardens and vineyards. Trade and the collection of tribute were major sources of income. But the most striking characteristic of the Khazars was the apparent adoption of Judaism by the khagan and the greater part of the ruling class in about 740. The circumstances of the conversion remain obscure, the depth of their adoption of Judaism difficult to assess; but the fact itself is undisputed and unparalleled in central Eurasian history. A few scholars have even asserted that the Judaized Khazars were the remote ancestors of many eastern European and Russian Jews. Whatever the case may be, religious tolerance was practiced in the Khazar empire, and paganism continued to flourish among the population.
The prominence and influence of the Khazar state was reflected in its close relations with the Byzantine emperors: Justinian II (704) and Constantine V (732) each had a Khazar wife. The main source of revenue for the empire stemmed from commerce and particularly from Khazar control of the east-west trade route that linked the Far East with Byzantium and the north-south route linking the Arab empire with northern Slavic lands. Income that was derived from duties on goods passing through Khazar territory, in addition to tribute paid by subordinate tribes, maintained the wealth and the strength of the empire throughout the 9th century. But by the 10th century the empire, faced with the growing might of the Pechenegs to their north and west and of the Russians around Kiev, suffered a decline. When Svyatoslav, the ruler of Kiev, launched a campaign against the Khazars (965), Khazar power was crushed. Although the Khazars continued to be mentioned in historical documents as late as the 12th century, by 1030 their political role in the lands north of the Black Sea had greatly diminished. Despite the relatively high level of Khazar civilization and the wealth of data about the Khazars that is preserved in Byzantine and Arab sources, not a single line of the Khazar language has survived.
Khazars. Nomadic people in the South Russian steppes who flourished in the early Islamic period. Khazar also refers to a Turkic tribe north of the Caspian which converted to Judaism in the eighth century. The term khazar appears to be linked to a Turkic verb meaning "wandering."
In the seventh century of the Christian calendar, the Khazars founded an independent khanganate in the Northern Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. Although the Khazars were initially shamanists, many of them converted to Christianity, Islam, and other religions. During the eighth or ninth century, the state religion became Judaism.
Khazar, a member of a confederation of Turkic-speaking tribes that in the late 6th century of the Christian calendar established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia. Although the origin of the term Khazar and the early history of the Khazar people are obscure, it is fairly certain that the Khazars were originally located in the northern Caucasus region and were part of the western Turkic empire (in Turkistan). The Khazars were in contact with the Persians in the mid-6th century, and they aided the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (reigned 610–641) in his campaign against the Persians.
By the beginning of the 7th century, the Khazars had become independent of the Turkic empire to the east. But by the middle of that century, the expanding empire of the Arabs had penetrated as far northward as the northern Caucasus, and from then on until the mid-8th century the Khazars engaged in a series of wars with the Arab empire. The Arabs initially forced the Khazars to abandon Derbent (661), but around 685 the Khazars counterattacked, penetrating southward of the Caucasus into present-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Khazars and Arabs fought each other directly in Armenia in the 720s, and, though victory passed repeatedly from one side to the other, Arab counterattacks eventually compelled the Khazars to permanently withdraw north of the Caucasus. The Khazars’ initial victories were important, though, since they had the effect of permanently blocking Arab expansion northward into eastern Europe. Having been compelled to shift the center of their empire northward, the Khazars after 737 established their capital at Itil (located near the mouth of the Volga River) and accepted the Caucasus Mountains as their southern boundary.
During the same period, however, they expanded westward. By the second half of the 8th century, their empire had reached the peak of its power—it extended along the northern shore of the Black Sea from the lower Volga and the Caspian Sea in the east to the Dnieper River in the west. The Khazars controlled and exacted tribute from the Alani and other northern Caucasian peoples (dwelling between the mountains and the Kuban River); from the Magyars (Hungarians) inhabiting the area around the Donets River; from the Goths; and from the Greek colonies in the Crimea. The Volga Bulgars and numerous Slavic tribes also recognized the Khazars as their overlords.
Although basically Turkic, the Khazar state bore little resemblance to the other Turkic empires of central Eurasia. It was headed by a secluded supreme ruler of semi-religious character called a khagan—who wielded little real power—and by tribal chieftains, each known as a beg. The state’s military organization also seems to have lacked the forcefulness of those of the greater Turkic-Mongol empires. The Khazars seem to have been more inclined to a sedentary way of life, building towns and fortresses, tilling the soil, and planting gardens and vineyards. Trade and the collection of tribute were major sources of income. But the most striking characteristic of the Khazars was the apparent adoption of Judaism by the khagan and the greater part of the ruling class in about 740. The circumstances of the conversion remain obscure, the depth of their adoption of Judaism difficult to assess; but the fact itself is undisputed and unparalleled in central Eurasian history. A few scholars have even asserted that the Judaized Khazars were the remote ancestors of many eastern European and Russian Jews. Whatever the case may be, religious tolerance was practiced in the Khazar empire, and paganism continued to flourish among the population.
The prominence and influence of the Khazar state was reflected in its close relations with the Byzantine emperors: Justinian II (704) and Constantine V (732) each had a Khazar wife. The main source of revenue for the empire stemmed from commerce and particularly from Khazar control of the east-west trade route that linked the Far East with Byzantium and the north-south route linking the Arab empire with northern Slavic lands. Income that was derived from duties on goods passing through Khazar territory, in addition to tribute paid by subordinate tribes, maintained the wealth and the strength of the empire throughout the 9th century. But by the 10th century the empire, faced with the growing might of the Pechenegs to their north and west and of the Russians around Kiev, suffered a decline. When Svyatoslav, the ruler of Kiev, launched a campaign against the Khazars (965), Khazar power was crushed. Although the Khazars continued to be mentioned in historical documents as late as the 12th century, by 1030 their political role in the lands north of the Black Sea had greatly diminished. Despite the relatively high level of Khazar civilization and the wealth of data about the Khazars that is preserved in Byzantine and Arab sources, not a single line of the Khazar language has survived.
Khazraj, al-
Khazraj, al- (Banu Khazraj). One of the main Arab tribes in Medina before and at the time of the rise of Islam. They seem to have been more numerous and more enthusiastic Muslims than the al-Aws.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Banu Khazraj and the Banu Aws were often in conflict with each other. Muhammad was invited to Medina to mediate the conflict between the Banu Khazraj and the Banu Aws. Muhammad resolved the conflict by absorbing both tribes into the Muslim community and by prohibiting blood from being shed among Muslims. Soon afterwards, the Banu Khazraj and others became known as the Ansar.
Banu Khazraj see Khazraj, al-
Khazraj, al- (Banu Khazraj). One of the main Arab tribes in Medina before and at the time of the rise of Islam. They seem to have been more numerous and more enthusiastic Muslims than the al-Aws.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Banu Khazraj and the Banu Aws were often in conflict with each other. Muhammad was invited to Medina to mediate the conflict between the Banu Khazraj and the Banu Aws. Muhammad resolved the conflict by absorbing both tribes into the Muslim community and by prohibiting blood from being shed among Muslims. Soon afterwards, the Banu Khazraj and others became known as the Ansar.
Banu Khazraj see Khazraj, al-
Khazraji, Diya’ al-Din al-
Khazraji, Diya’ al-Din al- (Diya’ al-Din al-Khazraji). Thirteenth century poet from al-Andalus. He wrote a didactic poem which contains a versified treatise on Arabic metres.
Diya' al-Din al-Khazraji see Khazraji, Diya’ al-Din al-
Khazraji, Diya’ al-Din al- (Diya’ al-Din al-Khazraji). Thirteenth century poet from al-Andalus. He wrote a didactic poem which contains a versified treatise on Arabic metres.
Diya' al-Din al-Khazraji see Khazraji, Diya’ al-Din al-
Khedives
Khedives (Hidiv). Dynasty of the viceroys of Egypt (under Ottoman rule) (r.1867-1914). Their main capital was Cairo. Having inherited from Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1849) and his successors extensive cultural independence in Egypt, his grandson, Khedive Isma‘il (r. 1863-1879), was able to enforce de facto autonomy in 1867, developed by his son Tawfiq (r. 1879-1892) and his grandson, Abbas Hilmi (r. 1892-1914). From 1876, financial risk taking and involvement in ambitious projects (e.g., the Suez Canal) were supported by loans from the major European powers. Egypt was occupied by the British in 1882 and became a British protectorate in 1914, leading to the deposition of the Khedive following national uprisings. His successors were his uncle (Tawfiq’s brother), Husain Kamil (r.1914-1917), and Ahmed Fuad (r. 1922-1936). The rule of the monarchy in Egypt ended with his son Faruk (r. 1936-1952).
The term Khedive (Turkish: Hıdiv) is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha (Turkish: Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa), the Ottoman Wāli of Egypt and Sudan. The initially self-declared title was officially recognized also by the Ottoman government in 1867 and subsequently used by Ismail Pasha and his dynastic successors until 1914.
Following the French invasion of Egypt in 1798 and Napoleon's defeat of the Ottoman Egyptian forces which largely consisted of the descendants of the local Mameluke chieftains, the Ottoman Empire dispatched troops from Rumelia (the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire) under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha to restore the Empire's authority in what had hitherto been an Ottoman province. However, upon the French defeat and departure, Muhammad Ali seized control of the province and declared himself ruler of Egypt, quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Porte officially recognized Muhammad Ali as Pasha and Wāli (Governor) of Egypt. However, demonstrating his grander ambitions, he claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), as did his successors, Ibrahim Pasha, Abbas I, and Sa'id I.
The Muhammad Ali Dynasty’s use of the title Khedive was not sanctioned by the Ottoman Empire until 1867 when Sultan Abdülaziz officially recognized it as the title of Ismail Pasha. Moreover, the Porte accepted Ismail's alteration of the royal line of succession to go from father to son, rather than brother to brother, as was the tradition in the Ottoman Empire and in the Arab dynasties. In May 1879, the British Empire and France began pressuring the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II to depose Ismail Pasha, and this was done on June 26, 1879. The more pliable Tewfik Pasha, Ismail's son, was made his successor as the new Khedive. Ismail Pasha left Egypt and initially went into exile to Naples, but was eventually permitted by Sultan Abdülhamid II to retire to his Palace of Emirgan on the Bosporus in Istanbul. There he remained, more or less a state prisoner, until his death. He was later buried in Cairo.
After the nationalist Urabi Revolt of 1882, Britain invaded Egypt in support of Tewfik Pasha, and would continue to occupy and dominate the country for decades. During this period, the Muhammad Ali Dynasty under Tewfik Pasha and his son Abbas Hilmi Pasha continued to rule Egypt and Sudan using the title Khedive, whilst still nominally (de jure) under Ottoman sovereignty until 1914.
With the outbreak of the First World War, Abbas Hilmi Pasha sided with the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, and was subsequently deposed by the British, who declared Egypt a protectorate while he was on a visit to Vienna. His uncle Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt by the British, who severed the nominal ties of Egypt and Sudan to the Ottoman Empire and brought an end to the use of the title of Khedive. Hussein Kamel and later Fuad I issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas Hilmi Pasha, their nephew, of property in Egypt and Sudan, and even forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas Hilmi Pasha from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. Abbas Hilmi Pasha finally accepted the new order of things and formally abdicated on May 12, 1931. He retired to Switzerland, where he died in Geneva on December 19, 1944.
With "Article 17" of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Turkey formally ceded all remaining claims and rights in Egypt and Sudan.
Hidiv see Khedives
Khedives (Hidiv). Dynasty of the viceroys of Egypt (under Ottoman rule) (r.1867-1914). Their main capital was Cairo. Having inherited from Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1849) and his successors extensive cultural independence in Egypt, his grandson, Khedive Isma‘il (r. 1863-1879), was able to enforce de facto autonomy in 1867, developed by his son Tawfiq (r. 1879-1892) and his grandson, Abbas Hilmi (r. 1892-1914). From 1876, financial risk taking and involvement in ambitious projects (e.g., the Suez Canal) were supported by loans from the major European powers. Egypt was occupied by the British in 1882 and became a British protectorate in 1914, leading to the deposition of the Khedive following national uprisings. His successors were his uncle (Tawfiq’s brother), Husain Kamil (r.1914-1917), and Ahmed Fuad (r. 1922-1936). The rule of the monarchy in Egypt ended with his son Faruk (r. 1936-1952).
The term Khedive (Turkish: Hıdiv) is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha (Turkish: Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa), the Ottoman Wāli of Egypt and Sudan. The initially self-declared title was officially recognized also by the Ottoman government in 1867 and subsequently used by Ismail Pasha and his dynastic successors until 1914.
Following the French invasion of Egypt in 1798 and Napoleon's defeat of the Ottoman Egyptian forces which largely consisted of the descendants of the local Mameluke chieftains, the Ottoman Empire dispatched troops from Rumelia (the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire) under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha to restore the Empire's authority in what had hitherto been an Ottoman province. However, upon the French defeat and departure, Muhammad Ali seized control of the province and declared himself ruler of Egypt, quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Porte officially recognized Muhammad Ali as Pasha and Wāli (Governor) of Egypt. However, demonstrating his grander ambitions, he claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), as did his successors, Ibrahim Pasha, Abbas I, and Sa'id I.
The Muhammad Ali Dynasty’s use of the title Khedive was not sanctioned by the Ottoman Empire until 1867 when Sultan Abdülaziz officially recognized it as the title of Ismail Pasha. Moreover, the Porte accepted Ismail's alteration of the royal line of succession to go from father to son, rather than brother to brother, as was the tradition in the Ottoman Empire and in the Arab dynasties. In May 1879, the British Empire and France began pressuring the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II to depose Ismail Pasha, and this was done on June 26, 1879. The more pliable Tewfik Pasha, Ismail's son, was made his successor as the new Khedive. Ismail Pasha left Egypt and initially went into exile to Naples, but was eventually permitted by Sultan Abdülhamid II to retire to his Palace of Emirgan on the Bosporus in Istanbul. There he remained, more or less a state prisoner, until his death. He was later buried in Cairo.
After the nationalist Urabi Revolt of 1882, Britain invaded Egypt in support of Tewfik Pasha, and would continue to occupy and dominate the country for decades. During this period, the Muhammad Ali Dynasty under Tewfik Pasha and his son Abbas Hilmi Pasha continued to rule Egypt and Sudan using the title Khedive, whilst still nominally (de jure) under Ottoman sovereignty until 1914.
With the outbreak of the First World War, Abbas Hilmi Pasha sided with the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, and was subsequently deposed by the British, who declared Egypt a protectorate while he was on a visit to Vienna. His uncle Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt by the British, who severed the nominal ties of Egypt and Sudan to the Ottoman Empire and brought an end to the use of the title of Khedive. Hussein Kamel and later Fuad I issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas Hilmi Pasha, their nephew, of property in Egypt and Sudan, and even forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas Hilmi Pasha from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. Abbas Hilmi Pasha finally accepted the new order of things and formally abdicated on May 12, 1931. He retired to Switzerland, where he died in Geneva on December 19, 1944.
With "Article 17" of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Turkey formally ceded all remaining claims and rights in Egypt and Sudan.
Hidiv see Khedives
Kheri, Mwinyi
Mwinyi Kheri (c. 1820-1885). Arab trader and ruler of Ujiji. Born on the Tanzanian coast, he was among the first Arab traders to open trading stations at Lake Tanganyika during the 1840s. There the Arabs established the town of Ujiji among the Ha people and supervised a large trading network. Mwinyi Kheri amassed a personal fortune and rose to leadership of the community by the 1870s. He pioneered trade routes north of the lake and exercised a nominal suzerainty over neighboring chiefs, who relied on Ujiji for imports. When European missionaries arrived in 1878, he co-operated with them tacitly, allowing their enterprises to expire of their own accord. In 1881, he accepted the formal title of governor of Ujiji under the Zanzibari Sultan Barghash, but continued to run his affairs very much as before.
Kheri, Mwinyi see Mwinyi Kheri
Mwinyi Kheri (c. 1820-1885). Arab trader and ruler of Ujiji. Born on the Tanzanian coast, he was among the first Arab traders to open trading stations at Lake Tanganyika during the 1840s. There the Arabs established the town of Ujiji among the Ha people and supervised a large trading network. Mwinyi Kheri amassed a personal fortune and rose to leadership of the community by the 1870s. He pioneered trade routes north of the lake and exercised a nominal suzerainty over neighboring chiefs, who relied on Ujiji for imports. When European missionaries arrived in 1878, he co-operated with them tacitly, allowing their enterprises to expire of their own accord. In 1881, he accepted the formal title of governor of Ujiji under the Zanzibari Sultan Barghash, but continued to run his affairs very much as before.
Kheri, Mwinyi see Mwinyi Kheri
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