'Abdulaziz
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
'Abdulaziz (February 9, 1830 - June 4, 1876). Ottoman sultan (r.1861-1876). Revolts in the Balkan provinces brought about the intervention of foreign powers. Notwithstanding the policy of reforms, the government had to declare itself bankrupt, and the sultan was deposed. He committed suicide a few days later.
'Abdulaziz was born on February 9, 1830, in Istanbul. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II. He received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
The parents of 'Abdulaziz were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Valide Sultan. The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal." By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahce Palace. That year, Sultan 'Abdulaziz led the visiting Eugenie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugenie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident.
Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of 'Abdulaziz's brother, Abdulmecid, were continued under the leadership of 'Abdulaziz's able chief ministers, Kececizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861.
'Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the RMK Museum in Istanbul.
In 1869, 'Abdulaziz received visits from Eugenie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul.
By 1871, both Aali Pasha and Fuad Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, 'Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.
The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures on the Ottonman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. 'Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on May 30, 1876. His death a few days later was attributed to suicide.
The biggest achievement of 'Abdulaziz was to modernize the Ottoman navy. In 1875, the Ottoman navy had 21 battleships and 173 other types of warships, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.
'Abdulaziz also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums of London, Paris, and Vienna, 'Abdulaziz established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under 'Abdulaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.
‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
‘Abdu'l-Baha ('Abbas Effendi) (May 23, 1844 - November 28, 1921). Eldest son, and successor, of Baha’Ullah, the founder of the Baha'i faith. He was his father’s successor as the leader of the Baha’i community and as the official interpreter of Baha’Ullah’s teachings. ‘Abdu'l-Baha, whose name means “Servant of the Glory”, was chiefly responsible for the spread of Baha’ism to Europe and America.
'Abdu'l-Baha was born in Tehran, Persia on May 23, 1844, the eldest son of Baha'Ullah and Navvab. He was born on the same night on which the Bab declared his mission. During his youth, 'Abdu'l-Baha was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Babis. One event that affected 'Abdu'l-Baha greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when 'Abdu'l-Baha was nine years old. The imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. A mob sacked their house, and the family was stripped of their possessions and were left in destitution.
Baha'Ullah was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and 'Abdu'l-Baha joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853. During the journey, 'Abdu'l-Baha suffered from frost-bite. When Baha'Ullah secretly left to the mountains of Sulaymaniyah, 'Abdu'l-Baha was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father. During his years in Baghdad, 'Abdu'l-Baha spent much of his time reading the writings of the Bab, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city. In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, 'Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Baha'Ullah to return to Baghdad.
In 1863, Baha'Ullah was summoned to Istanbul. Baha'Ullah and his whole family, including 'Abdu'l-Baha, then nineteen, made the 110 day journey. 'Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akka, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time, he increasingly assumed the role of Baha'Ullah's chief steward.
Upon arrival in Acre, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Baha'is fell sick, and 'Abdu'l-Baha tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Acre were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and God's religions, and that association with them was strictly forbidden. The Baha'is were faced with hostile officials and scornful inhabitants. 'Abdu'l-Baha had to shield his father from many of these attacks. Over time, 'Abdu'l-Baha gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Baha'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Baha'is, they recognized the innocence of the Baha'is, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Baha'Ullah was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
After Baha'Ullah died on May 29, 1892, the Will and Testament of Baha'Ullah named 'Abdu'l-Baha as Center of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baha'Ullah's writings. In the Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Baha's half brother, Muhammad 'Ali, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to 'Abdul-Baha. Muhammad 'Ali became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Bad'ullah and Diya'ullah. He began correspondence with Baha'is in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about 'Abdu'l-Baha. While most Baha'is followed 'Abdu'l-Baha, a handful followed Muhammad 'Ali including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Baha'i missionary to America.
Muhammad 'Ali and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse 'Abdu'l-Baha of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baha'Ullah. It was at this time that 'Abdu'l-Baha, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "'Abdu'l-Baha", an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Baha to make it clear tha he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.
It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when 'Abdu'l-Baha died, instead of appointing Muhammad 'Ali, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. For his part, Muhammad 'Ali worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on 'Abdu'l-Baha's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of Acre being supportive of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the situation was greatly eased. While pilgrims were able to once again visit 'Abdu'l-Baha, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad 'Ali, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid 'Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad 'Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad 'Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about 'Abdu'l-Baha was fabrication.
By the year 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Bab that 'Abdu'l-Baha was directing, he planned the restoration of the House of the Bab in Shiraz and the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship in Ashgabat. Also in 1904, Muhammad 'Ali continued his accusations against 'Abdu'l-Baha which caused an Ottoman commission summoning 'Abdu'l-Baha to answer the accusations leveled against him. During the inquiry, the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed. The next few years in Acre were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. 'Abdu'l-Baha was freed from the imprisonment. With the freedom to leave the country, in 1910 he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baha'i message.
From August to December 1911, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baha'i communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on April 11, 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baha'i believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S. S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he had foreknowledge of the Titanic's doomed fate. 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D. C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year, he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal. He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On December 5, 1912, he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, 'Abdu'l-Baha visited London, Paris, Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Baha stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to 'Abdul-Baha. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.
On April 27, 1920, 'Abdu'l-Baha was awarded a knighthood by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.
'Abdu'l-Baha died on November 28, 1921. He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of 'Abdul-Baha. In his Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Baha'i faith.
Servant of the Glory see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
The Master see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abbas Effendi see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
Effendi, 'Abbas see ‘Abdu'l-Baha
'Abdul Bubakar
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Bubakar. Ruler of Futa Toro (Senegal). During his reign, he attempted to revive the Tukolor (Tukulor) confederation to oppose the French.
Although Futa Toro had been united in a jihad by the end of the 1700s, the Islamic confederation of states which resulted was always tenuous. Each clan leader was territorial in orientation and determined to guard his own interests.
The most powerful of the clan leaders in the 1870s was 'Abdul Bubakar. Fearing the French advance up the Senegal River, Bubakar attempted to unite the Tukolor into a more cohesive resisting force. His efforts met with little overall success. Indeed, in 1877, 'Abdul Bubakar was compelled to recognize France and its protectorate over his provinces.
Nevertheless, 'Abdul Bubakar continued to fight the French. Allying himself with the Fula and the Wolof, Bubakar “resisted” until the 1890s.
Bubakar, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Bubakar.
'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani (1864-1945). Indian Muslim who graduated from medical school at Government College in Lahore in 1883. He went to London for further study where he met Sardar Nasrullah, son of Amir Abdur-Rahman, and obtained a scholarship for study in England from the amir. In 1891, he went to Kabul to serve as secretary to Amir Abdur Rahman. Subsequently, he served for three years as principal of the Islamia College at Lahore but returned to Afghanistan under Amir Habibullah and was appointed chief medical officer, director of public instruction in Afghanistan, and principal of Habibia School. He was a champion of political and social reform and attracted a circle of “Young Afghans” who formed a secret organization called sirr-i milli (“Secret of the Nation”). In 1909, he and a number of his followers were arrested for having plotted against the life of Amir Habibullah. He was freed when King Amanullah ascended the throne. King Amanullah also appointed Abdul Ghani a member of the Afghan delegation to the Rawalpindi Peace Conference in August 1919. Abdul Ghani subsequently returned to India and wrote about Afghanistan and Central Asia. His A Brief Political History of Afghanistan was published posthumously by his nephew in 1979.
Ghani, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Ghani
'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Ghani Mian (Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani) (Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian) (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896). First Nawab of Dhaka recognized by the British Raj. He served as a member of the Bengali Legislative Council in 1866 and as a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor General. He is best remembered for donating the first waterworks in Dhaka. 'Abdul Ghani was succeeded as nawab by his son Nawab Khwaja Ahsanullah Khan.
'Abdul Ghani Mian was born on July 30, 1813, in Begum Bazaar, Dhaka, the second son of Khwaja Alimullah. Khwaja Alimullah consolidated the Khwaja estates to become the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from P. Aratun, an Armenian zamindar, and Griffith Cook, a British Justice in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum Alimullah had eight other wives and fifteen other children.
In 1846, 'Abdul Ghani inherited all the family proprieties, landed or otherwise, as an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as individual allowances to selecta successor as he deemed fit.
During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 'Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He also donated a large amount of money to the Debt Fund for people's welfare which had been launched by the government after the Mutiny. He served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration.
'Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872-1876) who was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India, (1884-1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885. The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur.
'Abdul Ghani developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to the height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. The Water Works foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. 'Abdul Ghani also established a Langarkhana (asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School at Jamurki, Tangail.
'Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan Manzil after his favorite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests.
'Abdul Ghani restored former property of Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e Badshahi (Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought in 1876-77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete.
'Abdul Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C. T. Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promenade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi appeared covered in ashes.
In 1866, Nawab 'Abdul Ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E. F. Smith and made there a garden house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land that was acquired by the British Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family.
'Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856-1858) of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was printed by the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856.
'Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time.
During the reign of 'Abdul Ghani, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at Shahbag earned much praise from eminent litterateur 'Abdul Gafur Naskhan.
'Abdul Ghani introduced the first femal performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bombay (Mumbai) to stage two Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar.
'Abdul Ghani was multilingual. He spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bangla, English and Persian. He learned Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite center in Dhaka, although he was a Sunni himself. He also had close relations with the Hindu, Armenian, and European communities.
'Abdul Ghani had four wives -- Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam, Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa. 'Abdul Ghani had ten other children and twenty-one grandchildren.
Ultimately, 'Abdul Ghani will be remembered for introducing the panchayat system, gaslights, water works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for Dhaka Nawab family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka Municipality.
Mian, 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Khwaja 'Abdul Ghani see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
Nawab Bahadur Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian see 'Abdul Ghani Mian
'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hadi Dawai (Pareshan) (1894-1982). Kakar Pashtun and a famous poet, diplomat and government official who published under the pen name Pareshan ("distressed"). He was elected senator and became president of the senate from 1966 to 1973. Born in 1894 in Kabul, he was a graduate of the first class of Habibia School in 1912. In the same year, he became assistant editor of the famous Seraj al-Akhbar Afghaniya and, in 1920, of the Aman-i Afghan. He entered the foreign service, participating in the Rawalpindi and Mussoorie peace conferences. He was appointed Afghan minister in London in 1922, served as minister of Commerce from 1925 until his resignation in 1928, and as Afghan minister in Berlin from December 1929-1931. From 1933 until 1946 he was imprisoned as an Amanullah supporter. In 1950, he was elected to Parliament and became speaker of the House. He served as secretary of King Muhammad Zahir and tutor of the crown prince. He was appointed ambassador to Cairo (1952-1954) and to Jakarta (1954-58). He retired from political life and died in 1982 in Kabul.
Pareshan see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
Dawai, 'Abdul Hadi see 'Abdul Hadi Dawai
'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
'Abdul Hai (Mirza 'Abdul Hai) (1919-1948). Civil servant who also was a noted short-story writer and novelist. He contributed to a wide range of magazines.
Hai, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Mirza 'Abdul Hai see 'Abdul Hai
Hai, Mirza 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hai
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Adnan Adivar (1882-1955). Turkish author, scholar and politician who was a prominent member of the Committee of Union and Progress (in Turkish, Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem‘iyyeti). He later joined the Nationalist Movement, but then founded the Progressive Republican Party which represented the main opposition to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1940, he became chief editor of the Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam. His principal work is a history of science in Turkey.
Adnan Adivar was one of the intellectuals within Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's circle, active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide active in the Turkish War of Independence with his wife the author Halide Edip Adivar. He escaped arrest in Istanbul by occupying British who were making a sweep of all Ottoman intellectuals and deporting to Malta at the end of World War I, by joining the Kemalist forces in Anatolia. Later he parted ways with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, disagreeing with the new direction the young Republic was taking. He opposed the immense powers given to Ataturk by the parliament, fearing he was going to be a dictator. He joined the short-lived opposition party and his name was later associated with an attempt on Ataturk's life in 1926 and he had to go abroad for a while. Even though he was cleared, he stayed in exile until 1939.
Graduated from the Medical Facility in 1905, Adivar left for Berlin to be specialized in internal medicine. Following the proclamation of the Second Constitution at 1908, Adivar went back to Istanbul. As he was close to the Young Turks, he was appointed as the director of the Medical Facility at the age of 30. He served in the Red Crescent during the war against Italians in Tripoli, participated to the Balkan Wars and the World War I. In 1917, he married the novelist Halide Edip and both joined the team of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1918 when foreign armies occupied Istanbul. In Ankara, Adnan Adivar was named Ministry of Health, Minister of Internal Affairs and the Vice President of the National Assembly between 1920 and 1923. Following the proclamation of the Republic, he founded in 1924 the opposition party with a small number of deputies. He became the secretary general and did not hesitate to criticize the government. Disappointed, Adivar left for Vienna to accompany his wife who needed to undergo medical treatment. Allegations of Adivar's involvement in an attempt on Ataturk's life made Adivar extend his stay abroad where he seems to have developed an interest in philosophy and history of science.
Adivar directed publication of the Turkish edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, contributing its introduction and a number of articles. His other significant publication is La Science Chez les Turks Ottomans (Paris, 1939), which can be regarded as a first attempt to present together the activities displayed by Turkish scholars during the Ottoman period, 14th to 19th centuries. His other works include a Turkish translation of Bertrand Russell's Philosophical Matters (1936), a two-volume work in Turkish on science and religion through history, and many essays and articles on cultural and scientific topics.
Adnan Adivar held various government and parliamentary positions in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He was a deputy in the first Turkish Parliament in 1920 and again elected there for the 1946-1950 session.
Adivar, Abdulhak Adnan see Abdulhak Adnan Adivar
Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit (Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan) (1852-1937). Turkish poet and author of the first Turkish play. His use of new metres and a sort of blank verse deeply influenced Turkish poetry between 1885 and 1905 and his early works recorded the clash between Western science and Muslim faith.
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan was born into a wealthy Istanbul family. His grandfather was physician to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was privately tutored, then enrolled in a French school, and after a tour of Europe became one of the first Muslim students to enroll at Robert College (now part of Bosporus University). In 1871, he married into an aristocratic family and served in the empire's embassy in Paris. In 1878, his play Nestern was deemed subversive, and he was dismissed. In 1881, he was readmitted to the Ottoman foreign service and was posted abroad (in Paris, Bombay, London, and Belgium) until 1921. This was also Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan's most active period of literary production. In 1922, he returned to Turkey, where he was soon elected to represent Istanbul in the new Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Tarhan was a major writer of the Tanzimat era. His participation in the Servet-i Funun (Wealth of Sciences) movement, with its concern for technique and its valorization of art for its own sake, helped to prepare an environment for the flowering of modern literature in Turkey.
Hamit, Abdulhak see Abdulhak Hamit
Abdulhak Hamit Tarhan see Abdulhak Hamit
Tarhan, Abdulhak Hamit see Abdulhak Hamit
'Abdul Hamid
'Abdul Hamid (1886-1963). Born in the Sylhet District (which was then in Assam), 'Abdul was a member of the Assam Legislative Council from 1924 to 1937, and served in various ministerial positions from 1929 to 1937. He was deputy leader of the Muslim League in the Assam Legislative Assembly from 1937 to partition and strongly supported the Pakistani position in the plebiscite that resulted in the transfer of most of the Sylhet District to East Bengal. Abdul Hamid was minister of education of the Muslim League East Bengal government until its fall in the 1954 provincial election.
Hamid, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hamid
'Abdul Hamid (1886-1963). Born in the Sylhet District (which was then in Assam), 'Abdul was a member of the Assam Legislative Council from 1924 to 1937, and served in various ministerial positions from 1929 to 1937. He was deputy leader of the Muslim League in the Assam Legislative Assembly from 1937 to partition and strongly supported the Pakistani position in the plebiscite that resulted in the transfer of most of the Sylhet District to East Bengal. Abdul Hamid was minister of education of the Muslim League East Bengal government until its fall in the 1954 provincial election.
Hamid, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Hamid
Abdulhamid I
Abdulhamid I (Abdul Hamid I) (March 20, 1725 - April 7, 1789). Ottoman sultan (r. 1774-1789) who was forced to sign the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja with Russia, a treaty which was dictated by the Russians. Despite his benevolent nature and love of peace, Abdulhamid’s reign was marked by war with Persia, with Russia (mainly over the Crimea), and with Austria.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730) and succeeded his brother Mustafa III (1757-1774) on January 21, 1774. Abdulhamid was imprisoned for most of the first forty-three years of his life by his cousins Mahmud I and Osman III, and his brother Mustafa III, as was the custom. He received his early education from his mother Rabia Sem Sultana, from whom he studied history and learned calligraphy. His imprisonment made him aloof in regards to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissaries. War was, however, forced on him and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Kozluja led to the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja (Treaty of Kucuk Kainarji) on July 21, 1774.
In spite of his failures, Abdulhamid was regarded as the most gracious Sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people for his religious manner, so much so that he was called a "Veli" -- a saint. He also initiated a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen.
When Abdulhamid came to the throne, the army asked for gratuities and the sultan claimed that: "There are, no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn." He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the Janissary corps and the naval forces. Abdulhamid established a new artillery troop and conducted a census of the Janissary corps.
Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea which Russia greatly coveted. War was once more declared against Russia in 1787 and in the following year Russians were joined by Austria. The Swedes and Prussians joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans but provided no assistance. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict -- and even "won" the Battle of Karansebes without firing a single shot -- they ultimately lost with Ochakov falling in 1788 to the Russians (all of its inhabitants being massacred).
Abdulhamid died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had constructed for himself.
The wives of Abdulhamid were Ayse Sine-perver haseki sultan, Nakshedil Haseki Sultan (Aimee de Buc de Rivery -- the cousin of Josephine Beauharnais, the wife of Napoleon), Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Bimaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Fatma Sheb-SafaNevres, and Mihriban. His concubines were Nukhet-seza Hanimefendi (First Concubine) and Ayse Hammefendi (Second Concubine).
The sons of Abdulhamid were Mustafa IV (his son by Ayse Sine-perver and Ottoman Sultan 1807-1808), Mahmud II (his son by Nakshedil and Ottoman Sultan 1808-1839), Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, and Suleyman. His daughters were Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah and Zekiye.
Abdulhamid I (Abdul Hamid I) (March 20, 1725 - April 7, 1789). Ottoman sultan (r. 1774-1789) who was forced to sign the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja with Russia, a treaty which was dictated by the Russians. Despite his benevolent nature and love of peace, Abdulhamid’s reign was marked by war with Persia, with Russia (mainly over the Crimea), and with Austria.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730) and succeeded his brother Mustafa III (1757-1774) on January 21, 1774. Abdulhamid was imprisoned for most of the first forty-three years of his life by his cousins Mahmud I and Osman III, and his brother Mustafa III, as was the custom. He received his early education from his mother Rabia Sem Sultana, from whom he studied history and learned calligraphy. His imprisonment made him aloof in regards to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissaries. War was, however, forced on him and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Kozluja led to the Treaty of Kucuk Qaynarja (Treaty of Kucuk Kainarji) on July 21, 1774.
In spite of his failures, Abdulhamid was regarded as the most gracious Sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people for his religious manner, so much so that he was called a "Veli" -- a saint. He also initiated a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen.
When Abdulhamid came to the throne, the army asked for gratuities and the sultan claimed that: "There are, no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn." He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the Janissary corps and the naval forces. Abdulhamid established a new artillery troop and conducted a census of the Janissary corps.
Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea which Russia greatly coveted. War was once more declared against Russia in 1787 and in the following year Russians were joined by Austria. The Swedes and Prussians joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans but provided no assistance. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict -- and even "won" the Battle of Karansebes without firing a single shot -- they ultimately lost with Ochakov falling in 1788 to the Russians (all of its inhabitants being massacred).
Abdulhamid died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had constructed for himself.
The wives of Abdulhamid were Ayse Sine-perver haseki sultan, Nakshedil Haseki Sultan (Aimee de Buc de Rivery -- the cousin of Josephine Beauharnais, the wife of Napoleon), Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Bimaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Fatma Sheb-SafaNevres, and Mihriban. His concubines were Nukhet-seza Hanimefendi (First Concubine) and Ayse Hammefendi (Second Concubine).
The sons of Abdulhamid were Mustafa IV (his son by Ayse Sine-perver and Ottoman Sultan 1807-1808), Mahmud II (his son by Nakshedil and Ottoman Sultan 1808-1839), Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, and Suleyman. His daughters were Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah and Zekiye.
Abdulhamid II
Abdulhamid II (Abdul Hamid II) (Ulu Hakan) (The Great Khan) (The Red Sultan) (Abdul the Damned) (The Great Assassin) (September 21, 1842 - February 10, 1918). Ottoman sultan (r. August 31, 1876 - April 27, 1909). In order to put a stop to the intervention of European powers, Abdulhamid initiated an international conference in Istanbul and promulgated the first Constitution, which introduced a two-Chamber parliamentary system. The parliament, however, was prorogued -- suspended -- in 1878 until 1918. Wars were waged with Russia in 1877 and with Greece in 1897. The Macedonian imbroglio led to interventions by the European powers which precipitated the Young Turk revolution. The sultan was deposed by the National Assembly in 1909. The reign of Abdulhamid II was marked by absolutism which, in its turn, led to fear and suspicion, and by Pan-Islamism. Abdulhamid was noted for his advocacy of pan-Islamic ideas and for his opposition to constitutional government. This Pan-Islamism prompted the sultan to construct the Hijaz Railway connecting Turkey to the Holy Cities of Islam.
Known to some as the Ulu Hakan -- the Great Khan, Abdulhamid II is better known in the West as "The Red Sultan", "Abdul the Damned", or "The Great Assassin" for the massacres of Ottoman Armenians which occurred throughout his tenure. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid and one of his many wives, the Circassian Tirimujgan (Virjin) Sultana. Abdulhamid II was a carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yildiz Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. Abdulhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mizika-i Humayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yildiz Palace.
Abdulhamid II was the thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan. A profound political and economic crisis brought Abdulhamid II to the throne. Dating from 1839, the open-door policy of the Ottoman government, the commercial and legal privileges granted to European powers, and the westernizing reform attempts – the Tanzimat – had ruptured the Ottoman social fabric. Trade and budget deficits soared. Heavy government borrowing abroad and at home delayed the inevitable financial crisis, but in 1875 the Treasury declared insolvency. European creditors protested. Unrest mounted everywhere, fanning nationalist revolts among Christians in the Balkans and anti-Tanzimat movements among Muslims.
The government in Istanbul lost control of events. After the death of the last powerful Tanzimat minister, Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha, in 1871, senior statesmen engaged in a struggle to control the government. In 1876, a group of ministers led by Midhat Pasha provoked the armed forces to stage a coup d’etat and deposed the reigning sultan Abdulaziz. His successor Murad V suffered a mental collapse and was deposed within three months. On August 31, 1876, Abdulhamid II succeeded Murad V on the throne.
Meanwhile, nationalist uprisings in the Balkans turned into bloody ethnic and religious confrontations. The European powers put pressure on the Ottoman government to grant autonomy to the Christian population. Midhat responded by promulgating a constitution (on December 23, 1876) that assured basic civil liberties, including the equality of all subjects before law, and provided for a parliament.
Forestalling foreign intervention was only one objective of the constitution, and in this it failed. A disastrous war with Russia nearly brought the end of the Ottoman state in 1877. In a series of difficult negotiations that lasted until 1882, the Ottomans surrendered large tracts of territory not only to the Balkan states and Russia but also to other major powers.
The constitution was also intended as a solution to the crisis of authority afflicting the Ottoman state. As such, it reflected a consensus and set certain limits on executive authority but left the sultan with great powers vis-à-vis both the cabinet and the parliament. Indeed, Abdulhamid dismissed and exiled Midhat in February 1877 and suspended the parliament in February 1878 on the basis of his constitutional prerogatives. He did not meet any opposition, for the most influential Ottoman elite viewed him as a sensible sovereign capable of providing the leadership necessary to deal with the grave problems facing the government. In 1878, he began to establish an authoritarian regime that eventually breached the spirit of the constitution and brought his downfall.
The reason for the Sultan's actions was war with Russia, declared April 24, 1877. Military successes by the Slavic states and losses in the Caucasus caused the Ottomans to bow to the Russian presence at Yesilkoy (San Stefano) only ten miles from Istanbul. The settlement of San Stefano in March 1878 was harsh for Turkey because it provided for Bosnian-Herzegovinian autonomy, the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, establishment of "Greater Bulgaria," and an indemnity and cession of territory to the czar. The terms were ameliorated by a revision announced in Berlin on July 13, 1878.
Domestically, German influence was on the rise (British support had helped Midhat Pasha). Germans reorganized the army and the country's tangled finances. Foreign control over finances was confirmed by a decree issued December 1881 consolidating the public debt and creating the Ottoman Public Debt Administration. Its function was to collect assigned revenues, such as those from monopolies on tobacco and salt and assorted excise taxes and to use these funds to reduce the indebtedness owed European bondholders.
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration proved a spirited agency for economic betterment. Tax collection techiniques improved and revenues increased; technological innovations were introduced in industries supervised by the agency; Turkish public administration training began here; improvements were made in transportation with railroad mileage increasing notably; and the credit of the empire improved to a point where foreign economic investments resumed.
However, the state of Ottoman finances was a major problem during the reign of Abdulhamid. Around thirty percent of the government revenue went directly into the coffers of the foreign-controlled Public Debt Administration, and an additional forty percent was devoured by military expenditures. Given the consequent dearth of funds, the government awarded many of the planned projects and important mines to European concerns as monopolistic concessions. To a certain extent, Abdulhamid was able to use European vested interests to perpetuate his own policies. However, the commercial and legal capitulations enjoyed by the European powers, backed by threats of force, left him with little room to maneuver.
The Ottoman regime looked increasingly helpless in defending local interests at a time when limited but real achievements aroused expectations, and nationalistic sentiments therefore gained momentum even among Muslims, undermining Abdulhamid’s appeal to Islamic solidarity. There also developed a Muslim religious opposition to the sultan, not least because of his emphasis on modern secular schools at the expense of traditional religious ones. It was, however, among the graduates of the modern schools that the most formidable opposition to Abdulhamid’s regime took form. Demanding a more institutionalized and participatory regime, a large group of Ottoman officials, officers, and intellectuals organized the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the indigenous organization of the Young Turks.
Abdulhamid was anxious to appear as a religious champion against Christian encroachment. He encouraged the building of the Mecca railroad to make Islam's holy places more accessible. He subsidized the pan-Islamic policy of Jamal-ud Din al-Afghani, whom Abdulhamid invited to Istanbul but virtually imprisoned there, and encouraged widespread support for himself as the head of the caliphate.
Neither pan-Islamic nationalism nor efforts at economic development could quiet internal unrest, however. Revolts broke out in various parts of the empire. Yemen, Mesopotamia, and Crete were particularly troubled. In Armenia, whose inhabitants wanted the changes promised at Berlin, a series of revolts occurred between 1892 and 1894, culminating in persecutions and massacres of an estimated 100,000 Armenians. For these persecutions, Abdulhamid became known as "Abdul the Damned" and the "Red Sultan."
The government engaged increasingly in espionage and mass arrests. By 1907, both military and civilian protests were widespread.
In 1908, sporadic mutinies broke out among the army corps in Rumelia and Macedonia and rapidly evolved into a popular movement that forced Abdulhamid to call for elections and to agree to serve as a parliamentary-constitutionalist monarch. Supporters of the CUP (Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem'iyetti) won the majority in the parliament. But as the parliament and the cabinet became bogged down in a struggle over their respective rights, and as the separatist movements in the Balkans intensified, the political situation remained tense.
Leadership of the protest movement fell to a Salonika-based liberal reform group, the Committee of Union and Progress. In the summer of 1908, dogged by police, the leaders fled to the hills. However, when the III Army Corps threatened to march on Istanbul unless the constitution was restored, Abdulhamid complied. He also called for elections and appointed a liberal grand vizier.
On April 13, 1909, Abdulhamid, unreformed as ever, supported a military-religious counter coup which ousted the liberal Young Turk government. Again the III Army Corps intervened, Istanbul was occupied, and on April 27, 1909, the committee deposed the Sultan in favor of his brother, Mehmed (Muhammad) V. Abdulhamid was confined in Salonika until that city fell to the Greeks in 1912. He died at Magnesia on February 10, 1918.
During the reign of Abdulhamid, the Ottoman Empire saw respectable accomplishments in the construction of highways, waterways, railroads, the telegraph, and other infrastructural public works. Judicial and public security services improved and expanded significantly. Institutions were formed to supply credit and technical advice to agricultural products. General public education and literacy improved. Many specialized schools were established and the old ones expanded with the specific purpose of training a corps of technical government personnel and better public administrators and jurists.
Abdulhamid made an effort to concentrate government investments and reforms in the predominantly Muslim parts of the empire. He emphasized Islam as a basis of internal social and political solidarity. Pan-Islamists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani viewed him as the symbol or focus of Islamic solidarity. Recent territorial losses and the immigration of large numbers of Muslims from the Balkans and Russia had rendered the Ottoman population overwhelmingly Muslim and had raised religious sentiments. Abdulhamid responded to this situation. He did not breach the principle of legal equality, because he believed in it, and he did not want to create pretexts for foreign intervention. He staunchly resisted, however, any attempt or pressure to obtain additional concessions and autonomy for the Christian population. He maintained that European protection had already put the Christians in an unduly advantageous position over the Muslims, who were in his mind the truly loyal subjects of the Ottoman state.
Abdulhamid’s resistance to intervention in favor of Christians, particularly in eastern Anatolia and Macedonia, remained a sensitive issue in the government’s relations with European powers. In this and other international problems, Abdulhamid tried to hold his ground by taking advantage of the rivalries among the powers and by resorting to delaying tactics. He hoped to gain time until the Ottoman government attained a stronger position to defend its interests, relying on a better educated and unified population and a more prosperous economy.
His hopes were in vain.
Abdul Hamid II see Abdulhamid II
Ulu Hakan see Abdulhamid II
The Great Khan see Abdulhamid II
The Red Sultan see Abdulhamid II
Abdul the Damned see Abdulhamid II
The Great Assassin see Abdulhamid II
Abdulhamid II (Abdul Hamid II) (Ulu Hakan) (The Great Khan) (The Red Sultan) (Abdul the Damned) (The Great Assassin) (September 21, 1842 - February 10, 1918). Ottoman sultan (r. August 31, 1876 - April 27, 1909). In order to put a stop to the intervention of European powers, Abdulhamid initiated an international conference in Istanbul and promulgated the first Constitution, which introduced a two-Chamber parliamentary system. The parliament, however, was prorogued -- suspended -- in 1878 until 1918. Wars were waged with Russia in 1877 and with Greece in 1897. The Macedonian imbroglio led to interventions by the European powers which precipitated the Young Turk revolution. The sultan was deposed by the National Assembly in 1909. The reign of Abdulhamid II was marked by absolutism which, in its turn, led to fear and suspicion, and by Pan-Islamism. Abdulhamid was noted for his advocacy of pan-Islamic ideas and for his opposition to constitutional government. This Pan-Islamism prompted the sultan to construct the Hijaz Railway connecting Turkey to the Holy Cities of Islam.
Known to some as the Ulu Hakan -- the Great Khan, Abdulhamid II is better known in the West as "The Red Sultan", "Abdul the Damned", or "The Great Assassin" for the massacres of Ottoman Armenians which occurred throughout his tenure. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.
Abdulhamid was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid and one of his many wives, the Circassian Tirimujgan (Virjin) Sultana. Abdulhamid II was a carpenter and personally crafted most of his own furniture, which can be seen today at the Yildiz Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. Abdulhamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first ever Turkish translations of many opera classics. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mizika-i Humayun which he established, and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yildiz Palace.
Abdulhamid II was the thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan. A profound political and economic crisis brought Abdulhamid II to the throne. Dating from 1839, the open-door policy of the Ottoman government, the commercial and legal privileges granted to European powers, and the westernizing reform attempts – the Tanzimat – had ruptured the Ottoman social fabric. Trade and budget deficits soared. Heavy government borrowing abroad and at home delayed the inevitable financial crisis, but in 1875 the Treasury declared insolvency. European creditors protested. Unrest mounted everywhere, fanning nationalist revolts among Christians in the Balkans and anti-Tanzimat movements among Muslims.
The government in Istanbul lost control of events. After the death of the last powerful Tanzimat minister, Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha, in 1871, senior statesmen engaged in a struggle to control the government. In 1876, a group of ministers led by Midhat Pasha provoked the armed forces to stage a coup d’etat and deposed the reigning sultan Abdulaziz. His successor Murad V suffered a mental collapse and was deposed within three months. On August 31, 1876, Abdulhamid II succeeded Murad V on the throne.
Meanwhile, nationalist uprisings in the Balkans turned into bloody ethnic and religious confrontations. The European powers put pressure on the Ottoman government to grant autonomy to the Christian population. Midhat responded by promulgating a constitution (on December 23, 1876) that assured basic civil liberties, including the equality of all subjects before law, and provided for a parliament.
Forestalling foreign intervention was only one objective of the constitution, and in this it failed. A disastrous war with Russia nearly brought the end of the Ottoman state in 1877. In a series of difficult negotiations that lasted until 1882, the Ottomans surrendered large tracts of territory not only to the Balkan states and Russia but also to other major powers.
The constitution was also intended as a solution to the crisis of authority afflicting the Ottoman state. As such, it reflected a consensus and set certain limits on executive authority but left the sultan with great powers vis-à-vis both the cabinet and the parliament. Indeed, Abdulhamid dismissed and exiled Midhat in February 1877 and suspended the parliament in February 1878 on the basis of his constitutional prerogatives. He did not meet any opposition, for the most influential Ottoman elite viewed him as a sensible sovereign capable of providing the leadership necessary to deal with the grave problems facing the government. In 1878, he began to establish an authoritarian regime that eventually breached the spirit of the constitution and brought his downfall.
The reason for the Sultan's actions was war with Russia, declared April 24, 1877. Military successes by the Slavic states and losses in the Caucasus caused the Ottomans to bow to the Russian presence at Yesilkoy (San Stefano) only ten miles from Istanbul. The settlement of San Stefano in March 1878 was harsh for Turkey because it provided for Bosnian-Herzegovinian autonomy, the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, establishment of "Greater Bulgaria," and an indemnity and cession of territory to the czar. The terms were ameliorated by a revision announced in Berlin on July 13, 1878.
Domestically, German influence was on the rise (British support had helped Midhat Pasha). Germans reorganized the army and the country's tangled finances. Foreign control over finances was confirmed by a decree issued December 1881 consolidating the public debt and creating the Ottoman Public Debt Administration. Its function was to collect assigned revenues, such as those from monopolies on tobacco and salt and assorted excise taxes and to use these funds to reduce the indebtedness owed European bondholders.
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration proved a spirited agency for economic betterment. Tax collection techiniques improved and revenues increased; technological innovations were introduced in industries supervised by the agency; Turkish public administration training began here; improvements were made in transportation with railroad mileage increasing notably; and the credit of the empire improved to a point where foreign economic investments resumed.
However, the state of Ottoman finances was a major problem during the reign of Abdulhamid. Around thirty percent of the government revenue went directly into the coffers of the foreign-controlled Public Debt Administration, and an additional forty percent was devoured by military expenditures. Given the consequent dearth of funds, the government awarded many of the planned projects and important mines to European concerns as monopolistic concessions. To a certain extent, Abdulhamid was able to use European vested interests to perpetuate his own policies. However, the commercial and legal capitulations enjoyed by the European powers, backed by threats of force, left him with little room to maneuver.
The Ottoman regime looked increasingly helpless in defending local interests at a time when limited but real achievements aroused expectations, and nationalistic sentiments therefore gained momentum even among Muslims, undermining Abdulhamid’s appeal to Islamic solidarity. There also developed a Muslim religious opposition to the sultan, not least because of his emphasis on modern secular schools at the expense of traditional religious ones. It was, however, among the graduates of the modern schools that the most formidable opposition to Abdulhamid’s regime took form. Demanding a more institutionalized and participatory regime, a large group of Ottoman officials, officers, and intellectuals organized the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the indigenous organization of the Young Turks.
Abdulhamid was anxious to appear as a religious champion against Christian encroachment. He encouraged the building of the Mecca railroad to make Islam's holy places more accessible. He subsidized the pan-Islamic policy of Jamal-ud Din al-Afghani, whom Abdulhamid invited to Istanbul but virtually imprisoned there, and encouraged widespread support for himself as the head of the caliphate.
Neither pan-Islamic nationalism nor efforts at economic development could quiet internal unrest, however. Revolts broke out in various parts of the empire. Yemen, Mesopotamia, and Crete were particularly troubled. In Armenia, whose inhabitants wanted the changes promised at Berlin, a series of revolts occurred between 1892 and 1894, culminating in persecutions and massacres of an estimated 100,000 Armenians. For these persecutions, Abdulhamid became known as "Abdul the Damned" and the "Red Sultan."
The government engaged increasingly in espionage and mass arrests. By 1907, both military and civilian protests were widespread.
In 1908, sporadic mutinies broke out among the army corps in Rumelia and Macedonia and rapidly evolved into a popular movement that forced Abdulhamid to call for elections and to agree to serve as a parliamentary-constitutionalist monarch. Supporters of the CUP (Ittihad we Teraqqi Jem'iyetti) won the majority in the parliament. But as the parliament and the cabinet became bogged down in a struggle over their respective rights, and as the separatist movements in the Balkans intensified, the political situation remained tense.
Leadership of the protest movement fell to a Salonika-based liberal reform group, the Committee of Union and Progress. In the summer of 1908, dogged by police, the leaders fled to the hills. However, when the III Army Corps threatened to march on Istanbul unless the constitution was restored, Abdulhamid complied. He also called for elections and appointed a liberal grand vizier.
On April 13, 1909, Abdulhamid, unreformed as ever, supported a military-religious counter coup which ousted the liberal Young Turk government. Again the III Army Corps intervened, Istanbul was occupied, and on April 27, 1909, the committee deposed the Sultan in favor of his brother, Mehmed (Muhammad) V. Abdulhamid was confined in Salonika until that city fell to the Greeks in 1912. He died at Magnesia on February 10, 1918.
During the reign of Abdulhamid, the Ottoman Empire saw respectable accomplishments in the construction of highways, waterways, railroads, the telegraph, and other infrastructural public works. Judicial and public security services improved and expanded significantly. Institutions were formed to supply credit and technical advice to agricultural products. General public education and literacy improved. Many specialized schools were established and the old ones expanded with the specific purpose of training a corps of technical government personnel and better public administrators and jurists.
Abdulhamid made an effort to concentrate government investments and reforms in the predominantly Muslim parts of the empire. He emphasized Islam as a basis of internal social and political solidarity. Pan-Islamists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani viewed him as the symbol or focus of Islamic solidarity. Recent territorial losses and the immigration of large numbers of Muslims from the Balkans and Russia had rendered the Ottoman population overwhelmingly Muslim and had raised religious sentiments. Abdulhamid responded to this situation. He did not breach the principle of legal equality, because he believed in it, and he did not want to create pretexts for foreign intervention. He staunchly resisted, however, any attempt or pressure to obtain additional concessions and autonomy for the Christian population. He maintained that European protection had already put the Christians in an unduly advantageous position over the Muslims, who were in his mind the truly loyal subjects of the Ottoman state.
Abdulhamid’s resistance to intervention in favor of Christians, particularly in eastern Anatolia and Macedonia, remained a sensitive issue in the government’s relations with European powers. In this and other international problems, Abdulhamid tried to hold his ground by taking advantage of the rivalries among the powers and by resorting to delaying tactics. He hoped to gain time until the Ottoman government attained a stronger position to defend its interests, relying on a better educated and unified population and a more prosperous economy.
His hopes were in vain.
Abdul Hamid II see Abdulhamid II
Ulu Hakan see Abdulhamid II
The Great Khan see Abdulhamid II
The Red Sultan see Abdulhamid II
Abdul the Damned see Abdulhamid II
The Great Assassin see Abdulhamid II
'Abdul Haq
'Abdul Haq ('Abd al-Haqq) (Humayoun Arsala) (April 23, 1958 - October 26, 2001). Mujahedin (Mujahidin) commander affiliated with the Hizb-i Islami (Islamic Party) of Yunus Khales who had been active in the Kabul area. He fought against the Soviets and Afghan communists during the Soviet-Afghan War. He was executed by the Taliban in October 2001 while trying to create a popular uprising in Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
'Abdul Haq was an Ahmadzai Pashtun, was born in Fatehbad (Afghanistan), a small village in Nangahar province, Afghanistan, although he soon moved with his family to Helmand. His father, Mohammed Ana, was an official representative for the Nangarhar construction company in Helmand, and was relatively wealthy by Afghan standards. His family was well connected, part of the Arsala Khel family, which is a part of the Jabar Khel (a sub-tribe of the land-owning Ahmadzai tribe). His paternal great-grandfather, Wazir Arsala Khan, had once been the foreign minister of Afghanistan. A cousin, Hedayat Arsala, was a World Bank director working in Washington, D. C. who later became Vice President of Afghanistan in Hamid Karzai's administration. Haq also had two older brothers: Din Mohammed and Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir was an early backer of Hamid Karzai, who was rewarded with a cabinet position, before he was assassinated in 2002. Din Muhammad is the leader of the Khalis party. From his own account, Haq was an unruly child, who after persuading his father to register him for school at the early age of five, once hit a teacher who was sleeping on the job. A year after that his 51 year old father died of kidney disease, prompting Din Mohammed to assume leadership of the family, and prompting the family to move back to their extended family in Nangarhar.
Back in Fatehbard, Haq began attending Qur'anic school under the tutelage of local mullahs, and once reaching the age of eight, began studying at the Lycee. It was there the he began challenging the Communist ideology of some of his teachers. As a student, he was affiliated with the Islamic Youth (jawanan-i musulman) which opposed the reformist regime of President Muhammad Dawud Khan. He was imprisoned in 1975 and freed in 1978 after the Saur Revolt.
'Abdul first engaged in the fight against the communist domination of Afghanistan in 1978 when he fought in the Gulbuddin Hekmatyar faction of Hezb-i Islami. He later switched to the faction led by Mohammad Yunus Khalis. During the Soviet War in Afghanistan, 'Abdul Haq coordinated mujahideen activities in the province of Kabul. He gained recognition for his tactical skills and bravery, and his reputation as a uniter led to leadership positions throughout Afghanistan. Based in the Shiwaki area, south of Kabul, he was responsible for organizing guerrilla attacks on government posts within Kabul.
In 1987, 'Abdul Haq suffered a crippling injury to his foot that limited his active participation in raids. Indeed, over his career, 'Abdul Haq was injured twelve times, including the loss of part of one leg. Because of his injuries, 'Abdul Haq often fought battles against the Soviets from horse-back.
After the fall of the Marxist regime in April 1992, 'Abdul Haq was appointed chief of police and security as well as commander of the gendarmerie but resigned from his posts at the beginning of the civil war between the mujahedin groups. He and his brother, 'Abdul Qadir who became acting governor of Jalalabad, remained neutral between the Taliban and Jam’iat forces. 'Abdul Haq settled in Dubai, where he became a successful merchant engaged in commerce with Pakistan and the Gulf area.
In 1998, 'Abdul Haq became a United Nations Peace Mediator.
In January 1999, unknown assailants killed 'Abdul Haq's watchman, entered his home, and murdered his wife and son in Hayatabad. Another of Haq's sons survived the raid.
Following the al-Qaeda attacks of September 11, 2001 against the United States, 'Abdul Haq entered Afghanistan from Pakistan in an attempt to build support for resistance to the Taliban. After a spectacular chase reminiscent of a Hollywood scene, he was captured by the Taliban along with nineteen others between the towns of Hisarak and Azro. He was executed on October 26, 2001.
Haq, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Haq
'Abd al-Haqq see 'Abdul Haq
Haqq, 'Abd al- see 'Abdul Haq
Humayoun Arsala see 'Abdul Haq
Arsala, Humayoun see 'Abdul Haq
'Abdul Haq ('Abd al-Haqq) (Humayoun Arsala) (April 23, 1958 - October 26, 2001). Mujahedin (Mujahidin) commander affiliated with the Hizb-i Islami (Islamic Party) of Yunus Khales who had been active in the Kabul area. He fought against the Soviets and Afghan communists during the Soviet-Afghan War. He was executed by the Taliban in October 2001 while trying to create a popular uprising in Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
'Abdul Haq was an Ahmadzai Pashtun, was born in Fatehbad (Afghanistan), a small village in Nangahar province, Afghanistan, although he soon moved with his family to Helmand. His father, Mohammed Ana, was an official representative for the Nangarhar construction company in Helmand, and was relatively wealthy by Afghan standards. His family was well connected, part of the Arsala Khel family, which is a part of the Jabar Khel (a sub-tribe of the land-owning Ahmadzai tribe). His paternal great-grandfather, Wazir Arsala Khan, had once been the foreign minister of Afghanistan. A cousin, Hedayat Arsala, was a World Bank director working in Washington, D. C. who later became Vice President of Afghanistan in Hamid Karzai's administration. Haq also had two older brothers: Din Mohammed and Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir was an early backer of Hamid Karzai, who was rewarded with a cabinet position, before he was assassinated in 2002. Din Muhammad is the leader of the Khalis party. From his own account, Haq was an unruly child, who after persuading his father to register him for school at the early age of five, once hit a teacher who was sleeping on the job. A year after that his 51 year old father died of kidney disease, prompting Din Mohammed to assume leadership of the family, and prompting the family to move back to their extended family in Nangarhar.
Back in Fatehbard, Haq began attending Qur'anic school under the tutelage of local mullahs, and once reaching the age of eight, began studying at the Lycee. It was there the he began challenging the Communist ideology of some of his teachers. As a student, he was affiliated with the Islamic Youth (jawanan-i musulman) which opposed the reformist regime of President Muhammad Dawud Khan. He was imprisoned in 1975 and freed in 1978 after the Saur Revolt.
'Abdul first engaged in the fight against the communist domination of Afghanistan in 1978 when he fought in the Gulbuddin Hekmatyar faction of Hezb-i Islami. He later switched to the faction led by Mohammad Yunus Khalis. During the Soviet War in Afghanistan, 'Abdul Haq coordinated mujahideen activities in the province of Kabul. He gained recognition for his tactical skills and bravery, and his reputation as a uniter led to leadership positions throughout Afghanistan. Based in the Shiwaki area, south of Kabul, he was responsible for organizing guerrilla attacks on government posts within Kabul.
In 1987, 'Abdul Haq suffered a crippling injury to his foot that limited his active participation in raids. Indeed, over his career, 'Abdul Haq was injured twelve times, including the loss of part of one leg. Because of his injuries, 'Abdul Haq often fought battles against the Soviets from horse-back.
After the fall of the Marxist regime in April 1992, 'Abdul Haq was appointed chief of police and security as well as commander of the gendarmerie but resigned from his posts at the beginning of the civil war between the mujahedin groups. He and his brother, 'Abdul Qadir who became acting governor of Jalalabad, remained neutral between the Taliban and Jam’iat forces. 'Abdul Haq settled in Dubai, where he became a successful merchant engaged in commerce with Pakistan and the Gulf area.
In 1998, 'Abdul Haq became a United Nations Peace Mediator.
In January 1999, unknown assailants killed 'Abdul Haq's watchman, entered his home, and murdered his wife and son in Hayatabad. Another of Haq's sons survived the raid.
Following the al-Qaeda attacks of September 11, 2001 against the United States, 'Abdul Haq entered Afghanistan from Pakistan in an attempt to build support for resistance to the Taliban. After a spectacular chase reminiscent of a Hollywood scene, he was captured by the Taliban along with nineteen others between the towns of Hisarak and Azro. He was executed on October 26, 2001.
Haq, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Haq
'Abd al-Haqq see 'Abdul Haq
Haqq, 'Abd al- see 'Abdul Haq
Humayoun Arsala see 'Abdul Haq
Arsala, Humayoun see 'Abdul Haq
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) (Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (b. 1947). African American professional basketball player and author. Originally named Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr., Abdul-Jabbar was born in New York City. He was educated at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), where he led the university’s basketball team to an unprecedented three consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association championships (1967-1969) while being named the Player of the Year in 1967, 1968 and 1969. While a college student, Abdul-Jabbar converted to Islam. He changed his name in 1971. From 1969 to 1975, Abdul Jabbar played center for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was the NBA Rookie of the Year in 1970. He led the Bucks to the NBA championship during the 1970-71 season. In 1975, the 7 ft., 1 3/8 in. player was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. As a Laker, Abdul-Jabbar won five more NBA championships (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987 and 1988). During his career, Abdul-Jabbar was named the NBA’s Most Valuable Player a record six times (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977 and 1980) and was named Sports Illustrated’s Sportsman of the Year in 1985. At his retirement in 1989, Abdul-Jabbar held nine records, including points scored (38,387), seasons played (20), playoff scoring (5,762), MVP awards (6), minutes played (57,446), games played (1,560), field goals made and attempted (15,837 of 28,307), and blocked shots (3,189).
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar is widely considered one of the greatest NBA players of all time. During his 20 years in the NBA from 1969 to 1989, he scored 38,387 points -- the highest total of any player in league history -- in addition to winning a record six Most Valuable Player Awards. He was known for his "Skyhook" shot, which was famously difficult to block because it put his long body between the basket and the ball. Abdul-Jabbar's success began well before his professional career. In college, he played on three national championship teams, and his high school team won 71 consecutive games.
After his retirement from basketball, Abdul-Jabbar became a bestselling author. He also served as a special assistant coach for the Los Angeles Lakers.
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) (Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr.) (b. 1947). African American professional basketball player and author. Originally named Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr., Abdul-Jabbar was born in New York City. He was educated at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), where he led the university’s basketball team to an unprecedented three consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association championships (1967-1969) while being named the Player of the Year in 1967, 1968 and 1969. While a college student, Abdul-Jabbar converted to Islam. He changed his name in 1971. From 1969 to 1975, Abdul Jabbar played center for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was the NBA Rookie of the Year in 1970. He led the Bucks to the NBA championship during the 1970-71 season. In 1975, the 7 ft., 1 3/8 in. player was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. As a Laker, Abdul-Jabbar won five more NBA championships (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987 and 1988). During his career, Abdul-Jabbar was named the NBA’s Most Valuable Player a record six times (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977 and 1980) and was named Sports Illustrated’s Sportsman of the Year in 1985. At his retirement in 1989, Abdul-Jabbar held nine records, including points scored (38,387), seasons played (20), playoff scoring (5,762), MVP awards (6), minutes played (57,446), games played (1,560), field goals made and attempted (15,837 of 28,307), and blocked shots (3,189).
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar is widely considered one of the greatest NBA players of all time. During his 20 years in the NBA from 1969 to 1989, he scored 38,387 points -- the highest total of any player in league history -- in addition to winning a record six Most Valuable Player Awards. He was known for his "Skyhook" shot, which was famously difficult to block because it put his long body between the basket and the ball. Abdul-Jabbar's success began well before his professional career. In college, he played on three national championship teams, and his high school team won 71 consecutive games.
After his retirement from basketball, Abdul-Jabbar became a bestselling author. He also served as a special assistant coach for the Los Angeles Lakers.
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Alcindor, Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Fredrick Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. see Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah (d. 1721). Bendahara (chief minister) of the Malay state of Johor from 1697 to 1699. He became sultan in 1699 after the murder of Sultan Mahmud. His right to the Johor throne was challenged in Perak, Palembang, and in some quarters of Johor itself (notably among the Orang Laut) because he was not a direct descendant of the Melaka (Malacca) sultans and therefore did not carry the magical “white blood” of Paramesvara, the founder and first ruler of Melaka. These initial problems were overcome by the energetic rule of his two brothers, but despite efforts to establish Abdul Jalil’s daulat (magical right to rule), mounting difficulties led to a rebellion in 1718 in which Abdul Jalil was deposed. He was murdered in Pahang in 1721. With the help of immigrant Bugis warriors, his son Sulaiman regained the throne in 1722, but Johor remained fragmented, split between Raja Kecil in Siak, the Bugis, and the original Malay forces.
Syah, Abdul Jalil Riayat see Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah (d. 1721). Bendahara (chief minister) of the Malay state of Johor from 1697 to 1699. He became sultan in 1699 after the murder of Sultan Mahmud. His right to the Johor throne was challenged in Perak, Palembang, and in some quarters of Johor itself (notably among the Orang Laut) because he was not a direct descendant of the Melaka (Malacca) sultans and therefore did not carry the magical “white blood” of Paramesvara, the founder and first ruler of Melaka. These initial problems were overcome by the energetic rule of his two brothers, but despite efforts to establish Abdul Jalil’s daulat (magical right to rule), mounting difficulties led to a rebellion in 1718 in which Abdul Jalil was deposed. He was murdered in Pahang in 1721. With the help of immigrant Bugis warriors, his son Sulaiman regained the throne in 1722, but Johor remained fragmented, split between Raja Kecil in Siak, the Bugis, and the original Malay forces.
Syah, Abdul Jalil Riayat see Abdul Jalil Riayat Syah
Abdul Kader
Abdul Kader (c.1723-1804). Ruler of Futa Toro (r. 1776-1804). During his reign, he consolidated the Tukolor state after the Islamic revolution. Abdul Kader was designated the successor of Suleiman Bal, leader of the Islamic revolution, who was killed in 1776. Futa Toro was established as a federation. Lands were distributed among the new clerical aristocracy (torobe), upon whom Abdul Kader called to provide soldiers for jihads (holy wars) against his Wolof neighbors in Walo and Cayor. The lands that Abdul Kader controlled directly were governed along theocratic principles. He built mosques in every village and appointed village religious and administrative officials himself. However, the new aristocracy differed little from the one which it replaced. Abdul Kader was assassinated by a group of nobles in 1804 at the age of eighty-one.
Kader, Abdul see Abdul Kader
Abdul Kader (c.1723-1804). Ruler of Futa Toro (r. 1776-1804). During his reign, he consolidated the Tukolor state after the Islamic revolution. Abdul Kader was designated the successor of Suleiman Bal, leader of the Islamic revolution, who was killed in 1776. Futa Toro was established as a federation. Lands were distributed among the new clerical aristocracy (torobe), upon whom Abdul Kader called to provide soldiers for jihads (holy wars) against his Wolof neighbors in Walo and Cayor. The lands that Abdul Kader controlled directly were governed along theocratic principles. He built mosques in every village and appointed village religious and administrative officials himself. However, the new aristocracy differed little from the one which it replaced. Abdul Kader was assassinated by a group of nobles in 1804 at the age of eighty-one.
Kader, Abdul see Abdul Kader
'Abdul Karim
'Abdul Karim. See ‘Abd el-Krim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abd el-Krim see 'Abdul Karim.
Krim, 'Abd el- see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim. See ‘Abd el-Krim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abd el-Krim see 'Abdul Karim.
Krim, 'Abd el- see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim
'Abdul Karim. Ghilzai mullah in Afghanistan. He was the son of Din Muhammad, the famous Mulla Mushk-i Alam. Amir 'Abdul Rahman gave him the title Khan-i Ulum (“Chief of [religious] Sciences”), but he became disaffected when the amir ended the virtual autonomy enjoyed by the Ghilzai tribes and imposed taxes on hitherto exempt lands. He was one of the leaders of the Ghilzai Rebellion of 1886-1887, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. It was the last of three uprisings of this tribe in the nineteenth century.
Khan-i Ulum see 'Abdul Karim.
Chief of [religious] Sciences see 'Abdul Karim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
'Abdul Karim. Ghilzai mullah in Afghanistan. He was the son of Din Muhammad, the famous Mulla Mushk-i Alam. Amir 'Abdul Rahman gave him the title Khan-i Ulum (“Chief of [religious] Sciences”), but he became disaffected when the amir ended the virtual autonomy enjoyed by the Ghilzai tribes and imposed taxes on hitherto exempt lands. He was one of the leaders of the Ghilzai Rebellion of 1886-1887, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. It was the last of three uprisings of this tribe in the nineteenth century.
Khan-i Ulum see 'Abdul Karim.
Chief of [religious] Sciences see 'Abdul Karim.
Karim, 'Abdul see 'Abdul Karim.
Abdul Karim
Abdul Karim (Maulvi Abdul Karim) (1863-1943). Educator and Muslim League politician. He entered politics after serving in the presidency education department. Abdul Karim was president of the Bengal Muslim League and a member of the Council of State and the Bengal Legislative Council from 1926 to 1937.
Maulvi Abdul Karim see Abdul Karim
Karim, Abdul see Abdul Karim
Karim, Maulvi Abdul see Abdul Karim
Abdul Karim (Maulvi Abdul Karim) (1863-1943). Educator and Muslim League politician. He entered politics after serving in the presidency education department. Abdul Karim was president of the Bengal Muslim League and a member of the Council of State and the Bengal Legislative Council from 1926 to 1937.
Maulvi Abdul Karim see Abdul Karim
Karim, Abdul see Abdul Karim
Karim, Maulvi Abdul see Abdul Karim
Abdul Khaliq
Abdul Khaliq. Son of a Hazara servant of Ghulam Nabi Charkhi (executed by King Nadir). He avenged the killing of his master by assassinating Nadir Shah a year later on November 8, 1933. He was a student at Najat (Amani) High School and attended a graduation ceremony in the palace garden where the assassination took place. He was handed over to the King’s bodyguard for execution. A number of relatives, students, and teachers of Najat and Istiqlal schools were executed in December 1933. This was the last bloodletting in the struggle for power between supporters of King Amanullah and the new royal family.
Abdul Khaliq. Son of a Hazara servant of Ghulam Nabi Charkhi (executed by King Nadir). He avenged the killing of his master by assassinating Nadir Shah a year later on November 8, 1933. He was a student at Najat (Amani) High School and attended a graduation ceremony in the palace garden where the assassination took place. He was handed over to the King’s bodyguard for execution. A number of relatives, students, and teachers of Najat and Istiqlal schools were executed in December 1933. This was the last bloodletting in the struggle for power between supporters of King Amanullah and the new royal family.
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