Ghifar
Ghifar (Banu Ghifar). Small Arab tribe to whom the Prophet guaranteed in one of his earliest letters the protection of Allah and Allah’s messenger for their lives and goods.
Banu Ghifar see Ghifar
Ghifar (Banu Ghifar). Small Arab tribe to whom the Prophet guaranteed in one of his earliest letters the protection of Allah and Allah’s messenger for their lives and goods.
Banu Ghifar see Ghifar
Ghitani, Gamal el-
Gamal el-Ghitani (Arabic: جمال الغيطانى, b. May 9, 1945 – d. October 18, 2015) was an Egyptian author of historical and political novels and cultural and political commentaries and was the editor-in-chief of the literary periodical Akhbar Al-Adab ("Cultural News") until 2011.
Gamal El-Ghitani was born in Guhayna, Sohag Governorate in Upper Egypt and moved with his family to Cairo as a child. He began writing at a young age and had his first short story published when he was only 14. He was originally trained to be a carpet designer and received his diploma in 1962. He continued to write on the side and was imprisoned from October 1966 through March 1967 for his critical commentary on the regime of Gamal Abd el-Nasser. In 1969, he switched careers and became a journalist for the Egyptian newspaper Akhbar El Yom ("The Day's News").
After becoming a journalist, el-Ghitani continued to write historical fiction, and many of his stories are set in Cairo. He also wrote about many cultural and political topics, notably the level of censorship in modern-day Egypt. In an effort to help promote the Arab literary culture, he helped found the literary magazine "Gallery 68".
In 1980, he was awarded with the Egyptian National Prize for Literature, and in 1987, the French Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. In 1985, he became editor-in-chief of Al Akhbar ("The News") and continued to be a contributing editor to Akhbar El-Yom's literary section. From 1993 to 2011, he was the editor-in-chief of Akhbar Al-Adab, one of Egypt's primary literary magazines. In 2005, he won a French Award for translated literature "Laure Bataillon", one of the highest French awards to be bestowed upon non-French writers. He was earned this award for his giant work "Kitâb al-Tagalliyyât" or "Book of Illuminations". In 2009, he was awarded the Sheikh Zayed Book Award for Ren, the award is worth about $200,000 and is one of the world's richest literary awards.
Gamal El-Ghitani was married to the Egyptian journalist Magda El-Guindy, editor-in-chief of Al-Ahram's children's magazine "Alaaeddin". He died on October 18, 2015 at the El Galaa Hospital For Armed Forces Officers Families in Cairo.
Ghitrif ibn ‘Ata’
Ghitrif ibn ‘Ata’ ( al-Ghitrif ibn 'Ata'). ‘Abbasid governor of Khurasan of the eighth century. He introduced a new coinage into Bukhara, the so-called Ghutrifi or black dirham.
al-Ghitrif ibn 'Ata' see Ghitrif ibn ‘Ata’
Ghitrif ibn ‘Ata’ ( al-Ghitrif ibn 'Ata'). ‘Abbasid governor of Khurasan of the eighth century. He introduced a new coinage into Bukhara, the so-called Ghutrifi or black dirham.
al-Ghitrif ibn 'Ata' see Ghitrif ibn ‘Ata’
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I (Ghazi Malik) (d. 1325). Founder of the Tughluqid dynasty and ruler of India (r.1320-1325). A Turk by origin, he became governor of Dipalpur in the Punjab, held the Mongols at bay for fifteen years, and defeated Khusraw Khan, a Khalji general of Hindu origin who had apostasized from Islam and begun a reign of terror in Delhi. Contemporary Muslim historiography eulogizes him as the savior of Islam in India.
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder and first ruler (1320 – 1325) of the Turkic Muslim Tughluq dynasty in India. He was also the founder of the third city of Delhi called Tughluqabad.
About the close of his reign Alauddin Khilji had prepared an expedition of 10,000 men under Ghazi Malik to go to Debalpur to fight with the Chagatai Khanate Mongols. Ghazi Malik was thus enabled to go and secure Multan, Uch and Sindh for himself, especially as Aláuddín’s sons proved incapable and caused confusion in the affairs of the kingdom. Ghazi Malik ultimately took away the kingdom, from the possession of the house of Khiljí.
Alauddin Khilji’s son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah was a mad man and was soon removed from the throne of Delhi by the hand of a murderer. The nobles of the state then put Khusro Khan on the throne. The latter began to bestow undue favors on mischievous people and to waste public money. The Hindus began to join him in large number. Seeing this state of things, Ghazi Malik’s son Fakhr Malik left Multan secretly and joined his father, informing him of what was happening at Delhi. Then, father and son collected the forces of Sindh and Multan and hastened to Delhi to help the Muslims against the Hindus. Arriving near Delhi with 3,000 veteran soldiers, they engaged in battle with the army of Khusro Khan, and defeated them. Then making their way into Delhi they again defeated Khusro Khan in battle and he fled away. About midnight the ministers and the headmen of the place came to Ghazi Malik and his son in their camp and gave up the keys of the fort. Early in the morning, Ghazi Malik entered the city with all the pomp and glory of a King.
Ghazi Malik went into mourning for three (3) days for the death of Alauddin Khilji and his son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah. After these ceremonies were over he issued a proclamation with the view of finding out any member of the family of those princes in order that he might put him on the throne of Delhi. But as no such person could be found on search, the nobles, the troops, the learned men, the Syeds and other subjects united in selecting Ghazi Malik for the vacant post, as it was he who had removed all the cause of quarrel and disturbance in the country. Thus, in 1320, Ghazi Malik was crowned as the Sultan of Delhi with the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq and his son Fakhr Malik was given the title of Muhammad Shah Tughluq.
When, soon after this, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (Ghazi Malik) proceeded from Multan to Delhi, the tribe of Soomro revolted and took possession of Thatta. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq appointed Tajuddin Malik as governor of Multan and Khwájah Khatír as governor of Bhakkar and he left 'Malik Ali Sher in charge of Sehwan. In 1323, he appointed his son Muhammad Shah his heir and successor and took a written promise or agreement to the arrangement from the ministers and nobles of the state. In 1324-1325, he died of heat apoplexy.
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq established himself as a great ruler. He removed corrupt officials from his administration. He reformed the judiciary and all existing police departments. He also reduced the land revenue to 1/10th of the produce. He was an efficient administrator and a capable military commander. He introduced a number of reforms for his welfare of his subjects and suppressed revolts in distant provinces. He restored peace and stability in the Delhi Sultanate. Ghiyath al-Din was succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Tughluq, Ghiyath al-Din see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Ghazi Malik see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Malik, Ghazi see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I (Ghazi Malik) (d. 1325). Founder of the Tughluqid dynasty and ruler of India (r.1320-1325). A Turk by origin, he became governor of Dipalpur in the Punjab, held the Mongols at bay for fifteen years, and defeated Khusraw Khan, a Khalji general of Hindu origin who had apostasized from Islam and begun a reign of terror in Delhi. Contemporary Muslim historiography eulogizes him as the savior of Islam in India.
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder and first ruler (1320 – 1325) of the Turkic Muslim Tughluq dynasty in India. He was also the founder of the third city of Delhi called Tughluqabad.
About the close of his reign Alauddin Khilji had prepared an expedition of 10,000 men under Ghazi Malik to go to Debalpur to fight with the Chagatai Khanate Mongols. Ghazi Malik was thus enabled to go and secure Multan, Uch and Sindh for himself, especially as Aláuddín’s sons proved incapable and caused confusion in the affairs of the kingdom. Ghazi Malik ultimately took away the kingdom, from the possession of the house of Khiljí.
Alauddin Khilji’s son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah was a mad man and was soon removed from the throne of Delhi by the hand of a murderer. The nobles of the state then put Khusro Khan on the throne. The latter began to bestow undue favors on mischievous people and to waste public money. The Hindus began to join him in large number. Seeing this state of things, Ghazi Malik’s son Fakhr Malik left Multan secretly and joined his father, informing him of what was happening at Delhi. Then, father and son collected the forces of Sindh and Multan and hastened to Delhi to help the Muslims against the Hindus. Arriving near Delhi with 3,000 veteran soldiers, they engaged in battle with the army of Khusro Khan, and defeated them. Then making their way into Delhi they again defeated Khusro Khan in battle and he fled away. About midnight the ministers and the headmen of the place came to Ghazi Malik and his son in their camp and gave up the keys of the fort. Early in the morning, Ghazi Malik entered the city with all the pomp and glory of a King.
Ghazi Malik went into mourning for three (3) days for the death of Alauddin Khilji and his son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah. After these ceremonies were over he issued a proclamation with the view of finding out any member of the family of those princes in order that he might put him on the throne of Delhi. But as no such person could be found on search, the nobles, the troops, the learned men, the Syeds and other subjects united in selecting Ghazi Malik for the vacant post, as it was he who had removed all the cause of quarrel and disturbance in the country. Thus, in 1320, Ghazi Malik was crowned as the Sultan of Delhi with the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq and his son Fakhr Malik was given the title of Muhammad Shah Tughluq.
When, soon after this, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (Ghazi Malik) proceeded from Multan to Delhi, the tribe of Soomro revolted and took possession of Thatta. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq appointed Tajuddin Malik as governor of Multan and Khwájah Khatír as governor of Bhakkar and he left 'Malik Ali Sher in charge of Sehwan. In 1323, he appointed his son Muhammad Shah his heir and successor and took a written promise or agreement to the arrangement from the ministers and nobles of the state. In 1324-1325, he died of heat apoplexy.
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq established himself as a great ruler. He removed corrupt officials from his administration. He reformed the judiciary and all existing police departments. He also reduced the land revenue to 1/10th of the produce. He was an efficient administrator and a capable military commander. He introduced a number of reforms for his welfare of his subjects and suppressed revolts in distant provinces. He restored peace and stability in the Delhi Sultanate. Ghiyath al-Din was succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Tughluq, Ghiyath al-Din see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Ghazi Malik see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Malik, Ghazi see Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq II
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq II. Grandson of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I. He ruled from 1388 to 1389. His reign led to the rapid disintegration of the Delhi sultanate.
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq II. Grandson of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq I. He ruled from 1388 to 1389. His reign led to the rapid disintegration of the Delhi sultanate.
Ghoul
Ghoul (in Arabic, Ghul) (Ghouleh). Fabled being believed by the ancient Arabs to inhabit desert places. Assuming different forms, a ghoul is able to lead travellers astray, to fall upon them unawares, and to devour them. Ghouls appear in many stories.
A ghoul is a folkloric monster associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh, often classified as undead. The term is first attested in English in 1786, in William Beckford's Orientalist novel Vathek, which describes the ghūl of Arabian folklore.
By extension, the word ghoul is also used derogatorily to refer to a person who delights in the macabre.
In ancient Arabian folklore, the ghūl (Arabic: literally, demon) dwells in burial grounds and other uninhabited places. The ghul is a devilish type of jinn believed to be sired by Iblis.
The ghoul is a desert-dwelling, shapeshifting demon that can assume the guise of an animal, especially a hyena. It lures unwary travellers into the desert wastes to slay and devour them. The creature also preys on young children, robs graves, drinks blood, and eats the dead taking on the form of the one they previously ate.
In the Arabic language, the female form is given as ghouleh and the plural is ghilan. In colloquial Arabic, the term is sometimes used to describe a greedy or gluttonous individual.
The star Algol takes its name from the definite Arabic term, "al-ghūl", "the ghoul".
Ghul see Ghoul
demon see Ghoul
Ghouleh see Ghoul
Ghilen see Ghoul
Ghoul (in Arabic, Ghul) (Ghouleh). Fabled being believed by the ancient Arabs to inhabit desert places. Assuming different forms, a ghoul is able to lead travellers astray, to fall upon them unawares, and to devour them. Ghouls appear in many stories.
A ghoul is a folkloric monster associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh, often classified as undead. The term is first attested in English in 1786, in William Beckford's Orientalist novel Vathek, which describes the ghūl of Arabian folklore.
By extension, the word ghoul is also used derogatorily to refer to a person who delights in the macabre.
In ancient Arabian folklore, the ghūl (Arabic: literally, demon) dwells in burial grounds and other uninhabited places. The ghul is a devilish type of jinn believed to be sired by Iblis.
The ghoul is a desert-dwelling, shapeshifting demon that can assume the guise of an animal, especially a hyena. It lures unwary travellers into the desert wastes to slay and devour them. The creature also preys on young children, robs graves, drinks blood, and eats the dead taking on the form of the one they previously ate.
In the Arabic language, the female form is given as ghouleh and the plural is ghilan. In colloquial Arabic, the term is sometimes used to describe a greedy or gluttonous individual.
The star Algol takes its name from the definite Arabic term, "al-ghūl", "the ghoul".
Ghul see Ghoul
demon see Ghoul
Ghouleh see Ghoul
Ghilen see Ghoul
ghulam
ghulam (in plural form, ghilman). Arabic word which literally means “young man” or “young boy.” Originally, the term ghulam was applied to a male slave, servant or guard. However, over time, the term also came to apply to those male slaves who rose to high positions in the civil service or military. The plural of ghulam is ghilman.
The term ghilman is specifically applied to slave ghilman, attendants or guards who played a role in the running of various eastern and western Muslim states. The ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mu‘tasim bi-Allah (833-842) caused to be bought at Samarkand about three thousand Turkish slaves who were to form the nucleus of his new guard and of the new army. Their commanders began to occupy important positions and occasionally interfered in political affairs, under the ‘Abbasids in Samarra and Baghdad and in Egypt under the Tulunids, the Ikhshidids and the Fatimids.
In Persia, the institution of the ghilman began with the Turkish prisoners-of-war who fell into the hands of the Arab governors of Armenia and Khurasan. Military slavery was practised under subsequent dynasties up to the reign of the Qajar Fath ‘Ali Shah.
In India, the Muslim conquest was mainly the achievement of Turkish ghilman, known as the Mu‘izzi or Slave Kings, who ruled from 1206 to 1290. Military slaves continued to become high officers under the Khalji and Tughluq sultans. Under the Mughals, however, slaves played a very minor part in administration and in the army, although they occasionally became subordinate commanders.
In the Ottoman Empire, administration was based upon the training of young slaves for the palace service and the service of the state. The practice was inherited from the Saljuq Sultanate of Rum and continued until about 1700.
“young man” see ghulam
“young boy” see ghulam
ghilman see ghulam
ghulam (in plural form, ghilman). Arabic word which literally means “young man” or “young boy.” Originally, the term ghulam was applied to a male slave, servant or guard. However, over time, the term also came to apply to those male slaves who rose to high positions in the civil service or military. The plural of ghulam is ghilman.
The term ghilman is specifically applied to slave ghilman, attendants or guards who played a role in the running of various eastern and western Muslim states. The ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mu‘tasim bi-Allah (833-842) caused to be bought at Samarkand about three thousand Turkish slaves who were to form the nucleus of his new guard and of the new army. Their commanders began to occupy important positions and occasionally interfered in political affairs, under the ‘Abbasids in Samarra and Baghdad and in Egypt under the Tulunids, the Ikhshidids and the Fatimids.
In Persia, the institution of the ghilman began with the Turkish prisoners-of-war who fell into the hands of the Arab governors of Armenia and Khurasan. Military slavery was practised under subsequent dynasties up to the reign of the Qajar Fath ‘Ali Shah.
In India, the Muslim conquest was mainly the achievement of Turkish ghilman, known as the Mu‘izzi or Slave Kings, who ruled from 1206 to 1290. Military slaves continued to become high officers under the Khalji and Tughluq sultans. Under the Mughals, however, slaves played a very minor part in administration and in the army, although they occasionally became subordinate commanders.
In the Ottoman Empire, administration was based upon the training of young slaves for the palace service and the service of the state. The practice was inherited from the Saljuq Sultanate of Rum and continued until about 1700.
“young man” see ghulam
“young boy” see ghulam
ghilman see ghulam
Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba’i
Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba’i (1727-c.1815). Political negotiator and soldier in India. He is the author of a detailed history of India for the period from 1707 to 1781.
Ghulām Husayn Hān Ṭabāṭabā'ī Hassanī, author and historian, spent most of his life in the midst of the political vicissitudes during the waning days of the Mughal Empire, in particular those events related to the area of what is today the district of West Bengal, India. By profession he was a munshi (secretary) with a praiseworthy ability in letter writing, but it was politics that seemed to lead to his traveling from place to place and his continuous switching of patrons and supporters He appears to have had a great talent for creating connections with contemporary men of position and politicking. Ghulām Husayn Khān composed several works across a wide range of genres.
Tabataba'i, Ghulam Husayn Khan see Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba’i
Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba’i (1727-c.1815). Political negotiator and soldier in India. He is the author of a detailed history of India for the period from 1707 to 1781.
Ghulām Husayn Hān Ṭabāṭabā'ī Hassanī, author and historian, spent most of his life in the midst of the political vicissitudes during the waning days of the Mughal Empire, in particular those events related to the area of what is today the district of West Bengal, India. By profession he was a munshi (secretary) with a praiseworthy ability in letter writing, but it was politics that seemed to lead to his traveling from place to place and his continuous switching of patrons and supporters He appears to have had a great talent for creating connections with contemporary men of position and politicking. Ghulām Husayn Khān composed several works across a wide range of genres.
Tabataba'i, Ghulam Husayn Khan see Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba’i
Ghulam Muhyiuddin Anis
Ghulam Muhyiuddin Anis. Supporter of King Amanullah and, in 1927, founder of a private newspaper, named Anis after him. During the civil war period (1929), he temporarily edited Habib al-Islam (“Beloved of Islam”) the newspaper of Amir Habibullah (Kalakani). In 1931, Anis came under government control and, with the exception of the republican period (1973-1975), existed as a national, daily newspaper to the 1980s. A Tajik, Anis was born in Herat and educated in Egypt. Arrested after Nadir Shah ascended the throne, he remained in prison until his death in 1938. He is the author of Crisis and Salvation (Buhran wa Nejat) which describes Nadir’s defeat of Habibullah Kalakani.
Anis, Ghulam Muhyiuddin see Ghulam Muhyiuddin Anis.
Ghulam Muhyiuddin Anis. Supporter of King Amanullah and, in 1927, founder of a private newspaper, named Anis after him. During the civil war period (1929), he temporarily edited Habib al-Islam (“Beloved of Islam”) the newspaper of Amir Habibullah (Kalakani). In 1931, Anis came under government control and, with the exception of the republican period (1973-1975), existed as a national, daily newspaper to the 1980s. A Tajik, Anis was born in Herat and educated in Egypt. Arrested after Nadir Shah ascended the throne, he remained in prison until his death in 1938. He is the author of Crisis and Salvation (Buhran wa Nejat) which describes Nadir’s defeat of Habibullah Kalakani.
Anis, Ghulam Muhyiuddin see Ghulam Muhyiuddin Anis.
Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Ghulam Qadir Rohilla (Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila) (d. 1789). Eunuch, known for his cruel treatment of the Mughal emperor Shah ‘Alam (r.1759-1806) and his family. He deposed the Shah in 1788, had him blinded, and had every conceivable cruelty perpetrated on the royal family. He was put to death by the Marathas.
Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila was the grandson of Najibuddaula, the Rohila chief, who had invited Ahmad Shah Abdali to come to India and punish the Marhathas, which he did in 1761 at the third battle of Panipat.
The Marathas along with the help of Shah Alam took revenge of this defeat in 1772 (after the death of Najibuddaula in 1770). Ghulam Qadir Khan the grandson of Najibuddaula avenged this defeat in 1788 by routing the Maratha forces and by plucking out Shah Alam's eyes from their sockets.
Rohilla, Ghulam Qadir see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Rohila, Ghulam Qadir Khan see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Ghulam Qadir Rohilla (Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila) (d. 1789). Eunuch, known for his cruel treatment of the Mughal emperor Shah ‘Alam (r.1759-1806) and his family. He deposed the Shah in 1788, had him blinded, and had every conceivable cruelty perpetrated on the royal family. He was put to death by the Marathas.
Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila was the grandson of Najibuddaula, the Rohila chief, who had invited Ahmad Shah Abdali to come to India and punish the Marhathas, which he did in 1761 at the third battle of Panipat.
The Marathas along with the help of Shah Alam took revenge of this defeat in 1772 (after the death of Najibuddaula in 1770). Ghulam Qadir Khan the grandson of Najibuddaula avenged this defeat in 1788 by routing the Maratha forces and by plucking out Shah Alam's eyes from their sockets.
Rohilla, Ghulam Qadir see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohila see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Rohila, Ghulam Qadir Khan see Ghulam Qadir Rohilla
Ghulam-Reza Ruhani
Ghulam-Reza Ruhani (b. 1896). Islamic poet.
Ruhani, Ghulam-Reza see Ghulam-Reza Ruhani
Ghulam-Reza Ruhani (b. 1896). Islamic poet.
Ruhani, Ghulam-Reza see Ghulam-Reza Ruhani
Ghulam Tha‘lab
Ghulam Tha‘lab (d. 957). Nickname of an Arab philologist. His fame rests on his extraordinary erudition in matters of Arabic vocabulary.
Ghulam Tha‘lab (d. 957). Nickname of an Arab philologist. His fame rests on his extraordinary erudition in matters of Arabic vocabulary.
Ghumara
Ghumara (Banu Ghumara). Berber tribe of the western Maghrib, in what is now northern Morocco, who adopted Kharijite doctrines and caused difficulties to the Marinids.
Banu Ghumara see Ghumara
Ghumara (Banu Ghumara). Berber tribe of the western Maghrib, in what is now northern Morocco, who adopted Kharijite doctrines and caused difficulties to the Marinids.
Banu Ghumara see Ghumara
Ghurids
Ghurids (Ghorids) (Shansabani). Refers to a strongly Sunni eastern Iranian dynasty with its base at Ghur, the mountainous territory in northwestern Afghanistan. Its capital was at Firuzkuh, (fl.c.1000-1214). Having been vassals to the Ghaznavids and the Saljuqs, the Ghurids became a major power in Khurasan, Afghanistan and northern India in the twelfth century reaching their apogee between 1163 and 1206. The Ghurids were generous patrons of art and literature. Sultan ‘Ala’ al-Din Muhammad was deposed in 1214 by the Khwarazm-Shah, also called ‘Ala’ al-Din Muhammad (r.1200-1220).
The Ghurids were an Afghan dynasty in Afghanistan and northern India from 1150 to 1206/1212. Their main capitals were Firuz, and also Lahore in 1186. The Shansabani tribe from the mountains of central Afghanistan in the Ghur region, who only came to Islam in the eleventh century and had been under the authority of the Ghaznavids since 1010. In 1099, the Ghurids were ruled from Ghazna by Ghaznavid governors, but from 1146 enjoyed self-rule in Firuzkuh. They plundered Ghazna in 1150 under Ala al-Din Husain (r. 1149-1161) and by 1161 had taken possession of the Afghan land held by the Ghaznavids. From 1178 they made conquests in India. From Peshawar to the Sind coast (1182). In 1186 they conquered Lahore and removed the Ghaznavids. There followed dual rule by the elder Ghiyath al-Din (r. 1163-1203) in Firuzkuh and Herat and his brother, Muizz al-Din (r. 1173-1206), from 1203 overall ruler in Ghazna, from 1186 in Lahore. In 1193, the Ghurids captured Delhi and extended their empire to Gujarat in the south and Bengal in the east (1202). The empire disintegrated rapidly following the assassination of Muizz al-Din. Ghurid forces had fallen to the Khwarazm Shahs by 1212 and India in 1206 to the Turkish general Aibak, who established the sultanate of Delhi.
The Ghurids or Ghorids (Persian: self-designation: Shansabānī) were a Muslim dynasty of Iranian origin in Khorasan. The Ghurid empire was based in the region of Ghor (now a province of modern Afghanistan), and stretched over a vast area that included the whole of Afghanistan, parts of modern Iran and South Asia (India and Pakistan).
Ghurids were bounded to Ghaznavids and Seljuks almost 150 years before 1148. Between 1175 and 1192, under the leadership of Muhammad of Ghor the Ghurids put an end to Ghaznavid rule in India. They also captured their base in Lahore and founded the second Islamic state in India called the Ghurid state (1148-1215). This was named after Ghur, their native province, located in present day Afghanistan between Herat and Ghazni. Sultans of this state did not remain in India permanently; instead, they settled in their capital Ghazna and ruled India through their Turkic Ghulams, or slave warriors. They forced the Khilij, who inhabited lands ruled by the Ghurids' Ghaznavid neighbors, to capitulate to their rule. They also occupied Uch, Multan, Peshawar, Lahore, and Delhi.
In 1206, one of the Ghurid generals, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the conqueror of Delhi, made himself independent and founded the first of a succession of dynasties collectively known as the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). After the Delhi Sultanate, the Khilij began to create a "slave-dynasty" of India. Sultan Mohammed El Ghurid bought large numbers of ghulams and looked after their education, preparing them for invasion and holy war. It is reported that whenever he was reminded of the necessity of having a son to preserve his rule, he responded with, "I have thousands of sons (i.e., ghulams)".
Some of these ghulams became rulers and leaders. Yildiz became the ruler of Ghazna, and Nasir al-Din Kubacha became a ruler of the Sindhi peoples. Qutb al-Din Aybak, in Delhi, had the most influence of all of Mohammed's "heirs". Thus, Mohammed al-Ghurid managed, due to his ghulams - especially Aybak - to capture all the Indian lands to the north of the Vindhya Mountains as far as the mouth of the Ganges River. Islam spread there. Its Hindu temples were changed into mosques and its Rajas paid tribute.
In 1206, Sultan Mohammed al-Ghurid was assassinated on the banks of the River Sind by a radical member of an Ismaili Muslim sect, most popularly known as the Hashshashin. On his death, the importance of Ghazna and Ghur dissipated and they were replaced by Delhi as the Islamic capital for the Ghurid Sultans in India.
The Ghurids were great patrons of Persian culture - language, identity, arts and literature were all of great importance to them, although many of the written works have been lost. They transferred the Khurasanian architecture of their native lands to India, several great examples of which can be seen in the Minars they built. Ghurids were demolished by Khwarezmids in 1215.
It is claimed that the Shansabānī had ancestral lines to the Sassanian royal family who - led by Prince Pirooz - fled with some hundred thousand followers from Western Iran to Khorasan, following the Arabic conquest of Persia, and that they were still Zoroastrians, isolated from all Arab-Islamic influence until the 11th century when they were eventually converted to Islam by the Samanid and Ghaznavid ghazis. Their isolation in the rough terrain of Ghor's mountains may be an explanation to why their language remained conservative and free of Arabic influence.
The language of the Ghurids is subject to some controversy. What is known with certainty is that it was significantly different from the New Persian literary language which dominated the kingly courts of the eastern Islamic lands. According to some old sources, it was related to Middle Persian, the language of the Sassanians. That would - to some extent - support the theory that the Ghurids were related to House of Sāsān and indeed formed a part of the eastward migration of Persian families following the Arab-Islamic conquest of Persia.
Some modern linguists also connect the language to certain Eastern Iranian languages, most of all to Yaghnobi which itself derives from ancient Sogdian.
Nevertheless, like the Samanids and Ghaznavids, the Ghurids were great patrons of the New Persian literature, poetry, and culture and promoted these in their courts as their own.
Ghorids see Ghurids
Shansabani see Ghurids
Ghurids (Ghorids) (Shansabani). Refers to a strongly Sunni eastern Iranian dynasty with its base at Ghur, the mountainous territory in northwestern Afghanistan. Its capital was at Firuzkuh, (fl.c.1000-1214). Having been vassals to the Ghaznavids and the Saljuqs, the Ghurids became a major power in Khurasan, Afghanistan and northern India in the twelfth century reaching their apogee between 1163 and 1206. The Ghurids were generous patrons of art and literature. Sultan ‘Ala’ al-Din Muhammad was deposed in 1214 by the Khwarazm-Shah, also called ‘Ala’ al-Din Muhammad (r.1200-1220).
The Ghurids were an Afghan dynasty in Afghanistan and northern India from 1150 to 1206/1212. Their main capitals were Firuz, and also Lahore in 1186. The Shansabani tribe from the mountains of central Afghanistan in the Ghur region, who only came to Islam in the eleventh century and had been under the authority of the Ghaznavids since 1010. In 1099, the Ghurids were ruled from Ghazna by Ghaznavid governors, but from 1146 enjoyed self-rule in Firuzkuh. They plundered Ghazna in 1150 under Ala al-Din Husain (r. 1149-1161) and by 1161 had taken possession of the Afghan land held by the Ghaznavids. From 1178 they made conquests in India. From Peshawar to the Sind coast (1182). In 1186 they conquered Lahore and removed the Ghaznavids. There followed dual rule by the elder Ghiyath al-Din (r. 1163-1203) in Firuzkuh and Herat and his brother, Muizz al-Din (r. 1173-1206), from 1203 overall ruler in Ghazna, from 1186 in Lahore. In 1193, the Ghurids captured Delhi and extended their empire to Gujarat in the south and Bengal in the east (1202). The empire disintegrated rapidly following the assassination of Muizz al-Din. Ghurid forces had fallen to the Khwarazm Shahs by 1212 and India in 1206 to the Turkish general Aibak, who established the sultanate of Delhi.
The Ghurids or Ghorids (Persian: self-designation: Shansabānī) were a Muslim dynasty of Iranian origin in Khorasan. The Ghurid empire was based in the region of Ghor (now a province of modern Afghanistan), and stretched over a vast area that included the whole of Afghanistan, parts of modern Iran and South Asia (India and Pakistan).
Ghurids were bounded to Ghaznavids and Seljuks almost 150 years before 1148. Between 1175 and 1192, under the leadership of Muhammad of Ghor the Ghurids put an end to Ghaznavid rule in India. They also captured their base in Lahore and founded the second Islamic state in India called the Ghurid state (1148-1215). This was named after Ghur, their native province, located in present day Afghanistan between Herat and Ghazni. Sultans of this state did not remain in India permanently; instead, they settled in their capital Ghazna and ruled India through their Turkic Ghulams, or slave warriors. They forced the Khilij, who inhabited lands ruled by the Ghurids' Ghaznavid neighbors, to capitulate to their rule. They also occupied Uch, Multan, Peshawar, Lahore, and Delhi.
In 1206, one of the Ghurid generals, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the conqueror of Delhi, made himself independent and founded the first of a succession of dynasties collectively known as the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). After the Delhi Sultanate, the Khilij began to create a "slave-dynasty" of India. Sultan Mohammed El Ghurid bought large numbers of ghulams and looked after their education, preparing them for invasion and holy war. It is reported that whenever he was reminded of the necessity of having a son to preserve his rule, he responded with, "I have thousands of sons (i.e., ghulams)".
Some of these ghulams became rulers and leaders. Yildiz became the ruler of Ghazna, and Nasir al-Din Kubacha became a ruler of the Sindhi peoples. Qutb al-Din Aybak, in Delhi, had the most influence of all of Mohammed's "heirs". Thus, Mohammed al-Ghurid managed, due to his ghulams - especially Aybak - to capture all the Indian lands to the north of the Vindhya Mountains as far as the mouth of the Ganges River. Islam spread there. Its Hindu temples were changed into mosques and its Rajas paid tribute.
In 1206, Sultan Mohammed al-Ghurid was assassinated on the banks of the River Sind by a radical member of an Ismaili Muslim sect, most popularly known as the Hashshashin. On his death, the importance of Ghazna and Ghur dissipated and they were replaced by Delhi as the Islamic capital for the Ghurid Sultans in India.
The Ghurids were great patrons of Persian culture - language, identity, arts and literature were all of great importance to them, although many of the written works have been lost. They transferred the Khurasanian architecture of their native lands to India, several great examples of which can be seen in the Minars they built. Ghurids were demolished by Khwarezmids in 1215.
It is claimed that the Shansabānī had ancestral lines to the Sassanian royal family who - led by Prince Pirooz - fled with some hundred thousand followers from Western Iran to Khorasan, following the Arabic conquest of Persia, and that they were still Zoroastrians, isolated from all Arab-Islamic influence until the 11th century when they were eventually converted to Islam by the Samanid and Ghaznavid ghazis. Their isolation in the rough terrain of Ghor's mountains may be an explanation to why their language remained conservative and free of Arabic influence.
The language of the Ghurids is subject to some controversy. What is known with certainty is that it was significantly different from the New Persian literary language which dominated the kingly courts of the eastern Islamic lands. According to some old sources, it was related to Middle Persian, the language of the Sassanians. That would - to some extent - support the theory that the Ghurids were related to House of Sāsān and indeed formed a part of the eastward migration of Persian families following the Arab-Islamic conquest of Persia.
Some modern linguists also connect the language to certain Eastern Iranian languages, most of all to Yaghnobi which itself derives from ancient Sogdian.
Nevertheless, like the Samanids and Ghaznavids, the Ghurids were great patrons of the New Persian literature, poetry, and culture and promoted these in their courts as their own.
Ghorids see Ghurids
Shansabani see Ghurids
Ghuzz
Ghuzz (Oghuz). Refers to a political confederation of nomadic tribes that played an important role in the history of the Eurasian steppe and in Southwest Asia. Its influence was particularly important in Southwest Asia, as it gave rise to the dynasties of the Seljuks, Aq-Qoyunlu, and Ottomans.
The name appears as early as the seventh century in the Orkhon Inscriptions in the form Tokuz Oghuz (“nine clans”), which refers to a confederation that belonged to the Turkut empire. During the eighth century, the Ghuzz, as they are referred to in Arabic sources, began to move westward toward the Aral Sea, where they entered into the Islamic world around 775. This early invasion was the main factor in the ninth century migration of the Magyars and Pechenegs across the Black Sea steppe.
By the tenth century, a major Ghuzz state, Oghuz Yabgu, had arisen on the north coast of the Aral Sea. Its center was the city of Yanikent. This state was important not for its existence but for its fall, which was tied in with two major events: the rise of the Seljuks and the appearance of the Cuman (Kipchak, Polovtsi) in western Asia and eastern Europe. This came about as a result of nomadic migrations from eastern Asia in the middle of the eleventh century set in motion by the Khitai, who caused a chain reaction ending with the Cuman, who expelled the Ghuzz from the Aral Sea. At this time the Oghuz steppe became the Kipchak steppe. The Ghuzz then split into a northern group called the Torki, who migrated with the Cuman, disappearing around 1171, and a southern group that became the Seljuks. From this point on the name Ghuzz merges with the name Turkmen, which designated those nomadic groups outside the control of the Seljuks: the Aq-Qoyunlu, and later the Ottomans.
Oghuz see Ghuzz
Ghuzz (Oghuz). Refers to a political confederation of nomadic tribes that played an important role in the history of the Eurasian steppe and in Southwest Asia. Its influence was particularly important in Southwest Asia, as it gave rise to the dynasties of the Seljuks, Aq-Qoyunlu, and Ottomans.
The name appears as early as the seventh century in the Orkhon Inscriptions in the form Tokuz Oghuz (“nine clans”), which refers to a confederation that belonged to the Turkut empire. During the eighth century, the Ghuzz, as they are referred to in Arabic sources, began to move westward toward the Aral Sea, where they entered into the Islamic world around 775. This early invasion was the main factor in the ninth century migration of the Magyars and Pechenegs across the Black Sea steppe.
By the tenth century, a major Ghuzz state, Oghuz Yabgu, had arisen on the north coast of the Aral Sea. Its center was the city of Yanikent. This state was important not for its existence but for its fall, which was tied in with two major events: the rise of the Seljuks and the appearance of the Cuman (Kipchak, Polovtsi) in western Asia and eastern Europe. This came about as a result of nomadic migrations from eastern Asia in the middle of the eleventh century set in motion by the Khitai, who caused a chain reaction ending with the Cuman, who expelled the Ghuzz from the Aral Sea. At this time the Oghuz steppe became the Kipchak steppe. The Ghuzz then split into a northern group called the Torki, who migrated with the Cuman, disappearing around 1171, and a southern group that became the Seljuks. From this point on the name Ghuzz merges with the name Turkmen, which designated those nomadic groups outside the control of the Seljuks: the Aq-Qoyunlu, and later the Ottomans.
Oghuz see Ghuzz
GIA
GIA. See Group Islamique arme.
Group Islamique arme see GIA.
GIA. See Group Islamique arme.
Group Islamique arme see GIA.
Gibran, Khalil
Jabran Khalil Jabran (Khalil Gibran) (Khalil Jibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran bin Mikhā'īl bin Sa'ad) (January 6, 1883, Bsharri, Lebanon – April 10, 1931, New York City, New York, United States). Lebanese American writer, artist and poet. Having stayed off and on in Boston and Paris, he settled in New York in 1912. He wrote in Arabic and English. His The Prophet is his masterpiece.
Khalil Gibran, Gibran also spelled Jibran, Khalil also spelled Kahlil, Arabic name in full Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān (born Jan. 6, 1883, Bsharrī, Lebanon—died April 10, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Lebanese American philosophical essayist, novelist, poet, and artist.
Having received his primary education in Beirut, Khalil Gibran immigrated with his parents to Boston in 1895. He returned to Lebanon in 1898 and studied in Beirut, where he excelled in the Arabic language. On his return to Boston in 1903, he published his first literary essays; in 1907 he met Mary Haskell, who was to be his benefactor all his life and who made it possible for him to study art in Paris. In 1912 Gibran settled in New York City and devoted himself to writing literary essayGibs and short stories, both in Arabic and in English, and to painting.
Gibran’s literary and artistic output is highly romantic in outlook and was influenced by the Bible, Friedrich Nietzsche, and William Blake. His writings in both languages, which deal with such themes as love, death, nature, and a longing for the homeland, are full of lyrical outpourings and are expressive of Gibran’s deeply religious and mystic nature.
Gibran’s principal works in Arabic are: ʿArāʾ-is al-Murūj (1910; Nymphs of the Valley); Damʿah wa Ibtisāmah (1914; A Tear and a Smile); Al-Arwāḥ al-Mutamarridah (1920; Spirits Rebellious); Al-Ajniḥah al-Mutakassirah (1922; The Broken Wings); Al-Awasif (1923; “The Storms”); and Al-Mawākib (1923; The Procession), poems. His principal works in English are The Madman (1918), The Forerunner (1920), The Prophet (1923), Sand and Foam (1926), and Jesus, the Son of Man (1928).
Jabran Khalil Jabran (Khalil Gibran) (Khalil Jibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran) (Gibran Khalil Gibran bin Mikhā'īl bin Sa'ad) (January 6, 1883, Bsharri, Lebanon – April 10, 1931, New York City, New York, United States). Lebanese American writer, artist and poet. Having stayed off and on in Boston and Paris, he settled in New York in 1912. He wrote in Arabic and English. His The Prophet is his masterpiece.
Khalil Gibran, Gibran also spelled Jibran, Khalil also spelled Kahlil, Arabic name in full Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān (born Jan. 6, 1883, Bsharrī, Lebanon—died April 10, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Lebanese American philosophical essayist, novelist, poet, and artist.
Having received his primary education in Beirut, Khalil Gibran immigrated with his parents to Boston in 1895. He returned to Lebanon in 1898 and studied in Beirut, where he excelled in the Arabic language. On his return to Boston in 1903, he published his first literary essays; in 1907 he met Mary Haskell, who was to be his benefactor all his life and who made it possible for him to study art in Paris. In 1912 Gibran settled in New York City and devoted himself to writing literary essayGibs and short stories, both in Arabic and in English, and to painting.
Gibran’s literary and artistic output is highly romantic in outlook and was influenced by the Bible, Friedrich Nietzsche, and William Blake. His writings in both languages, which deal with such themes as love, death, nature, and a longing for the homeland, are full of lyrical outpourings and are expressive of Gibran’s deeply religious and mystic nature.
Gibran’s principal works in Arabic are: ʿArāʾ-is al-Murūj (1910; Nymphs of the Valley); Damʿah wa Ibtisāmah (1914; A Tear and a Smile); Al-Arwāḥ al-Mutamarridah (1920; Spirits Rebellious); Al-Ajniḥah al-Mutakassirah (1922; The Broken Wings); Al-Awasif (1923; “The Storms”); and Al-Mawākib (1923; The Procession), poems. His principal works in English are The Madman (1918), The Forerunner (1920), The Prophet (1923), Sand and Foam (1926), and Jesus, the Son of Man (1928).
Gilani, 'Abdul Qadir
ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī, known by admirers as Muḥyī l-Dīn Abū Muḥammad bin Abū Sāliḥ ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Gīlānī al-Ḥasanī wa'l-Ḥusaynī, was a Hanbali Sunni Muslim preacher, ascetic, mystic, jurist, and theologian, known for being the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya tariqa (Sufi order) of Sufism.
He was born on 1 Ramadan 470 AH (March 23, 1078) in the town of Na'if in Gilan, Iran, and died on Monday, February 21, 1166 (11 Rabi' al-Thani 561 AH), in Baghdad. He was a Persian Hanbali Sunni jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. The Qadiriyya tariqa is named after him.
The honorific Muhiyudin denotes his status with many Sufis as a "reviver of religion". Gilani (Arabic al-Jilani) refers to his place of birth, Gilan. However, Gilani also carried the epithet Baghdadi, referring to his residence and burial in Baghdad.
Gilani's father, Abu Saleh Moosah, was from a Sayyid lineage, tracing his descent from Hasan ibn Ali, a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Abu Saleh was respected as a saint by the people of his day. Gilani's mother, Ummul Khair Fatima, was also a Sayyid, having been a descendant of Muhammad al-Jawad, himself descended from Husayn ibn Ali, the younger brother of Hasan.
Gilani spent his early life in Gilan, the province of his birth. In 1095, at the age of eighteen, he went to Baghdad. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law under Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi and Ibn Aqil. He studied hadith with Abu Muhammad Ja'far al-Sarraj. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. (A detailed description of his various teachers and subjects are included below). After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years wandering in the deserts of Iraq.
Al-Gilani belonged to the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools of law. He placed Shafi'i jurisprudence (fiqh) on an equal footing with the Hanbali school (madhhab), and used to give fatwa according to both of them simultaneously.
He established Qadiriyya tariqa order, with its many offshoots, is widespread, various parts of the world, and can also be found in the United Kingdom, Africa, Turkey, Indonesia, Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Balkans, Russia, Palestine, China, and East and West Africa.
The Qadiriyya flourished, surviving the Mongolian conquest of Baghdad in 1258, and remained an influential Sunni institution. After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, the legend of Gilani was further spread by a text entitled The Joy of the Secrets in Abdul-Qadir's Mysterious Deeds (Bahjat al-asrar fi ba'd manaqib 'Abd al-Qadir) attributed to Nur al-Din 'Ali al-Shattanufi, who depicted Gilani as the ultimate channel of divine grace and helped the Qadiri order to spread far beyond the region of Baghdad.
By the end of the fifteenth century, the Qadiriyya had distinct branches and had spread to Morocco, Spain, Turkey, India, Ethiopia, Somalia, and present-day Mali. Established Sufi sheikhs often adopted the Qadiriyya tradition without abandoning leadership of their local communities. During the Safavid dynasty's rule of Baghdad from 1508 to 1534, the sheikh of the Qadiriyya was appointed chief Sufi of Baghdad and the surrounding lands. Shortly after the Ottoman Empire conquered Baghdad in 1534, Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned a dome to be built on the mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, establishing the Qadiriyya as his main allies in Iraq.
In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, al-Mazkhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning, he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Qur'an. He was said to have been a convincing preacher and converted numerous Jews and Christians. He was able to reconcile the mystical nature of Sufism with the sober demands of Islamic Law.
Gilani died on February 21, 1166 (11 Rabi' al-Thani 561 AH) at the age of 87. His body was entombed in a shrine within his madrasa in Babul-Sheikh, Rusafa on the east bank of the Tigirs in Baghdad, Iraq.
During the reign of the Safavid Shah Ismail I, Gilani's shrine was destroyed. However, in 1535, the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had a dome built over the shrine, which still exists.
1 Ramadan is celebrated as Gilani's birthday while his death anniversary is on 11 Rabi' al-Thani, although some scholars give 29 Sha'ban and 17 Rabi' al-Thani as his birth and death days. In the Indian subcontinent, his 'urs, or death anniversary, is called Giwaryee Shareef, or Honoured Day,
Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh (Bilgames). The Epic of Gilgamesh is an important poetic cycle of ancient Sumeria which was later expanded in the Akkadian language of Babylonia. The hero, a half-historical, half-legendary demigod, is identified with the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk (Warka) in Babylonia about 2700 B.C.T. The name Gilgamesh in Sumerian signifies “father, hero” or “the old one, the hero.” In the stories, Gilgamesh has a boon companion, Enkidu, a wild man tamed by a courtesan. Among their adventures together is a journey to subdue the dreaded Huwawa, guardian of the cedar forest.
Ishtar, goddess of love, proposes marriage to Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh spurns her advances. When the two friends destroy the divine bull which Ishtar sends to punish them, the gods avenge themselves by killing Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu. Afterwards Gilgamesh travels to the Babylonian “Noah”, Utnapishtim, survivor of the Great Flood, to learn the secret of immortality. Utnapishtim shows Gilgamesh a magic plant which renews youth, but this is stolen by a serpent as Gilgamesh washes at a well. Finally, Enkidu’s shadow returns to tell Gilgamesh the secrets of the gloomy world of the departed. Elements from these stories have been detected in the Odyssey, the Aeneid, and other epics and sagas of the Classical and the Medieval worlds.
Apart from its Sumerian prototype, the work is preserved in Akkadian in 12 tablets from the library of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (669-630 B.C.T.), and also fragments in Hittite and Hurrian. A fragment dating from about 1400 B.C.T. has been found at Megiddo in Palestine, so it is not surprising to find resemblances between the eleventh tablet of Gilgamesh, which describes the Flood and the Ark, and the Hebrew narrative in Genesis.
Timeless and philosophically profound, the epic of Gilgamesh is impregnated with deep pessimism. The adventures of Gilgamesh and Enkidu transcend the confines of time and space, for they revolve about elemental forces and about human problems common to mankind throughout the ages. Dignified and enigmatic, and yet wonderfully warm and immediate in their appeal, these stories are essential to the understanding of civilized man at an early, critical stage of world history.
Bilgames see Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh (Bilgames). The Epic of Gilgamesh is an important poetic cycle of ancient Sumeria which was later expanded in the Akkadian language of Babylonia. The hero, a half-historical, half-legendary demigod, is identified with the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk (Warka) in Babylonia about 2700 B.C.T. The name Gilgamesh in Sumerian signifies “father, hero” or “the old one, the hero.” In the stories, Gilgamesh has a boon companion, Enkidu, a wild man tamed by a courtesan. Among their adventures together is a journey to subdue the dreaded Huwawa, guardian of the cedar forest.
Ishtar, goddess of love, proposes marriage to Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh spurns her advances. When the two friends destroy the divine bull which Ishtar sends to punish them, the gods avenge themselves by killing Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu. Afterwards Gilgamesh travels to the Babylonian “Noah”, Utnapishtim, survivor of the Great Flood, to learn the secret of immortality. Utnapishtim shows Gilgamesh a magic plant which renews youth, but this is stolen by a serpent as Gilgamesh washes at a well. Finally, Enkidu’s shadow returns to tell Gilgamesh the secrets of the gloomy world of the departed. Elements from these stories have been detected in the Odyssey, the Aeneid, and other epics and sagas of the Classical and the Medieval worlds.
Apart from its Sumerian prototype, the work is preserved in Akkadian in 12 tablets from the library of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (669-630 B.C.T.), and also fragments in Hittite and Hurrian. A fragment dating from about 1400 B.C.T. has been found at Megiddo in Palestine, so it is not surprising to find resemblances between the eleventh tablet of Gilgamesh, which describes the Flood and the Ark, and the Hebrew narrative in Genesis.
Timeless and philosophically profound, the epic of Gilgamesh is impregnated with deep pessimism. The adventures of Gilgamesh and Enkidu transcend the confines of time and space, for they revolve about elemental forces and about human problems common to mankind throughout the ages. Dignified and enigmatic, and yet wonderfully warm and immediate in their appeal, these stories are essential to the understanding of civilized man at an early, critical stage of world history.
Bilgames see Gilgamesh
Gimr
Gimr. A people of Sudan. The Gimr live predominantly on their ancestral land, Dar Gimr, which is situated on the Sudanese side of the international frontier with Chad. The Gimr are bounded on the north by the Zaghawa, on the west by the Tama, on the south by the Erenga and Mileri and on the east by Arab pastoral nomads such as the Darrok and sections of the Mahamid.
Although the Gimr speak only Arabic and claim Arab descent via the Jacaliyyin of the Nile River, they probably constitute an indigenous ethnic group which once formed part of the Tama language group.
Gimr historical traditions are more deeply rooted and better attested and remembered than those of the majority of their neighbors. Before the Gimr were conquered by the Keira sultanate of Dar Fur in the early years of the eighteenth century, the Gimr exercised control over the neighboring Zaghawa, Tama and Mileri. The old capital of this Gimr empire is reputed to be a site of ruins in what is now Dar Tama, in Chad. Many of the administrative titles which were in use at that time have survived in Gimr folklore.
The history of the Gimr during the past century has been extremely checkered. As a minor state situated between the two regional superpowers of the nineteenth century (the sultanates of Wadai and Darfur), Dar Gimr had been a tributary of the latter for most of 150 years, when in 1874 their overlords were conquered by the Turko-Egyptian administration, which had ruled the Nile Valley since 1821. The Gimr paid an annual tribute to their new overlords until 1882, when the Mahdiyya defeated this “foreign” government. For a number of years the Gimr paid tribute to the Mahdists. However, when Mahdist armies made their appearance in the region and threatened the autonomy of the Gimr state, the latter joined other, similarly weak polities, and together they rose into armed struggle.
In contrast to the sultanate of Masalit in the south, which made a clever use of the unstable political situation of the time to consolidate and extend its newly found independence from their Fur overlords, the Gimr suffered heavily at the hands of the armies and raiding parties of the Mahdists, the Masalit, the Fur and the French. Between 1880 and 1910, each of them contributed to laying waste to Dar Gimr and putting its people to flight. The Gimr sultan of that time, who saw all these foreign powers imperil his empire’s sanctity, acquired the nickname of “the one whose saddle is outside,” meaning that he was always prepared to flee.
Dar Gimr became part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan after the conclusion of the border negotiations with the French in 1924. Until his death, the Gimr sultan, Idris (who was convinced that he would outlive the British as he had done all previous aggressors), was given carte blanche to tax and administer Dar Gimr. However, many commoners literally escaped the predations of their countless rulers. Also, poor rains, locust plagues and the introduction of taxes to be paid in cash caused great hardship among the Gimr. This, coupled with their hatred of being administered by “foreigners,” caused a large-scale migration of Gimr either to regions with a better rainfall and better trading perspectives or to the Nile Valley in search of wage labor and spiritual guidance on the cotton plantations of the Jazira, which were owned by the one who might free them from the “Christian unbelievers,” namely, the son of the Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi.
Gimr. A people of Sudan. The Gimr live predominantly on their ancestral land, Dar Gimr, which is situated on the Sudanese side of the international frontier with Chad. The Gimr are bounded on the north by the Zaghawa, on the west by the Tama, on the south by the Erenga and Mileri and on the east by Arab pastoral nomads such as the Darrok and sections of the Mahamid.
Although the Gimr speak only Arabic and claim Arab descent via the Jacaliyyin of the Nile River, they probably constitute an indigenous ethnic group which once formed part of the Tama language group.
Gimr historical traditions are more deeply rooted and better attested and remembered than those of the majority of their neighbors. Before the Gimr were conquered by the Keira sultanate of Dar Fur in the early years of the eighteenth century, the Gimr exercised control over the neighboring Zaghawa, Tama and Mileri. The old capital of this Gimr empire is reputed to be a site of ruins in what is now Dar Tama, in Chad. Many of the administrative titles which were in use at that time have survived in Gimr folklore.
The history of the Gimr during the past century has been extremely checkered. As a minor state situated between the two regional superpowers of the nineteenth century (the sultanates of Wadai and Darfur), Dar Gimr had been a tributary of the latter for most of 150 years, when in 1874 their overlords were conquered by the Turko-Egyptian administration, which had ruled the Nile Valley since 1821. The Gimr paid an annual tribute to their new overlords until 1882, when the Mahdiyya defeated this “foreign” government. For a number of years the Gimr paid tribute to the Mahdists. However, when Mahdist armies made their appearance in the region and threatened the autonomy of the Gimr state, the latter joined other, similarly weak polities, and together they rose into armed struggle.
In contrast to the sultanate of Masalit in the south, which made a clever use of the unstable political situation of the time to consolidate and extend its newly found independence from their Fur overlords, the Gimr suffered heavily at the hands of the armies and raiding parties of the Mahdists, the Masalit, the Fur and the French. Between 1880 and 1910, each of them contributed to laying waste to Dar Gimr and putting its people to flight. The Gimr sultan of that time, who saw all these foreign powers imperil his empire’s sanctity, acquired the nickname of “the one whose saddle is outside,” meaning that he was always prepared to flee.
Dar Gimr became part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan after the conclusion of the border negotiations with the French in 1924. Until his death, the Gimr sultan, Idris (who was convinced that he would outlive the British as he had done all previous aggressors), was given carte blanche to tax and administer Dar Gimr. However, many commoners literally escaped the predations of their countless rulers. Also, poor rains, locust plagues and the introduction of taxes to be paid in cash caused great hardship among the Gimr. This, coupled with their hatred of being administered by “foreigners,” caused a large-scale migration of Gimr either to regions with a better rainfall and better trading perspectives or to the Nile Valley in search of wage labor and spiritual guidance on the cotton plantations of the Jazira, which were owned by the one who might free them from the “Christian unbelievers,” namely, the son of the Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi.
Giray
Giray (Guirey) (Ghirat) (Ghiray) (Geray). Cognomen (surname) borne by the members of the dynasty which ruled in the Crimea from the beginning of the fifteenth century until 1783. The family was descended from a grandson of Jenghiz Khan.
Giray, alternative spellings Guirey, Ghirai, Ghiray, or Geray, is the Genghisid dynasty which reigned in the Khanate of Crimea from its formation in 1427 until its downfall in 1783. The dynasty also supplied several khans of Kazan and Astrakhan between 1521 and 1550. Apart from the royal Girays, there was also a lateral branch, the Choban Girays (Çoban Geraylar). Before reaching the age of majority, young Girays were brought up in one of the Circassian tribes, where they were instructed in the arts of war. The Giray khans were elected by other Crimean Tatar dynasts, called myrzas (mırzalar). They also elected an heir apparent, called the qalgha sultan (qalğa sultan). In later centuries, the Ottoman Sultan obtained the right of installing and deposing the khans at his will.
According to some scholars, the Girays were regarded as the second family of the Ottoman Empire after the House of Ottoman.
During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Giray Khan was second to the Ottoman Emperor, and superior to the Grand Vizier, in the Ottoman protocol. After the rebellion of Semiz Mehmed Giray, the sultan demoted the Crimean Khan to the level of Grand Vizier. The Giray Khans were also sovereigns of their own realm. They could mint coins, make law by decree, and had their own tughras.
After the khanate's annexation by Imperial Russia in 1783, the last khan Şahin Giray remained nominally in power until 1787, when he took refuge in the Ottoman empire, and was executed in Rhodes.
Other dynasts were permitted by the Russian authorities to reside in their Bakhchisaray palace. Selim III's young son, Qattı Giray, was converted by missionaries to Protestantism and married a Scottish heiress.
Since annexation most of the Girays have lived in Turkey. Some of them, however, have lived in other countries. The last Crimean Khan, Şahin Giray's, grandsons and daughters lived in Bursa and Istanbul.
Giray (Guirey) (Ghirat) (Ghiray) (Geray). Cognomen (surname) borne by the members of the dynasty which ruled in the Crimea from the beginning of the fifteenth century until 1783. The family was descended from a grandson of Jenghiz Khan.
Giray, alternative spellings Guirey, Ghirai, Ghiray, or Geray, is the Genghisid dynasty which reigned in the Khanate of Crimea from its formation in 1427 until its downfall in 1783. The dynasty also supplied several khans of Kazan and Astrakhan between 1521 and 1550. Apart from the royal Girays, there was also a lateral branch, the Choban Girays (Çoban Geraylar). Before reaching the age of majority, young Girays were brought up in one of the Circassian tribes, where they were instructed in the arts of war. The Giray khans were elected by other Crimean Tatar dynasts, called myrzas (mırzalar). They also elected an heir apparent, called the qalgha sultan (qalğa sultan). In later centuries, the Ottoman Sultan obtained the right of installing and deposing the khans at his will.
According to some scholars, the Girays were regarded as the second family of the Ottoman Empire after the House of Ottoman.
During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Giray Khan was second to the Ottoman Emperor, and superior to the Grand Vizier, in the Ottoman protocol. After the rebellion of Semiz Mehmed Giray, the sultan demoted the Crimean Khan to the level of Grand Vizier. The Giray Khans were also sovereigns of their own realm. They could mint coins, make law by decree, and had their own tughras.
After the khanate's annexation by Imperial Russia in 1783, the last khan Şahin Giray remained nominally in power until 1787, when he took refuge in the Ottoman empire, and was executed in Rhodes.
Other dynasts were permitted by the Russian authorities to reside in their Bakhchisaray palace. Selim III's young son, Qattı Giray, was converted by missionaries to Protestantism and married a Scottish heiress.
Since annexation most of the Girays have lived in Turkey. Some of them, however, have lived in other countries. The last Crimean Khan, Şahin Giray's, grandsons and daughters lived in Bursa and Istanbul.
Gisu Daraz
Gisu Daraz (Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz) (1321-1422). Celebrated Cishti saint, scholar and author of India. He knew several languages, was a prolific writer and was fully conversant with Hindu folklore and mythology.
In July 1321, about the time Ulugh Khan's army was sent to Warangal to recover the unpaid tribute owed by Pratapa Rudra, an infant son was born in Delhi to a distinguished family of Sayyids (Saiyids) – that is, men who claimed descent from the Prophet. Although he lived most of his life in Delhi, Sayyid (Saiyid) Muhammad Husaini Gisu Daraz would become known mainly for his work in the Deccan, where he died in 1422 at the ripe age of just over a hundred years.
As seen in the extract from Firishta's history quoted above, this figure occupies a very special place in Deccani popular religion: soon after his death his tomb-shrine in Gulbarga became the most important object of Muslim devotion in the Deccan. It remains so today. He also stands out in the Muslim mystical tradition, as he was the first Indian shaikh to put his thoughts directly to writing, as opposed to having disciples record his conversations. But most importantly, Gisu Daraz contributed to the stabilization and indigenization of Indo-Muslim society and polity in the Deccan, as earlier generations of Sufi shaikhs had already done in Tughluq north India. In the broader context of Indo-Muslim thought and practice, his career helped transform the Deccan from what had been an infidel land available for plunder by north Indian dynasts, to a legally inviolable abode of peace.
Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz see Gisu Daraz
Gisu Daraz (Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz) (1321-1422). Celebrated Cishti saint, scholar and author of India. He knew several languages, was a prolific writer and was fully conversant with Hindu folklore and mythology.
In July 1321, about the time Ulugh Khan's army was sent to Warangal to recover the unpaid tribute owed by Pratapa Rudra, an infant son was born in Delhi to a distinguished family of Sayyids (Saiyids) – that is, men who claimed descent from the Prophet. Although he lived most of his life in Delhi, Sayyid (Saiyid) Muhammad Husaini Gisu Daraz would become known mainly for his work in the Deccan, where he died in 1422 at the ripe age of just over a hundred years.
As seen in the extract from Firishta's history quoted above, this figure occupies a very special place in Deccani popular religion: soon after his death his tomb-shrine in Gulbarga became the most important object of Muslim devotion in the Deccan. It remains so today. He also stands out in the Muslim mystical tradition, as he was the first Indian shaikh to put his thoughts directly to writing, as opposed to having disciples record his conversations. But most importantly, Gisu Daraz contributed to the stabilization and indigenization of Indo-Muslim society and polity in the Deccan, as earlier generations of Sufi shaikhs had already done in Tughluq north India. In the broader context of Indo-Muslim thought and practice, his career helped transform the Deccan from what had been an infidel land available for plunder by north Indian dynasts, to a legally inviolable abode of peace.
Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz see Gisu Daraz
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