Manaf
Manaf. Name of a deity of ancient Arabia whose cult was widespread among the Quraysh. The statute of Manaf was caressed by women, but when they had their menstrual cycle they were not allowed to go near it.
Manaf. Name of a deity of ancient Arabia whose cult was widespread among the Quraysh. The statute of Manaf was caressed by women, but when they had their menstrual cycle they were not allowed to go near it.
Manastirli Mehmed Rif‘at
Manastirli Mehmed Rif‘at (1851-1907). Ottoman Turkish officer, writer, poet, and playwright. He is mainly remembered for his contribution to the Turkish theater by writing, translating and adapting many plays.
Rif'at, Manastirli Mehmed see Manastirli Mehmed Rif‘at
Manastirli Mehmed Rif‘at (1851-1907). Ottoman Turkish officer, writer, poet, and playwright. He is mainly remembered for his contribution to the Turkish theater by writing, translating and adapting many plays.
Rif'at, Manastirli Mehmed see Manastirli Mehmed Rif‘at
Manat, al-
Manat, al-. Meccan female deity which was prominent before the advent of Islam. Al-Manat was one of the most ancient dieties of the Semitic pantheon. Like al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, al-Manat was worshipped by the pre-Islamic Arabs. The Prophet ordered it to be destroyed in 629.
Al-Manat was the ancient Arabian goddess of fate and destiny, and the personification of the evening star. Al-Manat ("fate") was one of the daughters of the pre-Islamic Allah. Her cult was situated between Medina and Mecca, where she was worshipped in the form of a black stone.
Al-Manāt was one of the three chief goddesses of Mecca. The pre-Islamic Arabs believed Manāt to be the goddess of fate. She was known by the cognate name Manawat to the Nabataeans of Petra, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddess Nemesis and she was considered the wife of Hubal. She is also mentioned in the Qur'an (Sura 53:20) that pre-Islamic Arabs believed as one of the daughters of Allāh along with Allāt and Al-‘Uzzá. According to Grunebaum in Classical Islam, the Arabic name of Manat is the linguistic counterpart of the Hellenistic Tyche, Dahr, fateful 'Time' who snatches men away and robs their existence of purpose and value. There are also connections with Chronos of Mithraism and Zurvan mythology.
The ruling tribes of al-Madinah, and other Arabs continued to worship Manat until the time of Muhammad.
Manawat see Manat, al-.
Manat, al-. Meccan female deity which was prominent before the advent of Islam. Al-Manat was one of the most ancient dieties of the Semitic pantheon. Like al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, al-Manat was worshipped by the pre-Islamic Arabs. The Prophet ordered it to be destroyed in 629.
Al-Manat was the ancient Arabian goddess of fate and destiny, and the personification of the evening star. Al-Manat ("fate") was one of the daughters of the pre-Islamic Allah. Her cult was situated between Medina and Mecca, where she was worshipped in the form of a black stone.
Al-Manāt was one of the three chief goddesses of Mecca. The pre-Islamic Arabs believed Manāt to be the goddess of fate. She was known by the cognate name Manawat to the Nabataeans of Petra, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddess Nemesis and she was considered the wife of Hubal. She is also mentioned in the Qur'an (Sura 53:20) that pre-Islamic Arabs believed as one of the daughters of Allāh along with Allāt and Al-‘Uzzá. According to Grunebaum in Classical Islam, the Arabic name of Manat is the linguistic counterpart of the Hellenistic Tyche, Dahr, fateful 'Time' who snatches men away and robs their existence of purpose and value. There are also connections with Chronos of Mithraism and Zurvan mythology.
The ruling tribes of al-Madinah, and other Arabs continued to worship Manat until the time of Muhammad.
Manawat see Manat, al-.
Ma‘n, Banu
Ma‘n, Banu (Banu Ma‘n). Arab family of chiefs of the Druze district of the Shuf, in the southern parts of Mount Lebanon. They enjoyed a special political prominence in Syria in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Banu Ma'n see Ma‘n, Banu
Ma‘n, Banu (Banu Ma‘n). Arab family of chiefs of the Druze district of the Shuf, in the southern parts of Mount Lebanon. They enjoyed a special political prominence in Syria in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Banu Ma'n see Ma‘n, Banu
Mandeans
Mandeans. Only surviving Gnostic religion, now with no more than 20,000 adherents, living in southern Iraq and southwestern Iran. Their main city is Nasiriyya. Mandeans are often called the Christians of Saint John, as he is held to be a very sacred person in, although not indispensable to, Mandean theology. Their name is Aramaic for “knowledge”, i.e., a translation from the Greek “gnosis”.
John the Baptist is central in Mandean teaching as a representative of their faith. Jesus is also central, but he plays a totally different role than in religions like Christianity and Islam, and is considered to be a false prophet, almost depicted as evil.
The central religious book to Mandeans is the Ginza, “Treasure”, containing mythological and theological moral and narrative tracts as well as hymns to be used in the mass for the dead.
There are many other, less central books, mainly written in East Aramaic, or Mandean as the language is also called. The content in these books varies, and many have magical texts and exorcisms. The collection of books was started in the time of Islam, which differs strongly between “book-religions” and other religions, and the Mandeans soon conformed to the Qur’anic concept of “Sabians” – the fourth “book-religion”, which can be translated to “baptizers.”
Baptism is central to the cult of Mandeans, and the Mandean sanctuary, Mandi, is a very simple and small house with a slanting roof. In front of it is a pool which is connected to a nearby river. The river is called “Jordan” and is used for baptism. The whole area is surrounded by a high fence or a wall. Baptisms are performed on Sundays, and every believer passes through this several times every year. Mandean baptism can be compared to the Christian communion, and the Muslim prayer, salat.
The other central ritual is the mass for the dead, with recitations from the Ginza. The soul is released from the body the third day after the moment of death. Meals are central in these rituals. Traditional Mandean graves are unmarked, as what is buried is only the dark body. However, in modern times, these customs have adjusted themselves to Muslim customs.
The ethics of Mandeans are not all too different from Jewish ethics and the laws of the Mandeans apply to all Mandeans, man or woman, leaders or not. Monogamy, dietary laws, ritual slaughtering and alms-giving are all central acts. According to the Mandeans, the cosmos is made up of two forces, the world of light, located to the north, and the world of darkness, located to the south. There is a ruler to both, and around the rulers smaller gods, called kings. Between the two forces there are hostilities, and it is in the fights between the two that the world is created. Man is created by the forces of darkness, but in every man, there is a “hidden Adam”, the soul, which has its origin in the world of light.
The religion’s origin is difficult to reconstruct, as there is so much unknown. The origin of Mandeanism could be a continuation of traditions from Mesopotamia, or Palestine, or both. The Mandean religion could be pre-Christian, or it could date to the first or second century of the Christian calendar. It could actually be John the Baptist who founded the sect, or it could be a continuation of the Jewish sect that to which John the Baptist belonged (a sect believed to be the Essenes).
Elements of the Mandean language indicate that the Mandean community is of Jewish origin. One of the texts of the Mandeans tells about a flight of a group called “Nasoreans,” from areas that probably were in today’s Jordan, to the Mesopotamian region, in the times of the Jewish wars following the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 of the Christian calendar. The Mandeans appear first to have gained a strong position in Babylon, but lost this with the appearance of the Sassanids in the year 226. In the time of Mani, there were contacts between Mani and the Mandeans. This contact resulted in a love-hate relationship.
With the arrival of Islam in Iraq in 636, the Mandeans were considered as the third “people of the book”, as the mysterious Sabians of the Qur’an. However, the Mandeans still faced a difficult relationship with Islam, and Muhammad is in their writings called the “demon Bizbat.” The Mandeans moved from the cities to the marshlands in Southern Iraq. It is first in modern times that the Mandeans moved back to the cities, especially Nasiriyya, Baghdad and Basra, where many of them work as gold and silver smiths, iron smiths and boat builders.
Mandeans are also found in medium sized towns between Baghdad and Basra. Some small groups of Mandeans even live in Iran, in cities like Ahvas and Shushtar in the southwestern corner of the country.
Today Mandean theology is seriously threatened, as recruiting new priests is difficult, and many offices are vacant. Mandean laymen are often highly educated, but know little of the old language and the scripts, and they attend ceremonies only seldom, as in weddings. Yet, there was a strong feeling of pride of their heritage, and they often claim to belong to a religion older than Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Sabians see Mandeans.
Mandeans. Only surviving Gnostic religion, now with no more than 20,000 adherents, living in southern Iraq and southwestern Iran. Their main city is Nasiriyya. Mandeans are often called the Christians of Saint John, as he is held to be a very sacred person in, although not indispensable to, Mandean theology. Their name is Aramaic for “knowledge”, i.e., a translation from the Greek “gnosis”.
John the Baptist is central in Mandean teaching as a representative of their faith. Jesus is also central, but he plays a totally different role than in religions like Christianity and Islam, and is considered to be a false prophet, almost depicted as evil.
The central religious book to Mandeans is the Ginza, “Treasure”, containing mythological and theological moral and narrative tracts as well as hymns to be used in the mass for the dead.
There are many other, less central books, mainly written in East Aramaic, or Mandean as the language is also called. The content in these books varies, and many have magical texts and exorcisms. The collection of books was started in the time of Islam, which differs strongly between “book-religions” and other religions, and the Mandeans soon conformed to the Qur’anic concept of “Sabians” – the fourth “book-religion”, which can be translated to “baptizers.”
Baptism is central to the cult of Mandeans, and the Mandean sanctuary, Mandi, is a very simple and small house with a slanting roof. In front of it is a pool which is connected to a nearby river. The river is called “Jordan” and is used for baptism. The whole area is surrounded by a high fence or a wall. Baptisms are performed on Sundays, and every believer passes through this several times every year. Mandean baptism can be compared to the Christian communion, and the Muslim prayer, salat.
The other central ritual is the mass for the dead, with recitations from the Ginza. The soul is released from the body the third day after the moment of death. Meals are central in these rituals. Traditional Mandean graves are unmarked, as what is buried is only the dark body. However, in modern times, these customs have adjusted themselves to Muslim customs.
The ethics of Mandeans are not all too different from Jewish ethics and the laws of the Mandeans apply to all Mandeans, man or woman, leaders or not. Monogamy, dietary laws, ritual slaughtering and alms-giving are all central acts. According to the Mandeans, the cosmos is made up of two forces, the world of light, located to the north, and the world of darkness, located to the south. There is a ruler to both, and around the rulers smaller gods, called kings. Between the two forces there are hostilities, and it is in the fights between the two that the world is created. Man is created by the forces of darkness, but in every man, there is a “hidden Adam”, the soul, which has its origin in the world of light.
The religion’s origin is difficult to reconstruct, as there is so much unknown. The origin of Mandeanism could be a continuation of traditions from Mesopotamia, or Palestine, or both. The Mandean religion could be pre-Christian, or it could date to the first or second century of the Christian calendar. It could actually be John the Baptist who founded the sect, or it could be a continuation of the Jewish sect that to which John the Baptist belonged (a sect believed to be the Essenes).
Elements of the Mandean language indicate that the Mandean community is of Jewish origin. One of the texts of the Mandeans tells about a flight of a group called “Nasoreans,” from areas that probably were in today’s Jordan, to the Mesopotamian region, in the times of the Jewish wars following the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 of the Christian calendar. The Mandeans appear first to have gained a strong position in Babylon, but lost this with the appearance of the Sassanids in the year 226. In the time of Mani, there were contacts between Mani and the Mandeans. This contact resulted in a love-hate relationship.
With the arrival of Islam in Iraq in 636, the Mandeans were considered as the third “people of the book”, as the mysterious Sabians of the Qur’an. However, the Mandeans still faced a difficult relationship with Islam, and Muhammad is in their writings called the “demon Bizbat.” The Mandeans moved from the cities to the marshlands in Southern Iraq. It is first in modern times that the Mandeans moved back to the cities, especially Nasiriyya, Baghdad and Basra, where many of them work as gold and silver smiths, iron smiths and boat builders.
Mandeans are also found in medium sized towns between Baghdad and Basra. Some small groups of Mandeans even live in Iran, in cities like Ahvas and Shushtar in the southwestern corner of the country.
Today Mandean theology is seriously threatened, as recruiting new priests is difficult, and many offices are vacant. Mandean laymen are often highly educated, but know little of the old language and the scripts, and they attend ceremonies only seldom, as in weddings. Yet, there was a strong feeling of pride of their heritage, and they often claim to belong to a religion older than Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Sabians see Mandeans.
Mandil, Banu
Mandil, Banu (Banu Mandil) (Awlad Mandil). Family of the Maghrawa, prominent in the twelfth through the fourteenth centuries in what is now western Algeria.
The Banu Mandi are derived from Khazrun bin Falful, the ancestor of the Banu Khazrun, who ruled Tripoli from 1001 to 1146. From the Banu Khazrun, several tribal branches were issued, but the main ones were the ones that ruled Tripoli and one that ruled Chelif. From the Banu Khazrun came the Abu Nas. The son of Abu Nas was Ibn Abu Nas who, in turn, was the father of Mandil I, the Almohad governor of Chelif around 1160 and the namesake founder of the Banu Mandil.
Awlad Mandil or Banu Madil were a family of the Maghrawa that ruled several regions in North Africa from c. 1160 to 1372.
His origin was Khazrun ben Falful ancestor of the Banu Khazrun, who ruled Tripoli from 1001 to 1146. From the Banu Khazrum issued several branches, but the main ones were: one that ruled Tripoli and one that ruled Chelif.
This last one was originated from Abu Nas; his son was Ibn Abu Nas; this has a son called Mandil I, Almohad governor of Chelif c. 1160. His son, Abd al-Rhaman ben Mandil was also governor of Chelif c. 1180.
Mandil II ben Abd al-Rahman was governor of Chelif, Uarsenis, Madiyya (Medea) and Mitidja c. 1190-1126. Was killed in 1126 by Yahya Ibn Ghaniya that occupied Mitidja. Mandil II has several sons:
* Al Abbas ben Mandil, governor of Chelif 1226-1249, that lost Medea and Uersenis against the Banu Tudjin but received Mliana, Tenes, Brechk and Cherchell from the Hafsids, as vassal.
* Muhammad I ben Mandil, heir of his brother 1249-1263 (killed by Aid)
* Aid ben Mandil, governor of Uersenis and Madiyya 1263-1269
* Umar ben Mandil, emir of Maghrawa 1269-1278 (installed by the Abdalwadid dynasty)
* Thabit ben Mandil, emir of Maghrawa 1278-1294 sold Tlemcen to Abdalwadid waiting obtain Mliana in exchange.
Muhammad ben Thabit was emir from 1294 to 1295 in absence of his father. The Abdalwadid dynasty occupied their lands in 1295. Rashid ben Thabit ben Mandil asked for help to Marinid dynasty of Morocco (1295), but the emirate was assigned to Umar ben Waghram ben Mandil (c. 1299-13002). Rashid revolted in Mazuna and defeated Umar ben Waghram, ruling the Maghrawa 1302-1310, allied to Hafsid dynasty of Bugia (Bidjaya) after 1307. In 1310 Rashid died, and his son Ali ben Rashid was deposed by the Hafsid dynasty, migrating to Morocco with his followers. In 1342, after a defeat of Hafsid against Marinids, he took Mliana, Tenes, Brechk and Cherchel, reestablishing the emirate of Maghrawa, but defeated by the Addalwadid (1351/1352) he committed suicide. His son Hamza ben Ali moved to Morocco. He come back to the Chelif and revolted with the help of the Maghrawa (1371) against Marinids, but was defeated in 1371, and fled to the lands of the tribe of Banu Husayn (that were revolted against Marinids with the help of Abdalwadids) and took the title of emir of Titteri. Defeated in Timzught was captured and executed (1372).
Banu Mandil see Mandil, Banu
Awlad Mandil see Mandil, Banu
Mandil, Banu (Banu Mandil) (Awlad Mandil). Family of the Maghrawa, prominent in the twelfth through the fourteenth centuries in what is now western Algeria.
The Banu Mandi are derived from Khazrun bin Falful, the ancestor of the Banu Khazrun, who ruled Tripoli from 1001 to 1146. From the Banu Khazrun, several tribal branches were issued, but the main ones were the ones that ruled Tripoli and one that ruled Chelif. From the Banu Khazrun came the Abu Nas. The son of Abu Nas was Ibn Abu Nas who, in turn, was the father of Mandil I, the Almohad governor of Chelif around 1160 and the namesake founder of the Banu Mandil.
Awlad Mandil or Banu Madil were a family of the Maghrawa that ruled several regions in North Africa from c. 1160 to 1372.
His origin was Khazrun ben Falful ancestor of the Banu Khazrun, who ruled Tripoli from 1001 to 1146. From the Banu Khazrum issued several branches, but the main ones were: one that ruled Tripoli and one that ruled Chelif.
This last one was originated from Abu Nas; his son was Ibn Abu Nas; this has a son called Mandil I, Almohad governor of Chelif c. 1160. His son, Abd al-Rhaman ben Mandil was also governor of Chelif c. 1180.
Mandil II ben Abd al-Rahman was governor of Chelif, Uarsenis, Madiyya (Medea) and Mitidja c. 1190-1126. Was killed in 1126 by Yahya Ibn Ghaniya that occupied Mitidja. Mandil II has several sons:
* Al Abbas ben Mandil, governor of Chelif 1226-1249, that lost Medea and Uersenis against the Banu Tudjin but received Mliana, Tenes, Brechk and Cherchell from the Hafsids, as vassal.
* Muhammad I ben Mandil, heir of his brother 1249-1263 (killed by Aid)
* Aid ben Mandil, governor of Uersenis and Madiyya 1263-1269
* Umar ben Mandil, emir of Maghrawa 1269-1278 (installed by the Abdalwadid dynasty)
* Thabit ben Mandil, emir of Maghrawa 1278-1294 sold Tlemcen to Abdalwadid waiting obtain Mliana in exchange.
Muhammad ben Thabit was emir from 1294 to 1295 in absence of his father. The Abdalwadid dynasty occupied their lands in 1295. Rashid ben Thabit ben Mandil asked for help to Marinid dynasty of Morocco (1295), but the emirate was assigned to Umar ben Waghram ben Mandil (c. 1299-13002). Rashid revolted in Mazuna and defeated Umar ben Waghram, ruling the Maghrawa 1302-1310, allied to Hafsid dynasty of Bugia (Bidjaya) after 1307. In 1310 Rashid died, and his son Ali ben Rashid was deposed by the Hafsid dynasty, migrating to Morocco with his followers. In 1342, after a defeat of Hafsid against Marinids, he took Mliana, Tenes, Brechk and Cherchel, reestablishing the emirate of Maghrawa, but defeated by the Addalwadid (1351/1352) he committed suicide. His son Hamza ben Ali moved to Morocco. He come back to the Chelif and revolted with the help of the Maghrawa (1371) against Marinids, but was defeated in 1371, and fled to the lands of the tribe of Banu Husayn (that were revolted against Marinids with the help of Abdalwadids) and took the title of emir of Titteri. Defeated in Timzught was captured and executed (1372).
Banu Mandil see Mandil, Banu
Awlad Mandil see Mandil, Banu
Mandingo
Mandingo. See Mandinka.
Mandingo. See Mandinka.
Manding speaking peoples
Manding speaking peoples. Manding speakers make up one of the largest groups of West African peoples speaking closely related forms of the same language. Mostly rural, agricultural peoples, those who speak the Manding languages inhabit the western savannas in a broad area around a geographical and cultural center on the upper Niger River in eastern Guinea and southwestern Mali. Although Manding speakers share a strong cultural identity in addition to their often mutually intelligible languages, they have no common name for themselves or their languages. The word “Manding,” which scholars in increasing numbers have been using in the past decade to refer to the group of languages, comes from the name “Mandingue,” which French colonial officials used when referring to all speakers of the languages. The French took Mandingue from Manden or Mande, the name for the traditional heartland on the upper Niger to which most Manding speakers look for their common heritage.
The Manding languages are a fairly mutually intelligible group of dialects or languages in West Africa, belonging to the Mande languages. Their best known members are Bambara (the most widely spoken language in Mali), Mandinka (the main language of Gambia), Maninka (or Malinke, a major language of Guinea), and Dioula (Dyula or Jula) (an important language of the northern Cote d'Ivoire and western Burkina Faso). Smaller languages belonging to the group include Khassonke or Xaasongaxango.
In addition to language, what gives Manding speakers a sense of unity is their knowledge of having common origins and a common cultural heritage. At the root of this heritage is the once-great Mali Empire. A small state of Mali – al-Bakri, the Arab geographer of the mid-eleventh century, called it “Malil” – founded by several Mandinka clans and centered on the upper Niger, existed from early in the second millennium, but its period of expansion and greatness came later. In the thirteenth century, the “lion king,” Sundiata, unified the Mandinka, conquered others and took advantage of the lucrative trade passing between the Sahara Desert and the goldfields of the more southerly forests to make Mali strong and its leading families wealthy.
Foreign merchants from across the Sahara came to Mali’s leading cities, and with them came Islam. The religion blended with local religious practices and maintained an importance, particularly among the Mandinka and Dyula, down through the centuries. Mali’s famous ruler, Mansa Musa, provided evidence of Islam’s influence when in 1324 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Cairo, he spent or gave away so much gold that he disrupted the monetary standard of the eastern Mediterranean. Evidence of Islam’s penetration among Manding speakers today is reflected in the fact that over ninety percent of Senegambia Mandinka and Ivory Coast – Guinea Dyula are Muslims. Such percentages decline considerably among the Bambara and some fringe groups.
Manding speaking peoples. Manding speakers make up one of the largest groups of West African peoples speaking closely related forms of the same language. Mostly rural, agricultural peoples, those who speak the Manding languages inhabit the western savannas in a broad area around a geographical and cultural center on the upper Niger River in eastern Guinea and southwestern Mali. Although Manding speakers share a strong cultural identity in addition to their often mutually intelligible languages, they have no common name for themselves or their languages. The word “Manding,” which scholars in increasing numbers have been using in the past decade to refer to the group of languages, comes from the name “Mandingue,” which French colonial officials used when referring to all speakers of the languages. The French took Mandingue from Manden or Mande, the name for the traditional heartland on the upper Niger to which most Manding speakers look for their common heritage.
The Manding languages are a fairly mutually intelligible group of dialects or languages in West Africa, belonging to the Mande languages. Their best known members are Bambara (the most widely spoken language in Mali), Mandinka (the main language of Gambia), Maninka (or Malinke, a major language of Guinea), and Dioula (Dyula or Jula) (an important language of the northern Cote d'Ivoire and western Burkina Faso). Smaller languages belonging to the group include Khassonke or Xaasongaxango.
In addition to language, what gives Manding speakers a sense of unity is their knowledge of having common origins and a common cultural heritage. At the root of this heritage is the once-great Mali Empire. A small state of Mali – al-Bakri, the Arab geographer of the mid-eleventh century, called it “Malil” – founded by several Mandinka clans and centered on the upper Niger, existed from early in the second millennium, but its period of expansion and greatness came later. In the thirteenth century, the “lion king,” Sundiata, unified the Mandinka, conquered others and took advantage of the lucrative trade passing between the Sahara Desert and the goldfields of the more southerly forests to make Mali strong and its leading families wealthy.
Foreign merchants from across the Sahara came to Mali’s leading cities, and with them came Islam. The religion blended with local religious practices and maintained an importance, particularly among the Mandinka and Dyula, down through the centuries. Mali’s famous ruler, Mansa Musa, provided evidence of Islam’s influence when in 1324 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Cairo, he spent or gave away so much gold that he disrupted the monetary standard of the eastern Mediterranean. Evidence of Islam’s penetration among Manding speakers today is reflected in the fact that over ninety percent of Senegambia Mandinka and Ivory Coast – Guinea Dyula are Muslims. Such percentages decline considerably among the Bambara and some fringe groups.
Mandinka
Mandinka (Mandingo). Although they collectively look to “Manden,” the small region near where the Niger River crosses the Guinea-Mali border, as their cultural homeland, the Mandinka are widely dispersed throughout a considerable portion of West Africa’s westernmost savannas. They inhabit eastern Guinea, extreme southern Mali, northwestern Ivory Coast, eastern Guinea-Bissau, southeastern Senegal and most of Gambia. There are small groups of Mandinka in eastern Sierra Leone and Liberia as well. Sometimes called Malinke (as they are known to the Fulani and many French-speaking Africans), Maninka, Mandinko or Mandingo, they are also often identified locally by place of origin (a Mandinka from Kaabu in Guinea-Bissau is called a Kaabunka, for instance). As with most groups where ethnic mixture has been extreme, it is not easy to determine just who is and who is not a Mandinka.
The location and distribution of Mandinka today is a result of movements of people and cultural diffusion over the last millennium and especially during the period of greatness of the Mali Empire from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries. For social, political and economic reasons, and also because long periods of drought seem to have made support of a large population difficult in the more central portions of Mali, Manding speakers gradually spread from the upper Niger River homelands into their present locations. The Mandinka movement was primarily west and southwest. Where they moved, they mixed with local peoples, while keeping the essence of Mandinka culture, so that Mandinka today – especially those on the periphery of the major Mandinka culture area – have a heritage of mixed ethnicity.
Islam has been penetrating Mandinka society since the days of Mali or perhaps before. Muslim scribes and clerics played important roles in the affairs of the Malian court for many years. However, conversion of an individual ruler and influence in the centers of Mandinka political power did not mean conversion of most Mandinka. Into the eighteenth century, there were pockets of Muslim clericalism within small Mandinka states, but the majorities of people in these states practiced pre-Islamic religions that involved worship of spirits of the land upon which they live. Muslim clerics were valued at court for their literacy and for their abilities to make protective amulets. Otherwise, Islam was a minority religion.
It was largely
a series of Islamic jihads among the Mandinka that led to their general conversion. Catalysts for these movements of religious revival were members of a Fulani clan, the Torodbe, many of whom lived among the larger Mandinka population.
The Mandinka are also known as the Mandingo and were the people who formed the Mandingo Kingdom. The Mandingo Kingdom was an ancient African state centered around the Upper Niger Valley. It embraced Islam between 1230 and 1255 and flourished during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when it extended to the Slave Coast on the Gulf of Guinea. Allied with the Portuguese in 1530, it became a source of black slaves for the Brazilian plantations. It began to decline in the seventeenth century and disintegrated as an empire in 1670. Later it was reduced to a small province whose ruler was a French vassal until modern times. Mandingo slaves, in the colonial West Indies and Brazil, were Sudanese, non-black slaves who converted to Islam and were brought mainly from the Mandingo Kingdom. Of Arabic and Tuareg ancestry, they were known for their tendency toward group suicide, which they considered a means of freeing themselves from a cruel servitude and of escaping to a better world. In Bahia, Brazil, former Mandingo slaves conducted trade between their city and African towns such as Lagos and Ardra. Indeed, a significant part of the African-Americans in North America descended from Mandinka people.
Mandinka in Guinea felt the effects of a Fulani-led jihad in the first half of the eighteenth century, and most Mandinka were influenced much more directly by Al-Hajj Umar Tall’s great movement of Islamic revival in Guinea and eastern Senegal in the 1850s. Mandinka in Guinea-Bissau were converted forcefully by the Fulani of Futa Jalon in Guinea in the 1860s. A series of wars, led by Muslim clerics of varying religious fervor, brought Islam to many Mandinka in Gambia in the last half of the nineteenth century. Most of those who did not convert as a result of jihad movements came to accept Islam because clerics – especially Jahanka – spread the religion in the early decades of the colonial period. Today the degree of Islamization among the Mandinka varies from about ninety percent in Senegambia to less than 50 percent in certain parts of Guinea and Sierra Leone.
Mandingo see Mandinka
Malinke see Mandinka
Maninka see Mandinka
Mandinko see Mandinka
The Mandinka are also known as the Mandingo and were the people who formed the Mandingo Kingdom. The Mandingo Kingdom was an ancient African state centered around the Upper Niger Valley. It embraced Islam between 1230 and 1255 and flourished during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when it extended to the Slave Coast on the Gulf of Guinea. Allied with the Portuguese in 1530, it became a source of black slaves for the Brazilian plantations. It began to decline in the seventeenth century and disintegrated as an empire in 1670. Later it was reduced to a small province whose ruler was a French vassal until modern times. Mandingo slaves, in the colonial West Indies and Brazil, were Sudanese, non-black slaves who converted to Islam and were brought mainly from the Mandingo Kingdom. Of Arabic and Tuareg ancestry, they were known for their tendency toward group suicide, which they considered a means of freeing themselves from a cruel servitude and of escaping to a better world. In Bahia, Brazil, former Mandingo slaves conducted trade between their city and African towns such as Lagos and Ardra. Indeed, a significant part of the African-Americans in North America descended from Mandinka people.
Mandinka in Guinea felt the effects of a Fulani-led jihad in the first half of the eighteenth century, and most Mandinka were influenced much more directly by Al-Hajj Umar Tall’s great movement of Islamic revival in Guinea and eastern Senegal in the 1850s. Mandinka in Guinea-Bissau were converted forcefully by the Fulani of Futa Jalon in Guinea in the 1860s. A series of wars, led by Muslim clerics of varying religious fervor, brought Islam to many Mandinka in Gambia in the last half of the nineteenth century. Most of those who did not convert as a result of jihad movements came to accept Islam because clerics – especially Jahanka – spread the religion in the early decades of the colonial period. Today the degree of Islamization among the Mandinka varies from about ninety percent in Senegambia to less than 50 percent in certain parts of Guinea and Sierra Leone.
Mandingo see Mandinka
Malinke see Mandinka
Maninka see Mandinka
Mandinko see Mandinka
Mandur, Muhammad
Mandur, Muhammad (1907-1965). Egyptian journalist, translator and literary critic. In intellectual vigor and critical insight he surpassed his teacher Taha Husayn, but did not possess the latter’s versatility nor did he acquire the latter’s fame.
Muhammad Mandur see Mandur, Muhammad
Mandur, Muhammad (1907-1965). Egyptian journalist, translator and literary critic. In intellectual vigor and critical insight he surpassed his teacher Taha Husayn, but did not possess the latter’s versatility nor did he acquire the latter’s fame.
Muhammad Mandur see Mandur, Muhammad
Mangits
Mangits (Manghits) (Manghuds) (Mangghuds) (Mangudais) (Nogais) . Uzbek dynasty of the khans of Bukhara (r.1753 -1921). A tribe of the Nogal federation, originally settlers in the territory of the Golden Horde, the Mangits later moved to Transoxiana with the Shaybanids at the start of the sixteenth century. Their rise came under the related Jalayirids. Mir Masum Shah (r. 1785-1800), regent in Bukhara from 1770, deposed the last Jalayirids and seized power for himself. Following unrest during the early days, Mangit rule stabilized under Nasrullah Bahadur (r. 1826-1860). In 1873, under Sayid Muzaffar (r. 1860-1885), Russia occupied their territory. The last khans were ousted by the Soviets in 1921.
The Manġits (Manghuds) originally were a Mongol tribe of the Urud-Manghud federation. They established the Nogai Horde in the 14th century of the Christian calendar. The clan name was used for Mongol vanguards as well. Their descendants live in several regions of the former Mongol Empire.
According to ancient sources, the Manghuds were derived from the Kiyad Mongols. The Manghuds and the Uruuds were war-like people from the Mongolian plateau. Some notable Manghud warriors supported Genghis Khan (1162–1227) while a body of them resisted his rise to power. When the Mongol Empire began to expand westward, the Manghud people were spread westward into the Middle East along with many other Mongol tribes. In the Golden Horde, the Manghuds supported Nogai (d.1299) and established their own semi-independent horde from the khans in Sarai. After Nogai's death in 1299, the majority of Manghud warriors joined the service of Tokhta Khan. Their chieftain Edigu, the powerful warlord of the Golden Horde, officially founded Nogai Horde or Manghit Horde in the 14th-15th century. Turkish historians would record their tribal name as Manghit or Nogais, as opposed to the original Manghud or Mangudai.
The mangudai or mungadai were military units of the Mongol Empire, but sources differ wildly in their descriptions. Some sources state that references to Mongol light cavalry "suicide troops" date back to the 13th century. However, other sources assert that Mangudai was the name of a 13th-century Mongol warlord who created an arduous selection process to test potential leaders. The term is used by elements of the United States Army as a name for multi-day tests of Soldiers' endurance and warrior skills.
The Nogais protected the northern borders of Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, and through organized raids to the northern steppes prevented Russian and Lithuanian settlements. Many Nogais joined the service of Crimean khan. Settling there, they contributed to the formation of the Crimean Tatars. However, Nogais were not only good soldiers, they also had considerable agricultural skills. Their basic social unit was the semi-autonomous 'ulus' or band. But Nogais were proud of their nomadic traditions and independence, which they considered superior to settled agricultural life.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Kalmyks or the Oirats, migrated from the steppes of southern Siberia on the banks of the Irtysh River to the Lower Volga region about 1630. The Kalmyks expelled the Nogais who fled to the plains of northern Caucasus and to the Crimea under the Ottoman Empire.
In the 1700s the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya passed under the control of three Uzbek khanates claiming legitimacy in their descent from Genghis Khan. These were, from west to east, the Qunggirats based on Khiva in Khwārezm (1717–1920), the Mangits in Bukhara (1753–1920), and the Mings in Kokand (Qǔqon; c. 1710–1876).
The Manghit dynasty was founded by an Uzbek family that ruled the Emirate of Bukhara from 1785 to 1920. Manġit power in the Khanate of Bukhara began to grow in the early 1700s, due to the emirs position as ataliq to the khan. The family effectively came to power after Nader Shah's death in 1747, and the assassination of the ruling Abulfayz Khan and his young son Abdalmumin by the ataliq Muhammad Rahim Bi. From the 1750s to the 1780s, the Manġits ruled behind the scenes, until the emir Shah Murad declared himself the open ruler, establishing the Emirate of Bukhara. The last emir of the dynasty, Mohammed Alim Khan, was ousted by the Russian Red Army in September, 1920, and fled to Afghanistan. The dynasty descends from the great Mongol khans of the Golden Horde.
The Manghit dynasty issued coins from 1787 up until the Soviet takeover.
A list of Emirs of the Manghit Dynasty (1785–1920) reads as follows:
* Shah Murad Khan (1785 - 13 December 1799)
* Haydar Tura Khan (13 December 1799 - January 1826)
* Husayn Khan (January - March 1826)
* 'Umar Khan (March - 22 March 1826)
* Nasr Allah Bahadur Khan (22 March 1826 - 21 September 1860)
* Muzaffar ad-Din Bahadur Khan (23 September 1860 - 12 November 1885)
* 'Abd al-Ahad Khan (12 November 1885 - 3 January 1911)
* Muhammed Alim Khan (3 January 1911 - 30 August 1920)
Manghuds see Mangits
Mangghuds see Mangits
Mangudais see Mangits
Manghits see Mangits
Nogais see Mangits
Mangits (Manghits) (Manghuds) (Mangghuds) (Mangudais) (Nogais) . Uzbek dynasty of the khans of Bukhara (r.1753 -1921). A tribe of the Nogal federation, originally settlers in the territory of the Golden Horde, the Mangits later moved to Transoxiana with the Shaybanids at the start of the sixteenth century. Their rise came under the related Jalayirids. Mir Masum Shah (r. 1785-1800), regent in Bukhara from 1770, deposed the last Jalayirids and seized power for himself. Following unrest during the early days, Mangit rule stabilized under Nasrullah Bahadur (r. 1826-1860). In 1873, under Sayid Muzaffar (r. 1860-1885), Russia occupied their territory. The last khans were ousted by the Soviets in 1921.
The Manġits (Manghuds) originally were a Mongol tribe of the Urud-Manghud federation. They established the Nogai Horde in the 14th century of the Christian calendar. The clan name was used for Mongol vanguards as well. Their descendants live in several regions of the former Mongol Empire.
According to ancient sources, the Manghuds were derived from the Kiyad Mongols. The Manghuds and the Uruuds were war-like people from the Mongolian plateau. Some notable Manghud warriors supported Genghis Khan (1162–1227) while a body of them resisted his rise to power. When the Mongol Empire began to expand westward, the Manghud people were spread westward into the Middle East along with many other Mongol tribes. In the Golden Horde, the Manghuds supported Nogai (d.1299) and established their own semi-independent horde from the khans in Sarai. After Nogai's death in 1299, the majority of Manghud warriors joined the service of Tokhta Khan. Their chieftain Edigu, the powerful warlord of the Golden Horde, officially founded Nogai Horde or Manghit Horde in the 14th-15th century. Turkish historians would record their tribal name as Manghit or Nogais, as opposed to the original Manghud or Mangudai.
The mangudai or mungadai were military units of the Mongol Empire, but sources differ wildly in their descriptions. Some sources state that references to Mongol light cavalry "suicide troops" date back to the 13th century. However, other sources assert that Mangudai was the name of a 13th-century Mongol warlord who created an arduous selection process to test potential leaders. The term is used by elements of the United States Army as a name for multi-day tests of Soldiers' endurance and warrior skills.
The Nogais protected the northern borders of Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, and through organized raids to the northern steppes prevented Russian and Lithuanian settlements. Many Nogais joined the service of Crimean khan. Settling there, they contributed to the formation of the Crimean Tatars. However, Nogais were not only good soldiers, they also had considerable agricultural skills. Their basic social unit was the semi-autonomous 'ulus' or band. But Nogais were proud of their nomadic traditions and independence, which they considered superior to settled agricultural life.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Kalmyks or the Oirats, migrated from the steppes of southern Siberia on the banks of the Irtysh River to the Lower Volga region about 1630. The Kalmyks expelled the Nogais who fled to the plains of northern Caucasus and to the Crimea under the Ottoman Empire.
In the 1700s the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya passed under the control of three Uzbek khanates claiming legitimacy in their descent from Genghis Khan. These were, from west to east, the Qunggirats based on Khiva in Khwārezm (1717–1920), the Mangits in Bukhara (1753–1920), and the Mings in Kokand (Qǔqon; c. 1710–1876).
The Manghit dynasty was founded by an Uzbek family that ruled the Emirate of Bukhara from 1785 to 1920. Manġit power in the Khanate of Bukhara began to grow in the early 1700s, due to the emirs position as ataliq to the khan. The family effectively came to power after Nader Shah's death in 1747, and the assassination of the ruling Abulfayz Khan and his young son Abdalmumin by the ataliq Muhammad Rahim Bi. From the 1750s to the 1780s, the Manġits ruled behind the scenes, until the emir Shah Murad declared himself the open ruler, establishing the Emirate of Bukhara. The last emir of the dynasty, Mohammed Alim Khan, was ousted by the Russian Red Army in September, 1920, and fled to Afghanistan. The dynasty descends from the great Mongol khans of the Golden Horde.
The Manghit dynasty issued coins from 1787 up until the Soviet takeover.
A list of Emirs of the Manghit Dynasty (1785–1920) reads as follows:
* Shah Murad Khan (1785 - 13 December 1799)
* Haydar Tura Khan (13 December 1799 - January 1826)
* Husayn Khan (January - March 1826)
* 'Umar Khan (March - 22 March 1826)
* Nasr Allah Bahadur Khan (22 March 1826 - 21 September 1860)
* Muzaffar ad-Din Bahadur Khan (23 September 1860 - 12 November 1885)
* 'Abd al-Ahad Khan (12 November 1885 - 3 January 1911)
* Muhammed Alim Khan (3 January 1911 - 30 August 1920)
Manghuds see Mangits
Mangghuds see Mangits
Mangudais see Mangits
Manghits see Mangits
Nogais see Mangits
Mangkubumi
Mangkubumi (Hamengkubuwana I) (Hamengkubuwono I) (Raden Mas Sujana) (d.1792). Founder (1755-1756) of the court of Yogyakarta and the greatest monarch of Java’s Mataram dynasty in the eighteenth century. Sultan Mangkubumi rebelled in 1746 and was proclaimed king by his followers in 1749. In 1755, he agreed with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) -- which supported King Pakubuwana III (r.1749-1788) of Surakarta but could not defeat Mangkubumi -- to partition the kingdom between Pakubuwana III and himself. Thereafter he proved himself to be a firm and able monarch who made Yogyakarta the greatest military power of Central Java in the last half of the eighteenth century.
Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I, born Raden Mas Sujana, was the first sultan of Yogyakarta. Sujana, the Crown Prince, was known as Prince Mangkubumi prior to becoming sultan of Yogyakarta Sultanate. As a son of Sultan Sunan Prabu of Mataram, and brother of Prince Heir Apparent Pakubuwono II of Surakarta, a dispute arose concerning succession to the Mataram throne. Prince Mangkubumi challenged his brother Pakubuwono II who was aided by the Dutch East India Company seeking a more pliant VOC puppet as Central Javanese king. The war that eventuated was known as the Third Succession War in Mataram.
During the war, Prince Mangkubumi was aided by brilliant legendary army commander-in-chief Raden Mas Said who fought in a highly effective strategic manner. Mangkubumi won decisive battles at Grobogan, Demak and Bogowonto River. During the War in 1749, Pakubuwono II died and the Crown Prince Mangkubumi became Sultan. At the Battle of Bogowonto River in 1751, the Dutch Army under De Clerck was destroyed by Mangkubumi's forces. Raden Mas Said revolted in dispute with Prince Mangkubumi. The Succession War and revolt of Raden Mas Said ended with the signing of the Gyanti Treaty of 1755.
According to the Giyanti Treaty, Mataram was divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta with Pakubuwono III as ruler, and Yogyakarta Sultanate with Prince Mangkubumi as sultan with the title Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Senopati Ing Ngalaga Sayidin Panatagama Kalifatulah. Yogyakarta became capital and a new palace was built.
Sultan Hamengkubuwono died in 1792 and was interred in the Royal cemetery of Astana Kasuwargan in Imogiri. He was succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II, his son.
Hamengkubuwana I see Mangkubumi
Hamengkubuwono I see Mangkubumi
Raden Mas Sujana see Mangkubumi
Sujana, Raden Mas see Mangkubumi
Mangkubumi (Hamengkubuwana I) (Hamengkubuwono I) (Raden Mas Sujana) (d.1792). Founder (1755-1756) of the court of Yogyakarta and the greatest monarch of Java’s Mataram dynasty in the eighteenth century. Sultan Mangkubumi rebelled in 1746 and was proclaimed king by his followers in 1749. In 1755, he agreed with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) -- which supported King Pakubuwana III (r.1749-1788) of Surakarta but could not defeat Mangkubumi -- to partition the kingdom between Pakubuwana III and himself. Thereafter he proved himself to be a firm and able monarch who made Yogyakarta the greatest military power of Central Java in the last half of the eighteenth century.
Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I, born Raden Mas Sujana, was the first sultan of Yogyakarta. Sujana, the Crown Prince, was known as Prince Mangkubumi prior to becoming sultan of Yogyakarta Sultanate. As a son of Sultan Sunan Prabu of Mataram, and brother of Prince Heir Apparent Pakubuwono II of Surakarta, a dispute arose concerning succession to the Mataram throne. Prince Mangkubumi challenged his brother Pakubuwono II who was aided by the Dutch East India Company seeking a more pliant VOC puppet as Central Javanese king. The war that eventuated was known as the Third Succession War in Mataram.
During the war, Prince Mangkubumi was aided by brilliant legendary army commander-in-chief Raden Mas Said who fought in a highly effective strategic manner. Mangkubumi won decisive battles at Grobogan, Demak and Bogowonto River. During the War in 1749, Pakubuwono II died and the Crown Prince Mangkubumi became Sultan. At the Battle of Bogowonto River in 1751, the Dutch Army under De Clerck was destroyed by Mangkubumi's forces. Raden Mas Said revolted in dispute with Prince Mangkubumi. The Succession War and revolt of Raden Mas Said ended with the signing of the Gyanti Treaty of 1755.
According to the Giyanti Treaty, Mataram was divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta with Pakubuwono III as ruler, and Yogyakarta Sultanate with Prince Mangkubumi as sultan with the title Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Senopati Ing Ngalaga Sayidin Panatagama Kalifatulah. Yogyakarta became capital and a new palace was built.
Sultan Hamengkubuwono died in 1792 and was interred in the Royal cemetery of Astana Kasuwargan in Imogiri. He was succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II, his son.
Hamengkubuwana I see Mangkubumi
Hamengkubuwono I see Mangkubumi
Raden Mas Sujana see Mangkubumi
Sujana, Raden Mas see Mangkubumi
Mangkunagaran
Mangkunagaran. Minor court established by the Surakarta prince Raden Mas Said (later Adipati Aria Mangkunagara) in 1757 after fighting against the combined forces of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and his erstwhile ally Mangkubumi (Sultan Hamengkubuwana I of Yogyakarta, r. 1749-1792). During the end of Mangkunagara’s reign and that of his successor Mangkunagara II (1796-1835), the fortunes of the Mangkunagaran court became ever more closely allied with that of the Dutch government, especially after the reorganization of the Mangkunagaran forces along European lines by Herman Daendels. The cultural style of the court synthesized European and Javanese elements (particularly in military affairs), and the energetic entrepreneurial policies of Mangkunagara II and Mangkunagara IV (r. 1853-1881) laid the foundations of a thriving Mangkunagaran estate sector. The fourth Mangkunagara also achieved renown as a litterateur (Javanese, pujangga) and philosopher of distinction. In 1896, the Mangkunagaran became fully independent from the senior Surakarta court (Kasunanan) but lost most of its lands and income after Indonesian independence in 1945 because of its equivocal attitude to the nationalists.
A list of Mangkunegaran rulers reads as follows:
* Mangkunegara I (Raden Mas Said), 1757- 1796
* Mangkunegara II, 1796 - 1835
* Mangkunegara III, 1835 - 1853
* Mangkunegara IV, 1853 - 1881
* Mangkunegara V, 1881 - 1896
* Mangkunegara VI, 1896 - 1916
* Mangkunegara VII, 1916 -1944
* Mangkunegara VIII, 1944 - 1987
* Mangkunegara IX, 1987 -
Mangkunagaran. Minor court established by the Surakarta prince Raden Mas Said (later Adipati Aria Mangkunagara) in 1757 after fighting against the combined forces of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and his erstwhile ally Mangkubumi (Sultan Hamengkubuwana I of Yogyakarta, r. 1749-1792). During the end of Mangkunagara’s reign and that of his successor Mangkunagara II (1796-1835), the fortunes of the Mangkunagaran court became ever more closely allied with that of the Dutch government, especially after the reorganization of the Mangkunagaran forces along European lines by Herman Daendels. The cultural style of the court synthesized European and Javanese elements (particularly in military affairs), and the energetic entrepreneurial policies of Mangkunagara II and Mangkunagara IV (r. 1853-1881) laid the foundations of a thriving Mangkunagaran estate sector. The fourth Mangkunagara also achieved renown as a litterateur (Javanese, pujangga) and philosopher of distinction. In 1896, the Mangkunagaran became fully independent from the senior Surakarta court (Kasunanan) but lost most of its lands and income after Indonesian independence in 1945 because of its equivocal attitude to the nationalists.
A list of Mangkunegaran rulers reads as follows:
* Mangkunegara I (Raden Mas Said), 1757- 1796
* Mangkunegara II, 1796 - 1835
* Mangkunegara III, 1835 - 1853
* Mangkunegara IV, 1853 - 1881
* Mangkunegara V, 1881 - 1896
* Mangkunegara VI, 1896 - 1916
* Mangkunegara VII, 1916 -1944
* Mangkunegara VIII, 1944 - 1987
* Mangkunegara IX, 1987 -
Mangu-Timur
Mangu-Timur (Mongke-Temur) (Mengu-Timur) (d. 1280). Khan of the Golden Horde (r.1267-1280). Unlike his predecessor Berke, he apparently did not embrace Islam.
Möngke Temür (Mengu-Timur) was the son of Toqoqan Khan and Buka Ujin of Oirat and the grandson of Batu Khan. He was a khan of the Golden Horde in 1266-1280.
His name literally means "Eternal Iron" in the Mongolian language.
During his reign, the Mongols together with their allied Russian princes undertook military campaigns against Byzantium (c. 1269-1271), Lithuania (1275), and Alans in Caucasus (1277). The very first yarlyk (license) found by historians was written on behalf of Mengu-Timur and contained information on the release of the Russian Orthodox Church from paying tribute to the Golden Horde. However, Mengu-Timur was a shamanist. During the reign of Mengu-Timur, the Genoese traders purchased Caffa from the Mongols. But those Italian merchants paid taxes to Mongol khans and sometimes to Nogai.
Both German crusaders and Lithuanians endangered the safety of Russian lands. In 1268, Mengu-Timur sent a Tatar-Mongol force to Novgorod, and forced Livonian Knights to withdraw. In 1274 Smolensk, the last of Russian principalities, became subject to Mengu-Timür khan of the Golden Horde. The Khan also dispatched his army along with Russian princes to Lithuania at the request of the Duke Lev of Galicia-Volhynia in 1275.
In 1277, Mengu-Timur ended the long-duration siege of the Alani city Dyadkov with the assistance of his Russian vassals and crushed the rebellion of Bulgars in Kazan.
Mengu-Timur
was originally nominated by Kublai Khan. But he sided with Kaidu who was a competitor of the latter. Kublai only stopped him to invade Ilkhanate with a large force. The Golden Horde helped Kaidu put down the force of the Chagatai Khanate. In 1265, Kaidu was defeated by the Chagatai army under Baraq. The khan of Jochid Ulus sent 30,000 armed-men headed by his uncle Berkhchir to support Kaidu's force. Their victory over the Chagatai army forced Baraq to initiate a peace treaty with them. Together they formed an alliance and demarcated borders of their realms in Talas.
Though Mengu-Timur and Kaidu urged Baraq to invade Ilkhanate, Mengu-Timur congratulated Ilkhan Abagha upon his stunning victory over the Chagatai army in order to hide his true intention. The two had been fighting with each other up until 1270's. However, by the 1270's, they had signed a peace treaty. In addition to the peace treaty, Abagha allowed Mengu-Timur to collect tax income from some of workshops in his khanate.
Although there was no serious war between the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde, Mengu-Timur intended to restore his ancestors authority over Azerbaijan and Caucasus. He sent delegates to the Mameluke Sultan Baybars and suggested a joint attack on Abagha's khanate.
During that time, Kublai dispatched his favorite son Nomukhan against Kaidu. Nomukhan sent letters to Chingisid nobles to reassert their supports. Mengu-Timur responded that he would protect Kublai from Kaidu if Kaidu assaulted him. In 1276, Chingisid princes Shiregi and Tokhtemur defected to Kaidu's side and arrested Kublai's son. Then they sent Nomukhan and his brother Kokhcu to Mengu-Timur and his general to Kaidu. The court of the Golden Horde released Nomukhan in 1278. It appears that Mengu-Timur held Nomukhan to use as a pawn in the wars of the Mongol world.
Mengu-Timur died of a neck injury in 1280.
Mengu-Timur was the father of Tochtu Khan by Oljei Khatun of the Khunggirad clan, the great granddaughter of Genghis Khan.
His children include:
* Tochtu Khan, khan of the Golden Horde from 1291-1312
* Toghrilcha, parent of Ozbeg
Mongke-Temur see Mangu-Timur
Mengu-Timur see Mangu-Timur
Though Mengu-Timur and Kaidu urged Baraq to invade Ilkhanate, Mengu-Timur congratulated Ilkhan Abagha upon his stunning victory over the Chagatai army in order to hide his true intention. The two had been fighting with each other up until 1270's. However, by the 1270's, they had signed a peace treaty. In addition to the peace treaty, Abagha allowed Mengu-Timur to collect tax income from some of workshops in his khanate.
Although there was no serious war between the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde, Mengu-Timur intended to restore his ancestors authority over Azerbaijan and Caucasus. He sent delegates to the Mameluke Sultan Baybars and suggested a joint attack on Abagha's khanate.
During that time, Kublai dispatched his favorite son Nomukhan against Kaidu. Nomukhan sent letters to Chingisid nobles to reassert their supports. Mengu-Timur responded that he would protect Kublai from Kaidu if Kaidu assaulted him. In 1276, Chingisid princes Shiregi and Tokhtemur defected to Kaidu's side and arrested Kublai's son. Then they sent Nomukhan and his brother Kokhcu to Mengu-Timur and his general to Kaidu. The court of the Golden Horde released Nomukhan in 1278. It appears that Mengu-Timur held Nomukhan to use as a pawn in the wars of the Mongol world.
Mengu-Timur died of a neck injury in 1280.
Mengu-Timur was the father of Tochtu Khan by Oljei Khatun of the Khunggirad clan, the great granddaughter of Genghis Khan.
His children include:
* Tochtu Khan, khan of the Golden Horde from 1291-1312
* Toghrilcha, parent of Ozbeg
Mongke-Temur see Mangu-Timur
Mengu-Timur see Mangu-Timur
Mani
Mani (Manes) (Manichaeus) (c.216-276). Founder of a religion which is now called Manichaeism. He was born in the province Babylon which was under Persian rule. His family was Persian, but his name is Aramaic. Mani may have originally belonged to a Christian sect, -- a sect now called Elkhasitts (Elkasites), a group of heretical Jewish-Christians. Between the ages of 12 and 24, Mani had visions where an angel told him that he would be the prophet of a last divine revelation. At the age of 26, Mani embarked on a long journey, where he proclaimed himself the “Messenger of Truth.” Mani traveled through the Persian Empire and reached as far as India, where he became influenced by Buddhism. Mani practiced under the protection of the Persian governor, Shapur I, most of his life. As his teaching gained followers, he elicited opposition from the Zoroastrian priests, and from the Emperor Bahram I. After 274, Mani lost his protection, and he either died in prison or was executed. The death of Mani, is retold as an incident similar to the crucifixion of Jesus.
Mani was the founder of Manicheaism, an ancient gnostic religion that was once widespread but is now extinct. Mani was born of Iranian (Parthian) parents in Assuristan, modern day Iraq, which was part of the Persian Empire during Mani's life. Mani's father, Fatik or Pattig, was from Hamadan and his mother, Maryam, was of the family of the Kamsaragan, who claimed kinship with the Parthian royal house, but the names of his father and mother are both Syriac. Although Mani's original writings have been lost, portions were preserved in Egyptian Coptic and in later Chinese Manichaean writings.
Mani's native languages are thought to have been Middle Persian and Syriac. Mani was an exceptionally gifted child. Mani first encountered religion in his early youth while living with a Jewish ascetic group known as the Elkasites. Mani was influenced by Mandaeanism. Mani followed the holy books Pusan and Kural. According to biographical accounts by al-Biruni, preserved in the tenth century encyclopedia the Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim. Mani received a revelation in his youth from a spirit whom he later called the Syzygos or Twin, who taught him the divine truths of the religion. In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation is possible through education, self-denial, vegetarianism, fasting and chastity. Mani claimed to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, the Last Prophet or Seal of the Prophets. The other prophets included Seth, Noah, Abraham, Shem, Nikotheos, Enoch, Zoroaster, Buddha and Jesus. Mani presented himself as a savior and an apostle of Jesus Christ. Mani wrote his seven holy books in Syriac, the main language spoken in the Near East before the Arab-Islamic conquest. Mani's most important book was called Arjang. Mani is thought to have been an extraordinary painter who illustrated Arjang with colorful objects.
During this period, the large existing religious groups, including Christianity and Zoroastrianism, were competing for political and social power. Manichaeism had fewer adherents than Zoroastrianism, but won the support of high ranking political figures. With the aid of the Persian Empire, Mani would initiate several missionary excursions. Mani's earliest missionaries were active in Turkestan, India, Mesopotamis, Persia, Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Mani's first excursion was to the Kushan Empire in northwestern India. Mani is believed to have lived and taught in India for some time, and several religious paintings in Bamiyan are attributed to Mani. Mani is said to have sailed to the Indus valley area of India in 240 or 241, and to have converted a Buddhist King, the Turan Shah of India. On that occasion Manichaeism seems to have been influenced by Buddhism. After forty years of travel Mani returned with his retinue to Persia and converted Peroz, King Shapur's brother.
Mani failed to win the favor of the next generation. The disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy resulted in Mani being sent to prison, where he is reported to have died after several months.
Until the late twentieth century, Mani's life was known largely from remarks by his detractors and from late works. In 1969, in Upper Egypt, a Greek parchment codex from around 400 C. C. was discovered. It is now designated Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis because it is conserved at the University of Cologne. It combines a hagiographic account of Mani's career and spiritual development with information about Mani's religious teachings and contains fragments of his Living (or Great) Gospel and his Letter to Edessa.
Manes see Mani
Manichaeus see Mani
Mani (Manes) (Manichaeus) (c.216-276). Founder of a religion which is now called Manichaeism. He was born in the province Babylon which was under Persian rule. His family was Persian, but his name is Aramaic. Mani may have originally belonged to a Christian sect, -- a sect now called Elkhasitts (Elkasites), a group of heretical Jewish-Christians. Between the ages of 12 and 24, Mani had visions where an angel told him that he would be the prophet of a last divine revelation. At the age of 26, Mani embarked on a long journey, where he proclaimed himself the “Messenger of Truth.” Mani traveled through the Persian Empire and reached as far as India, where he became influenced by Buddhism. Mani practiced under the protection of the Persian governor, Shapur I, most of his life. As his teaching gained followers, he elicited opposition from the Zoroastrian priests, and from the Emperor Bahram I. After 274, Mani lost his protection, and he either died in prison or was executed. The death of Mani, is retold as an incident similar to the crucifixion of Jesus.
Mani was the founder of Manicheaism, an ancient gnostic religion that was once widespread but is now extinct. Mani was born of Iranian (Parthian) parents in Assuristan, modern day Iraq, which was part of the Persian Empire during Mani's life. Mani's father, Fatik or Pattig, was from Hamadan and his mother, Maryam, was of the family of the Kamsaragan, who claimed kinship with the Parthian royal house, but the names of his father and mother are both Syriac. Although Mani's original writings have been lost, portions were preserved in Egyptian Coptic and in later Chinese Manichaean writings.
Mani's native languages are thought to have been Middle Persian and Syriac. Mani was an exceptionally gifted child. Mani first encountered religion in his early youth while living with a Jewish ascetic group known as the Elkasites. Mani was influenced by Mandaeanism. Mani followed the holy books Pusan and Kural. According to biographical accounts by al-Biruni, preserved in the tenth century encyclopedia the Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim. Mani received a revelation in his youth from a spirit whom he later called the Syzygos or Twin, who taught him the divine truths of the religion. In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation is possible through education, self-denial, vegetarianism, fasting and chastity. Mani claimed to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, the Last Prophet or Seal of the Prophets. The other prophets included Seth, Noah, Abraham, Shem, Nikotheos, Enoch, Zoroaster, Buddha and Jesus. Mani presented himself as a savior and an apostle of Jesus Christ. Mani wrote his seven holy books in Syriac, the main language spoken in the Near East before the Arab-Islamic conquest. Mani's most important book was called Arjang. Mani is thought to have been an extraordinary painter who illustrated Arjang with colorful objects.
During this period, the large existing religious groups, including Christianity and Zoroastrianism, were competing for political and social power. Manichaeism had fewer adherents than Zoroastrianism, but won the support of high ranking political figures. With the aid of the Persian Empire, Mani would initiate several missionary excursions. Mani's earliest missionaries were active in Turkestan, India, Mesopotamis, Persia, Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Mani's first excursion was to the Kushan Empire in northwestern India. Mani is believed to have lived and taught in India for some time, and several religious paintings in Bamiyan are attributed to Mani. Mani is said to have sailed to the Indus valley area of India in 240 or 241, and to have converted a Buddhist King, the Turan Shah of India. On that occasion Manichaeism seems to have been influenced by Buddhism. After forty years of travel Mani returned with his retinue to Persia and converted Peroz, King Shapur's brother.
Mani failed to win the favor of the next generation. The disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy resulted in Mani being sent to prison, where he is reported to have died after several months.
Until the late twentieth century, Mani's life was known largely from remarks by his detractors and from late works. In 1969, in Upper Egypt, a Greek parchment codex from around 400 C. C. was discovered. It is now designated Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis because it is conserved at the University of Cologne. It combines a hagiographic account of Mani's career and spiritual development with information about Mani's religious teachings and contains fragments of his Living (or Great) Gospel and his Letter to Edessa.
Manes see Mani
Manichaeus see Mani
Manichaeans
Manichaeans (Āyin e Māni) (Móní Jiào). Followers of a world religion founded by Mani -- Manichaeism. Manichaeism spread out over most of the known world of the first millennium of the Christian calendar, from Spain to China. However, the religion disappeared from the West around the tenth century, and from China in the fourteenth century. Today, it is moribund.
During the Roman Empire, Manichaeism attained a strong position in North Africa. Augustine was a Manichaean for nine years before his conversion to Christianity. For about 80 years, starting in 762, Manichaeism was the state religion of the Turkic Uighurs.
Manichaeism is the largest and most important example of Gnosticism. Central in the Manichaean teaching was dualism, that the world itself, and all creatures, was part of a battle between the good, represented by God, and the bad, the darkness, represented by a power driven by envy and lust.
These two powers were independent from each other. However, in the world, they were mixed. Most human beings were built from material needed to be released from the dark material of the body. In Manichaeism, creation was regarded as a cosmic catastrophe, this even applied to man.
What had happened was that the good forces had been forced to create the world, as a defense of the divine realms. The threat came from the bad powers that had discovered that there was a world of light, and this they could not resist. When the world and all creatures were created, the attacking darkness was mixed with some of the divine light.
While the battle between light and darkness had been fought in the cosmos until creation, creation made the world of man the new battleground. Everything that gives light in this world belongs to the divine realms, while everything that absorbs light, belongs to the darkness.
In this world, small pieces of light are constantly disentangled from the darkness, and the sun and the moon are two chariots bringing these pieces from the world and back to the divine world. The meaning of life is therefore the same as the meaning of the world, namely to participate on the divine side of this battle. Every man carries inside him a seed of light, and the only way to help free this seed from darkness is through gnosis. Gnosis is the insight in this process of cosmic battle and insight in how to fight envy and lust. The actual liberation happens when a human with gnosis dies.
The gnosis can be discovered by man’s intellectual capacities, but is at the same time something that is revealed, through messengers like Buddha, Jesus and Mani. Buddha and Jesus are depicted quite differently from what is the case in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
There were two groups of Manichaeans, the class of elected, and the laymen. The class of elected had only male members, and they were the ones deemed to disentangle their seed of light from their bodies. They did not marry, did not eat meat, drink wine or work. All they did was preach.
The laymen lived fairly normal lives. They married, but it was considered a good act not to have many children, as an increasing number of humans would mean that the light was spread in more bodies. They had only limited access to the teachings of Manichaeism, and left much of the religious matters to the class of elected, who acted as their representatives.
The laymen attended weekly fasts, but little is known of both their and the electeds’ religious services. Central to what we believe that Mani picked up in India, is the teaching of transmigration of souls. What the laymen could hope for was that they would be re-born as elected.
It is currently unknown how the Manichaeans decided who where elected, and who were not. Schooling and family background are two possible decisive factors.
There were only few texts left after the Manichaeans, but Mani himself wrote many books. Most of these have been lost since the religion became moribund, and only fragments can be found in northwestern China and Egypt.
Ayin e Mani see Manichaeans
Moni Jiao see Manichaeans
Manichaeans (Āyin e Māni) (Móní Jiào). Followers of a world religion founded by Mani -- Manichaeism. Manichaeism spread out over most of the known world of the first millennium of the Christian calendar, from Spain to China. However, the religion disappeared from the West around the tenth century, and from China in the fourteenth century. Today, it is moribund.
During the Roman Empire, Manichaeism attained a strong position in North Africa. Augustine was a Manichaean for nine years before his conversion to Christianity. For about 80 years, starting in 762, Manichaeism was the state religion of the Turkic Uighurs.
Manichaeism is the largest and most important example of Gnosticism. Central in the Manichaean teaching was dualism, that the world itself, and all creatures, was part of a battle between the good, represented by God, and the bad, the darkness, represented by a power driven by envy and lust.
These two powers were independent from each other. However, in the world, they were mixed. Most human beings were built from material needed to be released from the dark material of the body. In Manichaeism, creation was regarded as a cosmic catastrophe, this even applied to man.
What had happened was that the good forces had been forced to create the world, as a defense of the divine realms. The threat came from the bad powers that had discovered that there was a world of light, and this they could not resist. When the world and all creatures were created, the attacking darkness was mixed with some of the divine light.
While the battle between light and darkness had been fought in the cosmos until creation, creation made the world of man the new battleground. Everything that gives light in this world belongs to the divine realms, while everything that absorbs light, belongs to the darkness.
In this world, small pieces of light are constantly disentangled from the darkness, and the sun and the moon are two chariots bringing these pieces from the world and back to the divine world. The meaning of life is therefore the same as the meaning of the world, namely to participate on the divine side of this battle. Every man carries inside him a seed of light, and the only way to help free this seed from darkness is through gnosis. Gnosis is the insight in this process of cosmic battle and insight in how to fight envy and lust. The actual liberation happens when a human with gnosis dies.
The gnosis can be discovered by man’s intellectual capacities, but is at the same time something that is revealed, through messengers like Buddha, Jesus and Mani. Buddha and Jesus are depicted quite differently from what is the case in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
There were two groups of Manichaeans, the class of elected, and the laymen. The class of elected had only male members, and they were the ones deemed to disentangle their seed of light from their bodies. They did not marry, did not eat meat, drink wine or work. All they did was preach.
The laymen lived fairly normal lives. They married, but it was considered a good act not to have many children, as an increasing number of humans would mean that the light was spread in more bodies. They had only limited access to the teachings of Manichaeism, and left much of the religious matters to the class of elected, who acted as their representatives.
The laymen attended weekly fasts, but little is known of both their and the electeds’ religious services. Central to what we believe that Mani picked up in India, is the teaching of transmigration of souls. What the laymen could hope for was that they would be re-born as elected.
It is currently unknown how the Manichaeans decided who where elected, and who were not. Schooling and family background are two possible decisive factors.
There were only few texts left after the Manichaeans, but Mani himself wrote many books. Most of these have been lost since the religion became moribund, and only fragments can be found in northwestern China and Egypt.
Ayin e Mani see Manichaeans
Moni Jiao see Manichaeans
No comments:
Post a Comment