Malik ‘Ambar (Malik Anbar) (c. 1548/1549-1626). Habshi vizier and military commander who served the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar. Purchased as a slave in Baghdad, he supported several Maratha families and thus contributed to the subsequent rise of Maratha power in western India.
Malik 'Ambar was born in Harar, a province of Ethiopia. He was born in the capital of the dying Adal Sultanate in eastern Ethiopia. both Ethiopia and the rebellious Adal sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with each other. His Ethiopian name was Shambu and, aside from his Ethiopian name, little is known of his youth except that he was sold into slavery. During his youthful enslavement, Shambu would be sold several times in such Arab cities as Hejaz, Mocha (al-Mukha) and Baghdad.
According to the Futuhat-i 'adil Shahi, Shambu was sold into slavery by his parents. He ended up in Mocha in Yemen. While in Mocha, Shambu's Arab owner, Kazi Hussein, came to recognize that his slave had certain intellectual abilities and decided to train him in the areas of finance and administration. As the relationship between Shambu and Hussein became stronger, Shambu became a Muslim and Hussein gave him the name 'Ambar.
When Hussein died, 'Ambar was sold to a slave dealer, who sold Malik 'Ambar again for twenty ducats. Malik 'Ambar was then taken taken to the slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-Qudat of Mecca and again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who took him to India.
Around 1575, 'Ambar was purchased by Chingiz Khan, the prime minister to Nizam mul-Mulk Bani -- the King of Ahmadnagar. It is reported that Chingiz Khan was also of African origin and may very well have been a descendant of African mercenaries who served in India as early as the 1200s.
Chingiz Khan was impressed by 'Ambar's knowledge of Arabic, his loyalty, and his general intelligence. Seeking to solidify his control of the rather prominent (and mercenary) contingent of African (Habshi) slaves in the Deccan region, Chingiz Khan appointed 'Ambar as a key lieutenant with significant military and administrative responsibilities.
'Ambar's future was for a time hopeful. However, Chingiz Khan unexpectedly died, and 'Ambar was once again sold.
First 'Ambar was sold to the Shah of Golconda and later to the King of Bijapur. (Golconda and Bijapur were both kingdoms in the Deccan area of India.) Because of the training he had received from Kazi Hussein and Chingiz Khan, 'Ambar soon found favor with the King of Bijapur. So impressed was the King that he gave 'Ambar the title of Malik ("like a king").
While at Bijapur, Malik 'Ambar became a military commander. As a military commander, Malik 'Ambar was well respected by the Arab and African troops which were subject to his commands. Contrary to policy, Malik 'Ambar habitually promoted Arabs (as opposed to Indians) to positions of authority. This practice led to a dispute between Malik 'Ambar and the King of Bijapur which resulted in Malik 'Ambar's desertion in 1590 from the service of the King.
Malik 'Ambar became a wild card mercenary. He attracted not only independent Arab and African warriors but also Deccani (Indian) warriors. Eventually, Malik 'Ambar built a personal (private) army of over 1,500 well-trained cavalrymen and infantrymen. These soldiers of fortune were employed in various conflicts by various rulers in India.
In 1595, the King of Ahmadnagar organized a Habshi (African) army and his wise counselor, the Habshi (African) prime minister Abhangar Khan, invited Malik 'Ambar and his men to join him.
The return of Malik 'Ambar to Ahmadnagar was providential. Malik 'Ambar's return provided the opportunity for him to become a great champion of the Deccanis (Hindu Indians) against the Mughals (Muslim Indians). Malik 'Ambar and a Deccani, Mian Raju Dakhani, combined their military efforts on several occasions to repel attacks by the Mughals. Although Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani would become political and military rivals, on this occasion they worked together to defend the province of Ahmadnagar from the Mughals.
After repulsing the Mughals, the rivalry between Malik 'Ambar and Mian Raju Dakhani came to the fore. Both men sought to usurp the throne of King Murtaza II. In 1602, Malik 'Ambar imprisoned Murtaza and named himself regent-minister. As regent minister, Malik 'Ambar repelled a series of Mughal attacks and prevented the Great Mughal, the Emperor Akbar, from fulfilling his aim of conquering the Indian subcontinent.
By the time that Jahangir had succeeded Akbar as the Mughal Emperor in 1605, Malik 'Ambar had established a capital at Kirkee and had become well entrenched in the Deccan. During all this time, Malik 'Ambar also fought off the ventures of his rival Mian Raju Dakhani. In 1607, Malik 'Ambar captured Raju and had him executed. After this act, Malik 'Ambar was the supreme lord of Ahmadnagar.
Upon consolidation of his power, Malik 'Ambar organized an estimated 60,000 horse army. His light cavalry was very effective as a mobile unit. Malik 'Ambar also enlisted the naval support of the Siddis (fellow Africans) of Janjira Island in 1616 in order to cut the Mughal supply lines and to conduct harassing missions.
Malik 'Ambar thrust defeats on the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and attacked Ahmadnagar often. The guerrilla tactics employed by Malik 'Ambar proved to be very successful against the Mughals. On one occasion, the Mughal Emperor Jahangir was moved to remark: "'Ambar, the black-faced, who had himself in command of the enemy, continually brought up reinforcements till he assembled a large force. ... It was deemed expedient to retreat and prepare for a new campaign."
'Ambar built his greatest fortifications at Daulatabad to protect his kingdom from Prince Shah Jahan -- the Prince destined to become the next Mughal Emperor. In 1621, Shah Jahan's forces launched an attack on Daulatabad. Surprisingly, the Mughal forces were defeated and forced to retreat after suffering heavy losses at the hands of Malik 'Ambar.
However, while this victory over the Mughals was welcomed by Malik 'Ambar, it also brought the realization that he could not continue to resist without reinforcements. Seeking the support of the Deccani ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Malik 'Ambar had his daughter married to the Shah's favorite courtier. Additionally, his long and distinguished service in Golconda and Bijapur (along with their realization that Malik 'Ambar provided a buffer from the Mughals for them) brought support from those kingdoms. For a time, Malik 'Ambar was able to continue to resist the power of the Mughals.
Nevertheless, by the 1620s, Malik 'Ambar was having difficulty in maintaining the loyalty of his officers and forces. Almost continuous warfare for over a twenty year period of time had demoralized the army and drained the local economy. Although he was never defeated, Malik 'Ambar died a besieged man in 1626.
Malik 'Ambar was succeeded as regent minister of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar by his son Fettah Khan (Fatehkhan). But Fettah Khan was not Malik 'Ambar. He was deposed in 1629. Thus ended the short but glorious reign of the Africans in the Deccan.
During his time, Malik 'Ambar founded and inhabited Aurangabad on the site of the Kirkee (Khadke - "Big Rock") village in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was changed to Fatehpur by his son Fatehkhan. When Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor invaded Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it Aurangabad.
'Ambar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Shambu see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik Anbar see Malik ‘Ambar
Anbar, Malik see Malik ‘Ambar
Malik Ayaz
Ayaz, Malik see Malik Ayaz
Malik ibn Anas (Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi) (Mālik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Āmr al-Asbahi) ("Imam Malik") ("Sheikh of Islam") ("Proof of the Community") ("Imam of the Abode of Emigration") (c. 710/711-795/796). Muslim jurist and the imam of the law school of the Malikites, which is named after him. He is frequently called the Imam of Medina. His great work, the Muwatta’ -- the Book of the Smoothed Path -- , is the earliest surviving Muslim law book. Malik introduced the recognition of the unanimous practice of Medina, which he established as an organized judicial system. He thus created a theoretical standard for matters which were not settled from the point of view of consensus.
Born in Medina, where he spent most of his life, Malik became the most prominent jurist of that city. Malik was born the son of Anas ibn Malik and Aaliyah bint Shurayk al-Azdiyya. His family was originally from the al-Asbahi tribe of Yemen, but his great grandfather Abu 'Amir relocated the family to Medina after converting to Islam in the second year after the hijra.
Little is known about Malik’s early life, although many legends abound. Malik is supposed, for example, to have spent two or three years in his mother’s womb and to have been taught fiqh by some nine hundred teachers. Malik seems to have been in competition for a time with Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad’s biographer, until Ibn Ishaq abandoned both fiqh and Medina.
Malik’s Muwatta’ is the earliest work on fiqh written to develop a basis for law by means of a survey of custom in Medina, but he was writing at a stage when the rules for transmission of hadith had not been fully formed and his work was subjected to modification and correction by later scholars. Nevertheless, Malik’s criticism of his authorities was so rigorous that even today his reputation in this area has remained high.
Malik did not start from a theoretical position but with the law as it existed, so his work seems somewhat disorganized under the larger topics of contracts, penal law, marriage, etc. However, despite this failing, Malik’s work was so influential that Islamic legal treatises continued this pattern.
While Malik did not start a school, his name came to be used by a branch of Islamic law found in the Maghrib, Africa, and Upper Egypt. A particularly famous adherent of this school was Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who wrote a systematic treatise on the legal system.
Malik took advantage of the fact that he was contemporary to many of the Tabi'in to formulate his famous school of thought which gave precedence to the acts of the people of Medina over the hadith if they were in conflict. This was done due to the sizeable amount of scholars, and companions of Muhammad, residing in the city where Malik's reputation grew immensely. Malik nevertheless showed hesitancy in issuing religious verdicts.
Despite his reluctance to render religious verdicts, Malik was outspoken. He issued fatwas against being forced to pledge allegiance to the Caliph al-Mansur, and was punished via flogging for his stance. Al-Mansur apologized to Malik and offered him money and residence in Baghdad, but Malik refused to leave the city of Muhammad. Later, Harun al-Rashid asked Malik to visit him while Harun was performing the hajj. The Imam refused, and instead he invited the new caliph to his class.
Malik died in Medina in 796 and was buried in the famous Jannat ul-Baqi cemetery across from the Masjid al-Nabawi. He is recognized as one of the most highly respected scholars of fiqh in Sunni Islam. Imam Shafi, who was one of Malik's students for nine years and a scholarly giant in his own right, stated, "when scholars are mentioned, Malik is like the star among them." The Maliki Madhab, named after Malik, is one of the five schools of Islamic jurisprudence and remains popular among Muslims to this day.
Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al-Asbahi see Malik ibn Anas
Asbahi, Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 'Amr al- see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of Medina see Malik ibn Anas
Imam of the Abode of Emigration see Malik ibn Anas
Sheikh of Islam see Malik ibn Anas
Proof of the Community see Malik ibn Anas
Malik ibn Nuwayra (Malik ibn Nuwaira) (d. 632) was an Arab poet during the Prophet’s lifetime. His brother, the poet Mutammim, glorified him in elegies which have come to be counted among the most famous of their kind in Arabic literature.
Malik was a chief of some distinction. A warrior, noted for his generosity and a famous poet. Bravery, generosity and poetry were the three qualities most admired by the Arabs.
Malik ibn Nuwayra was a chief of the Bani Yarbu', a large clan of the powerful tribe of Bani Tamim which inhabited the north-eastern region of Arabia, above Bahrain. Being close to Persia, some elements of the Bani Tamim had embraced Zoroastrianism, but by and large the tribe was pagan until Islam came to Arabia. The central village of Malik's clan was Butah.
Famous for his generosity and hospitality, Malik is said to have kept a light burning outside his house all night so that any traveller passing his way would know where to find shelter and food. Malik would get up during the night to check the light. A strikingly handsome man, Malik was also skilled in the use of weapons and noted for his courage and chivalry. He was also an accomplished poet. Malik possessed all the qualities that the Arabs looked for in the perfect male. He was married to Layla bint al-Minhal who was considered to be one of the most beautiful women in Arabia.
In view of Malik's distinguished position in the tribe and his unquestionable talents, the Prophet Muhammad appointed Malik an officer over the clan of Bani Handhalah. His main responsibility was the collection of taxes and their dispatch to Medina. Later, when news of Muhammad's death reached Butah, Malik, who had just collected a good deal of taxes but had not sent them to Medina, opened the coffers and returned the money to the taxpayers.
During the Ridda wars, which broke out in Arabia after the death of Muhammad. Abu Bakr sent his most talented general Khalid into Najd with 4000 men, to submit the tribes of the surrounding areas. Malik was guilty for his acts against the state of Medina for returning the taxes to the people. Additionally, after the death of Muhamma. Malik openly revolted against Medina. He signed a pact with the self-proclaimed prophet Sajjah. This agreement stated that first they would deal with local enemy tribes together, and then they would confront the state of Medina. When Malik heard about Khalid bin Walid's victories against powerful Arab tribes, he ordered his tribesmen not to engage the approaching Khalid in battle, to stay at home, and hope for peace. Malik himself moved away across the desert with his family. Also, so as to prove himself loyal to the state of Medina, Malik re-collected the taxes and sent them to Medina. Malik's riders were stopped by Khalid's army at the town of Battah.
Khalid sent out parties of horsemen to round up fugititives and to plunder their property. One such party seized Malik ibn Nuwayra and his family and brought them into Khalid, although they claimed to be Muslims. The men of Medina who were with the army protested vigorously against Khalid's ruthlessness, but without avail. The prisoners were placed under guard but, during the night, Malik and his supporters were killed in cold blood. Within 24 hours Khalid after killing Malik, Khalid married the widow of his victim.
Malik had been executed while professing to be a believer. Indeed, Khalid's marriage to the beautiful Layla gave rise to the suspicion that Malik had been killed with the object of making Layla available to Khalid.
The men of Medina, who had already opposed Khalid's ruthless actions, were outraged by the death of Malik. A certain Abu Qatada, an erstwhile friend and companion of Muhammad, hastened to Medina to complain to Abu Bakr, who summoned Khalid to answer the accusation. Umar bin Khattab pressed the caliph to deprive Khalid of his command. Khalid returning to Medina, claimed that he had not ordered the execution of Malik, but that his instructions to the guards had been misunderstood. The wise Abu Bakr, whatever he may have thought of the morals of his lieutenant, was aware of his prowess as a general and accepted his excuses.
Malik ibn Nuwaira see Malik ibn Nuwayra
Malik Ibrahim
The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. One theory states it arrived directly from Arabia before the 9th century, while another credits Sufi merchants and preachers for bringing Islam to Indonesian islands in the 12th or 13th century either from Gujarat in India or directly from the Middle East. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Hinduism and Buddhism.
Initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. Though historical documents are incomplete, the limited evidence suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century, as the military power of Melaka Sultanate in Malay Peninsular today Malaysia and other Islamic Sultanates dominated the region aided by episodes of Muslim coup such as in 1446, wars and superior control of maritime trading and ultimate markets. During 1511, Tome Pires found animists and Muslims in the north coast of Java. Some rulers were Islamized Muslims, others followed the old Hindu and Buddhism.
By the reign of Sultan Agung of Mataram, most of the older Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Indonesia, had at least nominally converted to Islam. The last one to do so was Makassar in 1605. After the fall of the Majapahit empire, Bali became the refuge for the Hindu upper class, Brahmins and their followers that fled from Java, thus transferring the Hindu culture of Java to Bali. Hinduism and Buddhism remained extant in some areas of East Java where it syncretized with animism. Their traditions also continued in East and Central Java where they earlier held a sway. Animism was also practiced in remote areas of other islands of Indonesia.
The spread of Islam in eastern islands of Indonesia is recorded in 1605 when three Islamic pious men collectively known as Dato' Tallu came to Makasar, namely Dato'ri Bandang (Abdul Makmur or Khatib Tunggal), Dato'ri Pattimang (Sulaiman Ali or Khatib Sulung) and Dato'ri Tiro (Abdul Jawad or Khatib Bungsu). According to Christian Pelras (1985), Dato' Tallu converted the Kings of Gowa and Tallo to Islam and changed their name to Sultan Muhammad.
The spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam. Dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in North Sumatra; by the 14th in northeast Malaya, Brunei, the southern Philippines northeast and among some courtiers of East Java; and the 15th in Malacca and other areas of the Malay Peninsula. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.
Despite being one of the most significant developments in Indonesian history, historical evidence is fragmentary and generally uninformative such that understandings of the coming of Islam to Indonesia are limited. There is considerable debate amongst scholars about what conclusions can be drawn about the conversion of Indonesian peoples. The primary evidence, at least of the earlier stages of the process, are gravestones and a few travellers' accounts, but these can only show that indigenous Muslims were in a certain place at a certain time. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies. It should not be assumed, for example, that because a ruler was known to be a Muslim, that the process of Islamization of that area was complete. Instead, what is known is that the Islamization process was, and remains to this day, continuous in Indonesia. Nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamized Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta (meaning "precious victory") which was eventually shortened to Jakarta. Islamization increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, spurred on by the spiritual influences of the revered Sufi saints Wali Songo (or Nine Saints).
Malik Ibrahim (b. before 1350, Kashan, Persia - d. April 7, 1419, Gapurosukolilo, Gresik), also known as Sunan Gresik or Kakek Bantal, was the first of the Wali Songo, the nine men generally thought to have introduced Islam to Java (Indonesia).
Ibrahim's origin is unclear, although it is generally agreed that he originated from outside of Java. He is thought to have been born in the first half of the 14th century. Ibrahim is known by several names in the Babad Tanah Jawi and other texts. In the texts, Ibrahim is identified as Makhdum Ibrahim as-Samarqandy (localised to Syekh Ibrahim Asmarakandi). This indicates a possible origin from Samarkand in modern-day Uzbekistan.
Malik Ibrahim was born in Kashan, Persia (modern day Iran). Malik Ibrahim belonged to a Sayyid and highly educated family in Kashan. His great grandfather migrated from Samarkand to Kashan. Ibrahim came to Java with his father, Syekh Jumadil Qubro or Kubro, and his brother Maulana Ishaq, from Persia. They were descendants of Muhammad through Hussein ibn Ali. According to this version, Qubro stayed in Java while his sons went abroad for dakwah. Ibrahim went to Champa (in modern-day Vietnam), while his brother went to Pasai in northern Sumatra. During his 13 years in Champa, Ibrahim provided healthcare and taught farmers more efficient ways to grow crops. He also married one of the king's daughters, whose name has been Indonesianised as Dewi Candrawulan, and had two sons. When he felt that he had converted enough people in Champa to Islam, Ibrahim returned to Java without his family.
Ibrahim landed at Sembalo, Learn, Manyar (9 kilometres (5.6 mi) north of modern-day Gresik) in the late 14th century, where he became acquainted with the local people. He began trading out of the harbor, dealing equally with people from different castes - different social classes based on the dominant Hindu religion. By doing so, Ibrahim found popular support from the lower castes, which led to numerous conversions. He also continued his work from Champa, teaching the locals ways to improve harvests and treating the ill.
Through his trading, Ibrahim also became acquainted with the ruling class and nobles. After journeying to Trowulan to meet the king of Majapahit, he was granted a landing on the outskirts of Gresik which was used for preaching. Ibrahim also founded an Islamic boarding school there.
A legend associated with Ibrahim is that one day, while travelling, he came across a young woman about to be sacrificed to the gods in order to end a long-standing drought. After stopping a group of men from stabbing the woman, Ibrahim prayed for rain. When his prayers were answered, the group he had faced converted to Islam.
Ibrahim died on 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 822 AH (April 7, 1419 CC). He was buried in Gapura village, Gresik, East Java.
Before the 19th century, Ibrahim was not considered one of the Wali Songo, the saints who spread Islam to Java. After his grave was rediscovered in the early 19th century, he was included in the core group. He was first listed as a Wali Songo in Babad Dipanegara. Today his grave, which is without a headstone, is a common destination for pilgrims, who read the Qu'ran and the life of Muhammad; they also partake in a dish unique to the area, harisah rice porridge. In 2005 over 1.5 million pilgrims went to the grave, for which there is an entry fee. Most come on the anniversary of his death, based on the Islamic calendar.
Near Ibrahim's grave is a stone marker bearing an inscription in Arabic, translated below:
Both of Ibrahim's sons went on to spread Islam to Java after they became adults. The eldest, Ali Rahmatullah, is better known as Sunan Ampel and is a member of the Wali Songo himself. The youngest was named Ali Murthada. Ibrahim's work in eastern Java was continued by Raden Paku (later known as Susuhunan Giri) in Giri (now part of the Jepara Regency of Central Java) and Raden Rahmat, who founded an Islamic school in Ngampel, near Surabaya.
Every year, the Gresik city government holds a festival to celebrate Ibrahim's birth. Known as Gebyar Maulid, the festival also serves to promote local culture.
The Wali Songo (also transcribed as Wali Sanga) are revered saints of Islam in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java, because of their historic role in the spread of Islam in Indonesia. The word wali is Arabic for "trusted one" ("guardian" in other contexts in Indonesia) or "friend of God" ("saint" in this context), while the word sanga is Javanese for group of monks or the number nine. Thus, the term is often translated as "Sangha of saints".
Although referred to as a group, there is good evidence that fewer than nine were alive at any given time. Also, there are sources that use the term "Wali Sanga" to refer to saintly mystic(s) other than the most well-known nine individuals.
Each man is often attributed the title sunan in Javanese, which may derive from suhun, in this context meaning "honored".
Most of the wali were also called raden during their lifetimes, because they were members of royal houses.
The graves of the Wali Sanga are venerated as locations of ziarah (ziyarat) or local pilgrimage in Java. The graves are also known as pundhen in Javanese.
The earliest Wali Sanga was Malik Ibrahim. He is thought to have been in the first half of the 14th century. Malik Ibrahim was of Sayyid lineage and came from a highly educated family in Kashan. His great-grandfather migrated from Samarqand, and that is why his family is also known as Samarqandi. They were originally a converted Central Asian Muslim pir from Samarkand. With centuries of Turkish, Mongol and Ottoman rule over Middle East, many of them started claiming Sayyid ancestry to legitimize their rule over the population.
Syekh Jumadil Kubra, to whom all the saints of Java appear to be related, is a name that appears to almost certainly be a corruption of Najmuddin al-Kubra. The name Syekh Jumadil Kubra has attached itself to various legendary and mythical personalities,. These personalities have a common connection in that they are the ancestors or preceptors of the founders of Islam in Java - an oblique acknowledgement, perhaps, of the prestige of the Qubrowi in the period of Islamization.
The sufis themselves traced their ancestors to erstwhile Hindu and Buddhist Javanese kings. Tracing the lineage earlier than Malik Ibrahim is problematic, but most scholars agree that Kubra's lineages are of Chinese descent and not Arab. Although Kubra's silsila -- his spiritual genealogy -- is listed in various Javanese royal chronicles (such as Sejarah Banten) to denote ancestral lineage from erstwhile Hindu Kings, the term in Sufism refers to a lineage of teachers.
Although popular belief sometimes refers to the wali sanga as "founders" of Islam on Java, the religion was present by the time the Chinese Muslim admiral Zheng He arrived during his first voyage (1405-1407 CC).
Many of the earliest Wali Sanga had Chinese ancestry both paternally and maternally. For example, Sunan Ampel (Chinese name Bong Swi Ho), Sunan Bonang (Ampel's son, Bong Ang), and Sunan Kalijaga (Gan Si Cang).
Dewi Candrawulan, a Muslim Princess from Champa, was the mother of Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who was later known by the name of Sunan Ampel. Sunan Ampel was the son of Maulana Malik Ibrahim, and the ancestor or teacher of some of the other Wali Sanga.
The composition of the nine saints varies, depending on different sources. The following list is widely accepted, but its authenticity relies much on repeated citations of a handful of early sources, reinforced as "facts" in school textbooks and other modern accounts. This list differs somewhat from the names suggested in the Babad Tanah Jawi manuscripts.
One theory about the variation of composition is that there was a loose council of nine religious leaders, and that as older members retired or died, new members were brought into this council. However, it should be borne in mind that the term "wali sanga" was created retroactively by historians, and so there was no official "group of nine" that had membership. Further, the differences in chronology of the wali suggest that there might never have been a time when nine of them were alive contemporaneously.
At first, it was not easy for Islam to enter and thrive in the archipelago. Even in the historical record, in a span of about 800 years, Islam had not been able to establish a substantial presence. Notes from the time of the Tang Dynasty of China indicated that merchants from the Middle East had come to the kingdom of Shih-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) in Sumatra, and Holing (Kalinga) in Java in the year 674 CC, i.e., in the transitional period of Caliph Ali to Muawiyah. In the 10th century, a group of Persians called the Lor came to Java. They lived in an area in Ngudung (Kudus), also known as Loram (from the word "Lor" which means North). They also formed other communities in other areas, such as in Gresik. The existence of the gravestone of Fatimah binti Maimun bin Hibatallah in Gresi, dated to the 10th century CC, is considered evidence of the incoming migration of the Persian tribes.
In his notes, Marco Polo relates that when returning from China to Italy in 1292 CC, he did not travel via the Silk Road, but instead traveled by sea towards the Persian Gulf. He stopped in Perlak, a port city in Aceh, southern Malacca. According to Polo, in Perlak there were three groups, namely (1) ethnic Chinese, who were all Muslims; (2) Westerners (Persians), also entirely Muslim; and (3) indigenous people in the hinterland, who worshipped trees, rocks, and spirits. In his testimony, Polo said, regarding the "Kingdom of Ferlec (Perlak)" - "This kingdom, you must know, is so much frequented by the Saracen merchants that they have converted the natives to the Law of Mohammet — I mean the townspeople only, for the Java hill-people live for all the world like beasts, and eat human flesh, as well as all other kinds of flesh, clean or unclean. And they worship this, that, and the other thing; for in fact the first thing that they see on rising in the morning, that they do worship for the rest of the day.
One hundred years after Polo, the Chinese Muslim Admiral Zheng He came to Java in 1405 CC. When he stopped in Tuban, he noted that there were 1,000 Chinese religious Muslim families there. In Gresik, he also found there were 1,000 Chinese Muslim families, with the same amount reported in Surabaya. On Zheng He's seventh (last) visit to Java in 1433 CC, he invited his scribe named Ma Huan. According to Ma Huan, the Chinese and the Arab population of the cities on the northern beaches of Java were all Muslim, while the indigenous population were mostly non-Muslim as they were worshipping the trees, rocks, and spirits.
Early in the 15th century CC, Ali Murtadho and Ali Rahmat, sons of Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sheikh Ibrahim Samarqandi), relocated from the Kingdom of Champa (Southern Vietnam) to Java, and settled in the Tuban area, precisely in the Gesikharjo Village at Palang District. Malik Ibrahim was buried there in 1419. After the funeral, both of his sons then headed to the capital of Majapahit, because their aunt (Princess Dwarawati) was married to the King of Majapahit. By the King's order, both of them then were appointed as officials of the Majapahit Empire. Ali Murtadho as Raja Pandhita (Minister of Religion) for the Musims, while Ali Rahmat was appointed as Imam (High Priest for Muslims) in Surabaya. Ali Rahmat was known as Raden Rahmat (Prince Rahmat), who then became Sunan Ampel.
In sum, multiple sources and conventional wisdom agree that the Wali Sanga contributed to the propagation of Islam (but not its original introduction) in the area now known as Indonesia. However, it is difficult to prove the extent of their influence in quantitative terms such as an increase in the number of adherents or masjids in the areas of their work in contrast to localities where they were not active.
Some of the family relationships described below are well-documented; others are less certain. Even today, it is common in Java for a family friend to be called "uncle" or "brother" despite the lack of a blood relationship.
- Sunan Gresik (Malik Ibrahim): Arrived on Java 1404 CC, died in 1419 CC, buried in Gresik, East Java. Activities included commerce, healing, and improvement of agricultural techniques. Father of Sunan Ampel and uncle of Sunan Giri.
- Sunan Ampel: Born in Champa (Southern Vietnam) in 1401 CC, died in 1481 CC in Demak, Central Java. Can be considered a focal point of the wali sanga. He was the son of Sunan Gresik and the father of Sunan Bonang and Sunan Dradjat. Sunan Ampel was also the cousin and father-in-law of Sunan Giri. In addition, Sunan Ampel was the grandfather of Sunan Kudus. Sunan Bonang in turn taught Sunan Kalijaga, who was the father of Sunan Muria. Sunan Ampel was also the teacher of Raden Patah.
- Sunan Giri: Born in Blambangan (now Banyuwangi, the easternmost part of Java) in 1442 CC. His father Maulana Ishak was the brother of Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Sunan Giri's grave is in Gresik near Surabaya.
- Sunan Bonang: Born in 1465 CC in Rembang (near Tuban) on the north coast of Central Java. Died in 1525 CC and buried in Tuban. Brother of Sunan Drajat. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.
- Sunan Drajat: Born in 1470 CC. Brother of Sunan Bonang. Composed songs for gamelan orchestra.
- Sunan Kudus: Died 1550 CC, buried in Kudus. Possible originator of wayang golek puppetry.
- Sunan Kalijaga: His birth name is Raden Mas Said, and he is the son of Adipati Tuban. Buried in Kadilangu, Demak. Used wayang kulit shadow puppets and gamelan music to convey spiritual teachings.
- Sunan Muria: Buried in Gunung Muria, Kudus. Son of Sunan Kalijaga and Dewi Soejinah (sister of Sunan Giri).
- Sunan Gunung Jati: Buried in Cirebon. Founder and first ruler of the Cirebon Sultanate. His son, Maulana Hasanudin, became the founder and the first ruler of the Banten Sultanate.
Malikites (in Arabic, Malikiyya) (Maliki). Juridico-religious group of orthodox Islam which formed itself into a school after the adoption of the doctrine of imam Malik ibn Anas. The success of the school is due to Malik’s intolerance towards the Qadariyya and the Kharijites. Nor is there any place in it for mysticism, although a number of Maliki mystics are known. In Medina, all trace of the school was lost after the demise of Malik’s first disciples. It only returned with the triumph of Sunnism in the fourteenth century. Malikism is predominant in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It was the sole official rite of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) during the eighth and ninth centuries. At the present time, the majority of the Muslims of the Sudan belong to the Maliki school of law and there are Maliki Muslims in Senegal, Mali, Niger, Togo, Chad and Nigeria.
Malikites comprise one of the four orthodox schools of law in Islam. Their sect was named after Malik ibn Anas, who died in the Arabian city of Medina in 796. A celebrated legal scholar, Malik is known above all as the author of Kitab al-Muwatta, the earliest surviving work on law in Islam. Its contents in general reflect the outlook of that early legal tradition associated with the Hijaz. While the Maliki school owed its formative inspiration to the teaching of Malik, the elaboration of its doctrine into a unified, distinctive code of law was in the main the work of his leading disciples, in particular of al-Sulami (d. 852), al-Tanukhi, known also as Sahnun (d. 854), and Isma‘il ibn Ishaq (d. 895). In addition to the Qur’an, Malikis based their legal rulings on the consensus (ijma) or customary law of Medina, and when these failed to provide an adequate basis for law they had recourse to personal judgment (ijtihad/ra’y). Malikis did make use of the hadith (the traditions of the Prophet) as a basis for law, but these never constituted the highest court of appeal for them. If Malikis and Hanafis were largely in agreement on the role of reason in the juridical process, they sometimes differed substantively in the realm of positive law, a fact explained largely by their different geographical roots. Apart from isolated cases, and for reasons that are not entirely clear, Maliki law never won acceptance in the eastern lands of Islam. However, it has been and remains the dominant school of North Africa.
Malikiyya see Malikites
Malik Sarwar (Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi) (Khwaja Jahan). Founder of the Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur in northern India (r.1394-1399).
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi was the Sultan of the Sharqi dynasty in South Asia.
The Jaunpur sultanate was ruled by the Sharqi dynasty. The Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar, the first ruler of the dynasty was a Wazir (minister) under Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1390 – 1394). In 1394, he established himself as an independent ruler of Jaunpur and extended his authority over Awadh and a large part of Ganga-Yamuna doab. The dynasty founded by him was named so because of his title Malik-us-Sharq (the ruler of the east). The most acclaimed ruler of this dynasty was Ibrahim Shah. The last ruler Hussain Shah was overthrown by Bahlul Lodi, and the Jaunpur sultanate was permanently annexed to the Delhi sultanate by Sikandar Lodi.
In 1389, Malik Sarwar received the title of Khajah-i-Jahan. In 1394, he was appointed as the governor of Jaunpur and received his title of Malik-us-Sharq from Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah III Tughluq (1394 - 1413). Soon, he established himself as an independent ruler and took the title of Atabak-i-Azam. He suppressed the rebellions in Etawah, Koil and Kanauj. He was also able to bring under his control Kara, Awadh, Sandila, Dalmau, Bahraich, Bihar and Tirhut. The Rai of Jajnagar and the ruler of Lakhnauti acknowledged his authority and sent him a number of elephants. After his death, he was succeeded by his adopted son Malik Qaranfal, who took the title of Mubarak Shah.
Khwaja Jahan see Malik Sarwar
Jahan, Khwaja see Malik Sarwar
Sarwar, Malik see Malik Sarwar
Malik Sarwar Shah Sharqi see Malik Sarwar
Sharqi, Malik Sarwar Shah see Malik Sarwar
Malik Shah (Jalāl al-Dawlah Malik-shāh) (Melikşah) (d. 1092). Seljuk sultan from 1072 to 1092.. Name of various Saljuq (Seljuk) rulers, the most outstanding of whom was the Great Saljuq Malik Shah I ibn Alp Arslan (b. 1055; r.1072-1092). During his reign, the Great Saljuq Empire reached its zenith of territorial extent -- from Syria in the west to Khurasan in the east -- and of military might. After putting down insurrections by other members of the Saljuq family, Malik Shah came to a modus vivendi -- method of living -- with the Ghaznavids of eastern Afghanistan and India and with the Ilek-Khans of western and eastern Turkestan. He defended the northwestern provinces of Azerbaijan, Arran and Armenia against the Georgians and the Turkmen. In the Arab lands of Iraq, Mesopotamia and Syria, Malik Shah assured Sunni control of major cities such as Aleppo, Damascus, Antioch and Edessa by installing Turkish slave commanders as governors. On Malik Shah’s visit to Baghdad in 1086, the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadi formally granted him the secular authority. Central policy in the Saljuq state was directed by the great vizier Nizam al-Mulk, who facilitated the revival of Sunni Islam, as the authority of the Shi‘a Buyids and Fatimids was waning. This in theory meant harmonious co-operation with the ‘Abbasid caliphs, the moral heads of Sunni Islam. Malik Shah was the patron of such poets as the Arab al-Tughra’i and the Persians Mu‘izzi and ‘Omar Khayyam.
Malik Shah I (Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah) drove the Byzantine Empire out of most of Anatolia following their defeat by his father Alp Arslan at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Likewise, he reformed the calendar with the Jalali calendar in 1079. Malik Shah expanded Seljuk power into Syria at the expense of the Fatimids of Egypt, setting up client princes in Edessa, Alepp and Damascus and is remembered as one of the greatest of the Saljuq sultans.
Suleyman revolted against Malik Shah I and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Rum, establishing his capital at Nicaea. Suleyman expanded his realm but was killed near Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I, the Saljuq ruler of Syria. Suleyman's son, Kilij Arslan I, was captured and taken as a hostage by Malik Shah I to Isfahan. It is uncertain whether Tutush killed Suleyman out of loyalty to Malik Shah I or simply for personal gain.
The principal administrative official during the reign of Malik Shah I was the vizier Nizam al-Mulk who served both him and his father and achieved a near mythic stature in contemporary Muslim histories.
After the death of Malik Shah I in 1092, the Saljuq empire dissolved into smaller, warring states, as Malik Shah's brother and four sons quarreled over the apportioning of the empire between themselves. Kilij Arslan I re-established the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, and Tutush I established himself in Syria. In Persia, Malik Shah was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers: Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmed Sanjar in Khorasan.
The disunity within the Saljuq lands ultimately contributed to the success of the First Crusade.
Jalal al-Dawlah Malikshah see Malik Shah
Meliksah see Malik Shah
Malkom Khan (Malkum Khan) (Mirza Malkam Khan) (Mirza Malkum) (Mirza Malkom) (Mirza Malkam) in Tehran in 1858 to facilitate gatherings of enlightened Iranians and the propagation of reformist thought. In the meantime, he published the Kitabcha-yi ghaibi ya daftar-i tanzimat and the Daftar-i qanun, which dealt largely with legal, political, and administrative reform based on the Western model. Owing to the controversial nature of his activities, he ws exiled in 1861 and the Faramushkhana was officially dissolved. He was later pardoned and again exiled to London in 1890 after a lottery scandal. In London, he began the publication of his newspaper Qanun (Law) in 1891, calling for reform and modernization in his mother country. He collaborated with other reformists of the time such as Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Mirza Agha Khan Kirmani. He participated only marginally in support of the Tobacco Protest of 1906.
Malkom Khan was an enigmatic figure in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Iranian history. He was an advocate of progress and reform, but he was often motivated by self-aggrandizement and self-interest. He called for political and governmental changes as well as cultural ones that included Persian language and alphabet reform. As one of the first to write in a recognizably modern prose idiom and as an editor of Qanun, his influential newspaper, Malkom Khan’s most important historical contribution is perhaps to be found in a literary venue, even though he has not been regarded as a major literary figure or stylist. It was in Turkey rather than Iran that alphabet reform was achieved. The liberal political values expressed in Qanun found expression in the Iranian Constitution of 1905-1906.
Malkom Khan was born into an Armenian family in Julfa Isfahan. Malkom, like his father, Ya‘kub Khan, studied abroad, learned French, served as an interpreter and translator, established useful patronage links, was a self-professed Muslim with interests in freemasonry and an advocate of cultural change including alphabet reform. Malkom returned from Paris at the age of eighteen to work as an interpreter in Dar al-Funun, the new college in Tehran, where he also taught geography and natural science. Five years later, through patronage ties with Nasir al-Din Shahand his prime minister, Malkom returned to Europe as the member of a diplomatic mission to conclude peace with Britain. This was the beginning of his diplomatic career and European travel that convinced him of the superiority of European civilization and the value of westernization. In Paris, he was initiated into a Masonic lodge.
Malkom Khan returned to Iran in 1858 and was involved with the introduction of the telegraph in Iran and wrote his first treatise on political and administrative reform, which was influenced by Ottoman models. He advocated, among other general principles, the separation of the legislative from the executive branch, codification of law, equality before the law, and freedom of belief. In addition, he also spelled out specific recommendations for the implementation of these principles in Western-style ministries, comprehensive education, the development of roads, increased government revenues, a reformed military, and a national bank. He established a freemasonry type society, and used it as a base for political action and reform. The shah (Nasser ad-Din Shah) forced the closure of his lodge because of its secrecy and membership that included potential rivals for the monarchy.
In late 1861, Malkom Khan was sent into exile, first in Baghdad and then Istanbul, where he was assigned as counselor at the Iranian embassy. In 1868, he was dismissed and given Ottoman nationality but was reappointed to his position in the Iranian embassy, which he held until 1871. From 1873 to 1889, he served as Iran’s minister in London. In 1889, he was involved in a financial scandal relating to a proposed national lottery in Iran, which resulted in his final dismissal and the loss of his titles. In 1890, he began publishing his influential newspaper, Qanun, which attacked Qajar despotism, stressed westernization as the means for saving Iranian sovereignty, and called for a constitution and parliamentary government. Qanun, influenced by Turkish newspapers in Istanbul, was printed in London and smuggled into Iran, where it was widely circulated and read by like-minded clerical and secular anti-Qajar reformers. It ceased publication in 1898 when Malkom Khan was appointed ambassador to Italy by Mozaffar ad-Din Shah with the title of Nezam od-Dawlah. He remained the Persian ambassador to Italy until his death in 1908.
Malkom Khan died on a visit to Switzerland in 1908.
Malkom Khan was a believer in Social Darwinism. He espoused an Iran modeled on the values of the enlightenment and urged a return to a "Persian" heritage. Today, he is recognized as the most important and influential Persian modernizer of the nineteenth century.
Malkum Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkum see Malkom Khan
Khan, Malkom see Malkom Khan
Mirza Malkam Khan see Malkom Khan
Khan, Mirza Malkam see Malkom Khan
Malkum, Mirza see Malkom Khan
Ma‘luf, al-. Lebanese family which became renowned throughout the Arab world because of the literary activities of a number of its members, both in Lebanon and in the Americas, during the past 150 years.
Malzuza. Ancient Berber people belonging to the branch of the Butr, and to the family of the Darisa, who lived in Tripolitania.
Malzuzi, Abu Hatim al- (Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi) (d. 772). Ibadi Imam. He was killed in 772 after initiating a revolt against the Abbasids in 768. His tomb in the Jabal Nafusa is a holy place, surrounded with legends.
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