Farrukhi-Sistani
Farrukhi-Sistani (Abu’l-Hasan Farrukhi-Sistani) (Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani) (d.1037). Persian poet. He was attached to the court of Mahmud ibn Sebuktigin of Ghazna, singing his poems to his own accompaniment on the lute. The collected edition of his poems contains more than 9,500 lines of verse.
Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani was a 10th century and 11th century royal poet of Ghaznavids. He was one of the brightest masters of the panegyric school of poetry in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. He started his career by writing a qasideh called 'With a Caravan of Fine Robes' and presented it to Asa'ad Chaghani, the vizier of Saffarid king of Sistan. This poem was so beautiful and masterful that Farrokhi was admitted to the court.
Abu’l-Hasan Farrukhi-Sistani see Farrukhi-Sistani
Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani see Farrukhi-Sistani
Farrukhi-Sistani (Abu’l-Hasan Farrukhi-Sistani) (Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani) (d.1037). Persian poet. He was attached to the court of Mahmud ibn Sebuktigin of Ghazna, singing his poems to his own accompaniment on the lute. The collected edition of his poems contains more than 9,500 lines of verse.
Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani was a 10th century and 11th century royal poet of Ghaznavids. He was one of the brightest masters of the panegyric school of poetry in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. He started his career by writing a qasideh called 'With a Caravan of Fine Robes' and presented it to Asa'ad Chaghani, the vizier of Saffarid king of Sistan. This poem was so beautiful and masterful that Farrokhi was admitted to the court.
Abu’l-Hasan Farrukhi-Sistani see Farrukhi-Sistani
Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani see Farrukhi-Sistani
Farrukh-Siyar
Farrukh-Siyar (Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar) (September 11, 1683 - April 27/28, 1719). Mughal emperor who reigned from 1713 to 1719. He broke with emperor Aurangzib’s policies in a number of spheres and granted the English East India Company the right to carry on trade free of duties in several districts and ports.
Noted as a handsome but weak ruler, easily swayed by his advisers, Farukhsiyar lacked the ability and character to rule independently. His reign witnessed the primacy of the Syed Brothers who became the effective powers of the land, behind the façade of Mughal rule.
Farrukhn Siyar was born at Aurangabad in the Deccan on September 11, 1683. He was the second son of Azim ush Shan, a son of former emperor Bahadur Shah I. His mother was Sahiba Niswan, a sister of Nawab Shaista Khan, the erstwhile Mughal Subadar of Kashmir. He married his first wife, Nawab Fakhr-un-Nisa Begum Sahiba, daughter of Nawab Sa'adat Khan Bahadur [Mir Muhammad Taqi Husaini], a Kashmiri nobleman from the Marashi clan, sometime prior to December, 1715. In September 1715, Farrukhsiyar married Indira Kanwar, daughter of Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur. He was also married to at least one other lady.
Jahandar Shah was defeated at Samugarh near Agra on January 10, 1713. Following this, the Syed Brothers, helped Farukhsiyar to secure his throne. He took the throne on January 11, 1713. His reign marked the ascendancy of the Syed Brothers who monopolized state power and reduced the Emperor to an effective figurehead. The town of Farrukhnagar in Gurgaon district, 32 kilometers south of Delhi, was rechristened after his name. During his reign, he built a Sheesh Mahal and a mosque in Farrukhnagar.
It was during Farrukhsiyar's reign, in 1717, that the British East India Company purchased duty-free trading rights in all of Bengal for a mere three thousand rupees a year. It is said that the Company's surgeon, William Hamilton, cured Farrukhsiyar from some ailment and the emperor was moved to grant trading rights to the Company. Another story tells of a bribe to a eunuch of the seraglio and a rumored British naval attack on the Mughal navy at Surat. This order, which the Company hailed as the golden firman, was not of much practical use. Even though the Company claimed duty exemptions based on this firman, the Mughal governors of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan onwards, ignored this order of their suzerain and continued to collect customs duty from the East India Company.
Nevertheless, Farrukhsiyar in the very short term met a humiliating and bloody end. His constant plotting eventually led the Syed Brothers to officially depose him as the Emperor. Farrukhsiyar was imprisoned and starved. Later, on February 28, 1719, he was blinded with needles at the orders of the Syed (Saiyad) brothers. Farrukhsiyar was strangled to death on the night of April 27/28, 1719. After accomplishing his assassination, the Syed Brothers placed Farrukhsiyar's first-cousin, Rafi-ud-durgat (Rafi Ul-Darjat), on the throne. Rafi-ud-durjat's father and Farukhsiyar's father had been brothers.
Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar see Farrukh-Siyar
Farrukh-Siyar (Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar) (September 11, 1683 - April 27/28, 1719). Mughal emperor who reigned from 1713 to 1719. He broke with emperor Aurangzib’s policies in a number of spheres and granted the English East India Company the right to carry on trade free of duties in several districts and ports.
Noted as a handsome but weak ruler, easily swayed by his advisers, Farukhsiyar lacked the ability and character to rule independently. His reign witnessed the primacy of the Syed Brothers who became the effective powers of the land, behind the façade of Mughal rule.
Farrukhn Siyar was born at Aurangabad in the Deccan on September 11, 1683. He was the second son of Azim ush Shan, a son of former emperor Bahadur Shah I. His mother was Sahiba Niswan, a sister of Nawab Shaista Khan, the erstwhile Mughal Subadar of Kashmir. He married his first wife, Nawab Fakhr-un-Nisa Begum Sahiba, daughter of Nawab Sa'adat Khan Bahadur [Mir Muhammad Taqi Husaini], a Kashmiri nobleman from the Marashi clan, sometime prior to December, 1715. In September 1715, Farrukhsiyar married Indira Kanwar, daughter of Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur. He was also married to at least one other lady.
Jahandar Shah was defeated at Samugarh near Agra on January 10, 1713. Following this, the Syed Brothers, helped Farukhsiyar to secure his throne. He took the throne on January 11, 1713. His reign marked the ascendancy of the Syed Brothers who monopolized state power and reduced the Emperor to an effective figurehead. The town of Farrukhnagar in Gurgaon district, 32 kilometers south of Delhi, was rechristened after his name. During his reign, he built a Sheesh Mahal and a mosque in Farrukhnagar.
It was during Farrukhsiyar's reign, in 1717, that the British East India Company purchased duty-free trading rights in all of Bengal for a mere three thousand rupees a year. It is said that the Company's surgeon, William Hamilton, cured Farrukhsiyar from some ailment and the emperor was moved to grant trading rights to the Company. Another story tells of a bribe to a eunuch of the seraglio and a rumored British naval attack on the Mughal navy at Surat. This order, which the Company hailed as the golden firman, was not of much practical use. Even though the Company claimed duty exemptions based on this firman, the Mughal governors of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan onwards, ignored this order of their suzerain and continued to collect customs duty from the East India Company.
Nevertheless, Farrukhsiyar in the very short term met a humiliating and bloody end. His constant plotting eventually led the Syed Brothers to officially depose him as the Emperor. Farrukhsiyar was imprisoned and starved. Later, on February 28, 1719, he was blinded with needles at the orders of the Syed (Saiyad) brothers. Farrukhsiyar was strangled to death on the night of April 27/28, 1719. After accomplishing his assassination, the Syed Brothers placed Farrukhsiyar's first-cousin, Rafi-ud-durgat (Rafi Ul-Darjat), on the throne. Rafi-ud-durjat's father and Farukhsiyar's father had been brothers.
Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar see Farrukh-Siyar
Faruk I
Faruk I. See Farouk.
Faruk I. See Farouk.
Faruqids
Faruqids. Dynasty of sultans who established and ruled the semi-independent Muslim principality of Khandesh in the Northern Deccan, in India (r.1370-1601). It was extinguished by the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
Faruqids. Dynasty of sultans who established and ruled the semi-independent Muslim principality of Khandesh in the Northern Deccan, in India (r.1370-1601). It was extinguished by the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
Faruqi, Isma‘il Raji al-
Faruqi, Isma‘il Raji al- (January 1, 1921 – May 27, 1986). Palestinian-American philosopher who was recognized by his peers as an authority on Islam and comparative religion. He spent several years at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, then taught at several universities in North America, including McGill University in Montreal. He was Professor of Religion at Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program.
Born in Jaffa, Palestine, Faruqi received an education that made him trilingual (Arabic, French, and English) and provided him with multi-cultural intellectual sources that informed his life and thought. He studied at the mosque school, attended a French Catholic school, College des Freres (St. Joseph) in Palestine, and earned a bachelor’s degree at the American University of Beirut (1941). Having become governor of Galilee in 1945, Faruqi was forced to emigrate from Palestine after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. He then earned masters degrees from Indiana and Harvard Universities and a doctorate in philosophy from Indiana University (1952).
Both a poor job market and an inner drive brought Faruqi back to the Arab world, where, from 1954 to 1958, he studied Islam at Cairo’s al-Azhar University. He subsequently studied and conducted research at major centers of learning in the Muslim world and the West as Visiting Professor of Islamic Studies at the Institute of Islamic Studies and a Fellow at the Faculty of Divinity, McGill University (1959-1961), where he studied Christianity and Judaism; Professor of Islamic Studies at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, Pakistan (1961-1963); and Visiting Professor of History of Religions at the University of Chicago (1963-1964).
Isma‘il al-Faruqi taught in the Department of Religion at Syracuse University (1964-1968) and then became Professor of Islamic Studies and of History of Religions at Temple University (1968-1986). During a professional life that spanned almost thirty years, he wrote, edited, or translated twenty-five books, published more than a hundred articles, was a visiting professor at more than twenty-three universities in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and served on the editiorial boards of seven major journals.
For Faruqi, Arabism and Islam were intertwined. His Arab-Muslim identity was at the center of the man and the scholar. His life and writing reveal two phases or stages. In the first, epitomized in his book On Arabism: Urubah and Religion, Arabism was the dominant theme of his discourse. In the second, Islam occupied center stage, as he increasingly assumed the role of an Islamic activist leader as well as of an academic. His later work and writing focused on a comprehensive vision of Islam and its relationship to all aspects of life and culture.
Living and working in the West, Faurqi presented Islam in Western categories to engage his audience as well as to make Islam more comprehensible and respected. Like the founders of Islamic modernism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, he often presented Islam as the religion par excellence of reason, science, and progress with a strong emphasis on action and the work ethic.
If during the 1950s and 1960s Faruqi sounded like an Arab heir to Islamic modernism and Western empiricism, by the late 1960s and early 1970s he progressively assumed the role of an Islamic scholar-activist. This shift in orientation was evident in the re-casting of his framework: Islam replaced Arabism as his primary reference point. Islam had always had an important place in Faurqi’s writing, but it now became the organizing principle. Islam had always had an important place in Faruqi’s writing, but it now became the organizing principle. Islam was presented as an all-encompassing ideology, the primary identity of a worldwide community (umma) of believers and the guiding principle for society and culture. Like Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ‘Abduh, Faruqi grounded his interpretation of Islam in the doctrine of tawhid (the oneness of God), combining the classical affirmation of the centrality of God’s oneness (monotheism) with a modernist interpretation (ijtihad) and application of Islam to modern life. In Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life, he presented tawhid as the essence of religious experience, the quintessence of Islam, and the principle of history, knowledge, ethics, aesthetics, the umma (Muslim community), the family, and the political, social, economic, and world orders.
This holistic, activist Islamic worldview was embodied in this new phase in his life and career as he continued to write extensively, to lecture and consult with Islamic movements and national governments, and to organize Muslims in America. During the 1970s, he established Islamic studies programs, recruited and trained Muslim students, organized Muslim professionals, established and chaired the Islamic Studies Steering Committee of the American Academy of Religion (1976-1982), and was an active participant in international ecumenical meetings where he was a major force in Islam’s dialogue with other world religions. Faruqi was a founder or leader of many organizations, including the Muslim Student Association and a host of associations of Muslim professionals, such as the Association of Muslim Social Scientists. He served as Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the North American Islamic Trust. He established and was first president of the American Islamic College in Chicago, and in 1981 he created the International Institute for Islamic Thought in Virginia.
At the heart of Faruqi’s vision was the islamization of knowledge. He regarded the political, economic, and religio-cultural malaise of the Islamic community as primarily a product of the bifurcated state of education in the Muslim world with a resultant loss of identity and lack of vision. Faruqi believed that the cure was two-fold: the compulsory study of Islamic civilization and the islamization of modern knowledge.
Isma‘il al-Faruqi’s life ended tradically in 1986 when he and his wife, Lois Lamya’ al-Faruqi, also an Islamic scholar, were stabbed to death in their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania on May 27, 1986.
Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi see Faruqi, Isma‘il Raji al-
Faruqi, Isma‘il Raji al- (January 1, 1921 – May 27, 1986). Palestinian-American philosopher who was recognized by his peers as an authority on Islam and comparative religion. He spent several years at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, then taught at several universities in North America, including McGill University in Montreal. He was Professor of Religion at Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program.
Born in Jaffa, Palestine, Faruqi received an education that made him trilingual (Arabic, French, and English) and provided him with multi-cultural intellectual sources that informed his life and thought. He studied at the mosque school, attended a French Catholic school, College des Freres (St. Joseph) in Palestine, and earned a bachelor’s degree at the American University of Beirut (1941). Having become governor of Galilee in 1945, Faruqi was forced to emigrate from Palestine after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. He then earned masters degrees from Indiana and Harvard Universities and a doctorate in philosophy from Indiana University (1952).
Both a poor job market and an inner drive brought Faruqi back to the Arab world, where, from 1954 to 1958, he studied Islam at Cairo’s al-Azhar University. He subsequently studied and conducted research at major centers of learning in the Muslim world and the West as Visiting Professor of Islamic Studies at the Institute of Islamic Studies and a Fellow at the Faculty of Divinity, McGill University (1959-1961), where he studied Christianity and Judaism; Professor of Islamic Studies at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, Pakistan (1961-1963); and Visiting Professor of History of Religions at the University of Chicago (1963-1964).
Isma‘il al-Faruqi taught in the Department of Religion at Syracuse University (1964-1968) and then became Professor of Islamic Studies and of History of Religions at Temple University (1968-1986). During a professional life that spanned almost thirty years, he wrote, edited, or translated twenty-five books, published more than a hundred articles, was a visiting professor at more than twenty-three universities in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and served on the editiorial boards of seven major journals.
For Faruqi, Arabism and Islam were intertwined. His Arab-Muslim identity was at the center of the man and the scholar. His life and writing reveal two phases or stages. In the first, epitomized in his book On Arabism: Urubah and Religion, Arabism was the dominant theme of his discourse. In the second, Islam occupied center stage, as he increasingly assumed the role of an Islamic activist leader as well as of an academic. His later work and writing focused on a comprehensive vision of Islam and its relationship to all aspects of life and culture.
Living and working in the West, Faurqi presented Islam in Western categories to engage his audience as well as to make Islam more comprehensible and respected. Like the founders of Islamic modernism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, he often presented Islam as the religion par excellence of reason, science, and progress with a strong emphasis on action and the work ethic.
If during the 1950s and 1960s Faruqi sounded like an Arab heir to Islamic modernism and Western empiricism, by the late 1960s and early 1970s he progressively assumed the role of an Islamic scholar-activist. This shift in orientation was evident in the re-casting of his framework: Islam replaced Arabism as his primary reference point. Islam had always had an important place in Faurqi’s writing, but it now became the organizing principle. Islam had always had an important place in Faruqi’s writing, but it now became the organizing principle. Islam was presented as an all-encompassing ideology, the primary identity of a worldwide community (umma) of believers and the guiding principle for society and culture. Like Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ‘Abduh, Faruqi grounded his interpretation of Islam in the doctrine of tawhid (the oneness of God), combining the classical affirmation of the centrality of God’s oneness (monotheism) with a modernist interpretation (ijtihad) and application of Islam to modern life. In Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life, he presented tawhid as the essence of religious experience, the quintessence of Islam, and the principle of history, knowledge, ethics, aesthetics, the umma (Muslim community), the family, and the political, social, economic, and world orders.
This holistic, activist Islamic worldview was embodied in this new phase in his life and career as he continued to write extensively, to lecture and consult with Islamic movements and national governments, and to organize Muslims in America. During the 1970s, he established Islamic studies programs, recruited and trained Muslim students, organized Muslim professionals, established and chaired the Islamic Studies Steering Committee of the American Academy of Religion (1976-1982), and was an active participant in international ecumenical meetings where he was a major force in Islam’s dialogue with other world religions. Faruqi was a founder or leader of many organizations, including the Muslim Student Association and a host of associations of Muslim professionals, such as the Association of Muslim Social Scientists. He served as Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the North American Islamic Trust. He established and was first president of the American Islamic College in Chicago, and in 1981 he created the International Institute for Islamic Thought in Virginia.
At the heart of Faruqi’s vision was the islamization of knowledge. He regarded the political, economic, and religio-cultural malaise of the Islamic community as primarily a product of the bifurcated state of education in the Muslim world with a resultant loss of identity and lack of vision. Faruqi believed that the cure was two-fold: the compulsory study of Islamic civilization and the islamization of modern knowledge.
Isma‘il al-Faruqi’s life ended tradically in 1986 when he and his wife, Lois Lamya’ al-Faruqi, also an Islamic scholar, were stabbed to death in their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania on May 27, 1986.
Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi see Faruqi, Isma‘il Raji al-
Fasa’i
Fasa’i (Hajji Mirza Hasan Fasa’i) (1821-after 1895). Persian scholar. He was the author of a historical-geographical work on his native province of Fars.
Hajji Mirza Hasan Fasa’i see Fasa’i
Fasa’i (Hajji Mirza Hasan Fasa’i) (1821-after 1895). Persian scholar. He was the author of a historical-geographical work on his native province of Fars.
Hajji Mirza Hasan Fasa’i see Fasa’i
Fasanjus
Fasanjus (Banu Fasanjus). Family which hereditarily occupied high administrative offices under the Buyids.
Banu Fasanjus see Fasanjus
Fasanjus (Banu Fasanjus). Family which hereditarily occupied high administrative offices under the Buyids.
Banu Fasanjus see Fasanjus
Fasi
Fasi (al-Fasi) (“the one from Fez”). Name of origin of the members of a prominent family of Moroccan scholars who contributed most actively to Moroccan religious, intellectual and literary life from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries of the Christian calendar.
al-Fasi see Fasi
“the one from Fez” see Fasi
Fasi (al-Fasi) (“the one from Fez”). Name of origin of the members of a prominent family of Moroccan scholars who contributed most actively to Moroccan religious, intellectual and literary life from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries of the Christian calendar.
al-Fasi see Fasi
“the one from Fez” see Fasi
Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al- (Muhammad 'Allal al-Fasi) (Muhammad Allal al-Fassi) (January 10, 1910 – May 19, 1974). Moroccan intellectual, historian, legal scholar, teacher, poet, and political leader, and founder of the Istiqlal Party. Son of the mufti of Fez, al-Fasi was born into a prominent religious and literary family claiming descent from Arabia through Andalusian Spain. He studied Islamic law at al-Qarawiyin University. In the late 1920s, al-Fasi criticized the French Protectorate from a perspective of Islamic modernism and reform. In 1927, he was a founder of the Moroccan Action Committee, a loose coalition of intellectuals in Fez and Rabat. In 1930, the Committee criticized the French authorities for the Berber Decree, which they saw as an attempt to divide Arabs and Berbers.
Al-Fasi received his diploma in Islamic law in 1930, remaining at al-Qarawiyin to teach Islamic history. In 1934, al-Fasi and his activist compatriots publicly issued a Moroccan Reform Plan. When there were no reforms, despite the coming to power of the Popular Front in France in 1936, they turned to organizing public protests, and al-Fasi and others were arrested. Under al-Fasi’s presidency, the group split over tactical questions in 1937, with al-Fasi remaining as the leader of its largest contingent. His group was banned in March 1937 but reorganized as the National Reform Party. Following new demonstrations, al-Fasi and other leaders of the party were arrested.
Al-Fasi was exiled by the French to Gabon until 1946, although he remained a continuing influence in Morocco. The National Reform Party was reorganized as the Istiqlal (Independence) Party in 1943. In January 1944, the Istiqlal issued a manifesto for Moroccan independence under the sultan. Al-Fasi returned from Gabon as head of the Istiqlal Party in 1946. In April 1947, the sultan gave a speech that reflected the growing influence of al-Fasi and the Istiqlal.
Al-Fasi again fled Morocco in May 1947, this time to Cairo, where he remained in exile until Moroccan independence in 1956. From Cairo, he traveled and lectured in the Middle East, South Asia, Europe, and North America. His most important writings date from this period, including The Independence Movements in Arab North Africa (1947), Self-Criticism (1951), and two collections – From the Occident to the Orient (1956) and The Call of Cairo (1959).
The independence movement grew steadily during al-Fasi’s exile. Upon Morocco’s independence in 1956 al-Fasi returned as president for life of the Istiqlal and professor of law at the new University of Rabat. He joined the government only in June 1961, after the death of King Muhammad V and the accession of King Hasan II. He resigned as Minister of Islamic Affairs in January 1963 because of policy differences with the king. The Istiqlal became the major opposition party under the leadership of al-Fasi, who wrote and taught until his death in 1973.
Al-Fasi was above all an Islamic modernist and reformer, advocating Islamic renewal, a return to original sources, Arabic language reform, and avoidance of imitating the West. He was an early critic of the protectorate and an early advocate of Moroccan independence. As a nationalist, al-Fasi claimed that Morocco includes the Western Sahara, Mauritania, and territories that had been included in western and southern Algeria by the French. Al-Fasi consistently supported the ‘Alawi monarchy and sought to influence successive monarchs, but he was also a constitutionalist who did not hesitate to criticize royal policies when he felt they compromised Moroccan independence or social justice.
Muhammad 'Allal al-Fasi see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Muhammad Allal al-Fassi see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Fassi, Muhammad Allal al- see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al- (Muhammad 'Allal al-Fasi) (Muhammad Allal al-Fassi) (January 10, 1910 – May 19, 1974). Moroccan intellectual, historian, legal scholar, teacher, poet, and political leader, and founder of the Istiqlal Party. Son of the mufti of Fez, al-Fasi was born into a prominent religious and literary family claiming descent from Arabia through Andalusian Spain. He studied Islamic law at al-Qarawiyin University. In the late 1920s, al-Fasi criticized the French Protectorate from a perspective of Islamic modernism and reform. In 1927, he was a founder of the Moroccan Action Committee, a loose coalition of intellectuals in Fez and Rabat. In 1930, the Committee criticized the French authorities for the Berber Decree, which they saw as an attempt to divide Arabs and Berbers.
Al-Fasi received his diploma in Islamic law in 1930, remaining at al-Qarawiyin to teach Islamic history. In 1934, al-Fasi and his activist compatriots publicly issued a Moroccan Reform Plan. When there were no reforms, despite the coming to power of the Popular Front in France in 1936, they turned to organizing public protests, and al-Fasi and others were arrested. Under al-Fasi’s presidency, the group split over tactical questions in 1937, with al-Fasi remaining as the leader of its largest contingent. His group was banned in March 1937 but reorganized as the National Reform Party. Following new demonstrations, al-Fasi and other leaders of the party were arrested.
Al-Fasi was exiled by the French to Gabon until 1946, although he remained a continuing influence in Morocco. The National Reform Party was reorganized as the Istiqlal (Independence) Party in 1943. In January 1944, the Istiqlal issued a manifesto for Moroccan independence under the sultan. Al-Fasi returned from Gabon as head of the Istiqlal Party in 1946. In April 1947, the sultan gave a speech that reflected the growing influence of al-Fasi and the Istiqlal.
Al-Fasi again fled Morocco in May 1947, this time to Cairo, where he remained in exile until Moroccan independence in 1956. From Cairo, he traveled and lectured in the Middle East, South Asia, Europe, and North America. His most important writings date from this period, including The Independence Movements in Arab North Africa (1947), Self-Criticism (1951), and two collections – From the Occident to the Orient (1956) and The Call of Cairo (1959).
The independence movement grew steadily during al-Fasi’s exile. Upon Morocco’s independence in 1956 al-Fasi returned as president for life of the Istiqlal and professor of law at the new University of Rabat. He joined the government only in June 1961, after the death of King Muhammad V and the accession of King Hasan II. He resigned as Minister of Islamic Affairs in January 1963 because of policy differences with the king. The Istiqlal became the major opposition party under the leadership of al-Fasi, who wrote and taught until his death in 1973.
Al-Fasi was above all an Islamic modernist and reformer, advocating Islamic renewal, a return to original sources, Arabic language reform, and avoidance of imitating the West. He was an early critic of the protectorate and an early advocate of Moroccan independence. As a nationalist, al-Fasi claimed that Morocco includes the Western Sahara, Mauritania, and territories that had been included in western and southern Algeria by the French. Al-Fasi consistently supported the ‘Alawi monarchy and sought to influence successive monarchs, but he was also a constitutionalist who did not hesitate to criticize royal policies when he felt they compromised Moroccan independence or social justice.
Muhammad 'Allal al-Fasi see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Muhammad Allal al-Fassi see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Fassi, Muhammad Allal al- see Fasi, Muhammad ‘Allal al-
Fasi, Taqi al-Din al-
Fasi, Taqi al-Din al- (Taqi al-Din al-Fasi) (1373-1429). Historian of the city of Mecca. The subject (the history of Mecca) had been virtually neglected since the ninth century.
Taqi al-Din al-Fasi see Fasi, Taqi al-Din al-
Fasi, Taqi al-Din al- (Taqi al-Din al-Fasi) (1373-1429). Historian of the city of Mecca. The subject (the history of Mecca) had been virtually neglected since the ninth century.
Taqi al-Din al-Fasi see Fasi, Taqi al-Din al-
Fatah (Al-Fatah) (Fateh). An exile Palestinian group that was founded in 1957 by Yassir Arafat. Al-Fatah was committed to retain full independence for Palestinians. Their aim was direct military confrontation with Israel, in order to win back lost land from the Jews. Al-Fatah became increasingly important in the 1960s, and gained full control over the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1969, which it had joined in 1967. At this time, the PLO started to carry out guerrilla actions inside Israel. Al-Fatah remains the most powerful group of the PLO and, therefore, also in the present state of Palestine. However, Al-Fatah’s politics has changed drastically from the military line of the 1950s and 1960s, into a pragmatic politics for a Palestine with democracy, even if Al-Fatah’s idea is more limited than what many Western observers and Palestinians desire.
Fataḥ (also known as Fateh) is a major Palestinian political party and the largest faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a multi-party confederation. In Palestinian politics it is on the left-wing of the spectrum. It is mainly nationalist, although not predominantly socialist.
Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant/terrorist groups, though unlike its rival Islamist faction Hamas, Fatah is not currently regarded as a terrorist organization by any government.
In the January 25, 2006, parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas, and resigned all cabinet positions, instead of assuming the role as the main opposition party. Fatah's size was estimated at 6,000-8,000 fighters with 45-300 politicians.
On April 27, 2011, officials from both Fatah and Hamas announced the two organizations had reached an initial deal to unify the two parties into one government, with plans for elections to be held
in 2012.
Al-Fatah see Fatah
Fateh see Fatah
Al-Fatah see Fatah
Fateh see Fatah
Fatat
Fatat (al-Fatat) (Young Arab Society) (Jam'iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat). Arab nationalist student group before World War I.
Al-Fatat or the Young Arab Society (Arabic: Jam’iyat al-’Arabiya al-Fatat) was founded in 1911 by Arab nationalist, Izzat Darwaza (1888-1984).
It was a secret Arab nationalist organization under the Ottoman Empire. Its aims were to gain independence and unity for various Arab nations then under the Ottoman rule. It found adherents in areas such as Syria. The organization maintained contacts with the reform movement in the Ottoman and included many radicals and revolutionaries, such as Abd al-Mirzai. They were closely linked to al-Ahd, who had members in positions within the military, most were quickly dismissed after Enver Pasha gained control in Turkey. This organizations parallel in activism were the Young Turks, who had a similar agenda that pertained to Turkish nationalism.
al-Fatat see Fatat
Young Arab Society see Fatat
Jam'iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat see Fatat
Fatat (al-Fatat) (Young Arab Society) (Jam'iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat). Arab nationalist student group before World War I.
Al-Fatat or the Young Arab Society (Arabic: Jam’iyat al-’Arabiya al-Fatat) was founded in 1911 by Arab nationalist, Izzat Darwaza (1888-1984).
It was a secret Arab nationalist organization under the Ottoman Empire. Its aims were to gain independence and unity for various Arab nations then under the Ottoman rule. It found adherents in areas such as Syria. The organization maintained contacts with the reform movement in the Ottoman and included many radicals and revolutionaries, such as Abd al-Mirzai. They were closely linked to al-Ahd, who had members in positions within the military, most were quickly dismissed after Enver Pasha gained control in Turkey. This organizations parallel in activism were the Young Turks, who had a similar agenda that pertained to Turkish nationalism.
al-Fatat see Fatat
Young Arab Society see Fatat
Jam'iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat see Fatat
Fath ‘Ali Shah (Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar) (Fathalishah) (Fathali Shah) (Fath Ali Shah) (Baba Khan) (September 5, 1772 – October 23, 1834). Ruler of the Qajar dynasty (r.1797-1834). Much of his long reign was spent in military expeditions against internal rebels, against Russia, the Ottoman sultan, and Afghanistan.
Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar was the second Qajar king of Persia. He ruled from June 17, 1797 to October 23, 1834.
Fat′h Ali Shah was the son of Hossein Qoli Khan Qajar brother of Agha Mohammad Khan. He was born on September 5, 1772. He was governor of Fars when his uncle was assassinated in 1797. Fat′h Ali Shah's real name was "Bābā Khān" but he was crowned as Fat′h Ali Shah. He became suspicious of his chancellor Hajji Ebrahim Khan Kalantar and ordered his execution. Hajji Ebrahim Khan had been chancellor to Zand and Qajar rulers for some fifteen years.
Much of his reign was marked by the resurgence of Persian arts and painting, as well as a deeply elaborate court culture with extremely rigid etiquette. In particular during his reign, portraiture and large-scale oil painting reached a height previously unknown under any other Islamic dynasty, largely due to his personal patronage.
Fat′h Ali also ordered the creation of much royal regalia, including coronation chairs, "Takht-e-Tâvoos" (or the Peacock throne) and "Takht-e-Nāderī" (or the Naderi throne), which were also used by later kings, and the "Tāj-i-Kīyānī" (or the Kiani Crown), a modification of the crown of the same name created by his uncle Agha Mohammad Khan. This, like most of his regalia, was studded with innumerable pearls and gems. His Crown Jewels were valued at the time at a minimum of fifteen million pounds.
During the early reign of Fat′h Ali Shah, Imperial Russia took control of Georgia which was also claimed by the Persians. The war broke between Persia and Russia when Fat′h Ali Shah ordered the invasion of Georgia in 1804, under pressure from the Shia clergy, who were urging a war against Russia. The war began with notable victories for the Persians, but Russia shipped in advanced weaponry and cannons that disadvantaged the technologically inferior Qajar forces, which did not have artillery to match. Russia continued with a major campaign against Persia. Persia asked for help from Britain on the grounds of a military agreement. The military agreement had been signed after the rise of Napoleon in France. However, Britain refused to help Persia claiming that the military agreement concerned a French attack not one from Russia.
Persia had to ask for help from France, sending an ambassador to Napoleon and concluding a Franco-Persian alliance with the signature of the Treaty of Finkenstein. However, just when the French were ready to help Persia, Napoleon made peace with Russia. At this time, John Malcolm arrived in Persia and promised support but Britain later changed its mind and asked Persia to retreat. Russian troops invaded Tabriz in 1813 and Persia was forced to sign the Treaty of Gulistan with Russia.
On account of the consecutive defeats of Persia and after the fall of Lankaran on January 1, 1813, Fat'h Shah was forced to sign the Treaty of Gulistan. The text of the treaty was prepared by a British diplomat, Sir Gore Ouseley, and was signed by Nikolai Fyodorovich Rtischev, for the Russian side, and Hajji Mirza Abol Hasan Khan, for the Iranian side on October 24, 1813, in the village of Gulistan.
By this treaty, all of the cities, towns, and villages of Georgia, villages and towns on the coast of the Black Sea , all of the cities, towns and villages of the Khanates in South Caucasus and part of the Talysh Khanate, including Megrelia, Abkhazia, Imeretia, Guria, the Baku khanate, the Shirvan Khanate, Derbent, the Karabakh khanate, the Ganja khanate, the Shaki Khanate and the Quba Khanate became part of Russia. In return, Russia pledged to support Abbas Mirza as heir to the Persian throne after the death of Fat′h Ali Shah.
In 1826, 13 years after the Treaty of Gulistan, Fat'h Ali Shah, on the advice of British agents, decided to occupy the lost territories. Abbas Mirza invaded the Talysh Khanate and Karabakh khanate with an army of 35,000 on July 16, 1826. The Khans quickly switched sides and surrendered their principal cities, Lenkoran, Quba and Baku to the Persians. In May 1827, Ivan Paskevich, Governor of Caucasus, invaded Echmiadzin, Nakhichevan, Abbasabad and on October 1, 1827, Erivan. Fourteen days later, General Eristov entered Tabriz. On January 1828 when the Russians reached the shores of Lake Urmia, Abbas Mirza urgently signed the Treaty of Turkmenchay on February 2, 1828.
The Turkmenchay Treaty was signed on February 21, 1828, by Hajji Mirza Abol Hasan Khan and General Ivan Paskievich . By this treaty, the Erivan khanate, the Nakhchivan khanate, the Talysh Khanate, Ordubad and Mughan came under the rule of Imperial Russia. Iran pledged to pay Russia ten million in gold and in return Russia pledged to support Abbas Mirza as heir to the Persian throne after the death of Fat′h Ali Shah . The treaty also stipulated the resettlement of Armenians from Persia to the Caucasus, which also included an outright liberation of Armenian captives who had been brought to, and had lived in, Iran.
Fat′h Ali later employed writers and painters to make a book about his wars with Russia, inspired by the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. This book, considered by many to be the most important Persian book written in the Qajar period, is called the Shahanshahnama.
In 1829, Alexandr Griboyedov, the Russian diplomat and play writer was killed in the encirclement of the Russia embassy in Tehran. To apologize, the Shah sent Tsar Nicholas I one of the biggest diamonds of his crown jewels, the Shah Diamond.
When his beloved son and crown prince Abbas Mirza died on October 25, 1833, Fat′h Ali named his grandson Mohammed Mirza as his crown prince. Fat′h Ali died a year later, on October 23, 1834.
Fat′h Ali Shah had 158 wives, many of them were Zand or Afshar princesses. He had 260 children. Of those, 57 sons and 46 daughters survived him. Just his 10 eldest sons had 333 children. He had, in total, 786 grandchildren, 313 grandsons and 473 grand daughters.
His first son, Mohammad Ali Mirza Dowlatsh, was seven months older than his brother Abbas Mirza (Fath Ali Shah’s Crown Prince), but on account of his mother's, Ziba Chehreh Khanoum's, non-Qajar origin he was unable to claim the title "Valiahd" (Crown prince).
Fat'h Ali Shah Qajar see Fath ‘Ali Shah
Fathalishah see Fath ‘Ali Shah
Fathali Shah see Fath ‘Ali Shah
Baba Khan see Fath ‘Ali Shah
Fath ibn Khaqan, al- (al-Fath ibn Khaqan) (Abu Nasr al-Fath ibn Mohammed Ibn Obeid Allah Ibn Khaqan Ibn Abdallah Al-kaysi al-Ishbili) (Ibn Khakan) (d. 1134) is a well known writer from al-Andalus. Al-Kaysi means a member of the tribe of Kais, al-Isbili: a native of Sevilla. He is the author of Qalaid Al-iqyan (Necklace of Rubies) a biography of Andalusian poets who were his contemporaries with examples of their poems. His other best known work is Mathmah al anfus wa masrah at ta'annus fi mulah ahl al-Andalus (The Aspiration of the Souls and the Theater of Congeniality in the Anecdotes of the People of al-Andalus
). The works are written in rhymed prose full of metaphorical expressions and are an excellent source of information about the apogee of Andalusian letters.
The life of Ibn Khaqan is described in As-sadfi's "Al-wafi fi-l-wafiyat."
al-Fath ibn Khaqan see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
Abu Nasr al-Fath ibn Mohammed Ibn Obeid Allah Ibn Khaqan Ibn Abdallah Al-kaysi al-Ishbili see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
Ibn Khakan see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
The life of Ibn Khaqan is described in As-sadfi's "Al-wafi fi-l-wafiyat."
al-Fath ibn Khaqan see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
Abu Nasr al-Fath ibn Mohammed Ibn Obeid Allah Ibn Khaqan Ibn Abdallah Al-kaysi al-Ishbili see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
Ibn Khakan see Fath ibn Khaqan, al-
Fathy
Fathy (Hassan Fathy) (Hasan Fathi) (1900-1989). Egyptian architect, teacher, philosopher, and reformer. Born in Alexandria, Hassan Fathy pursued a prolific architectural career for more than a half century as a lonely reformer whose success was only evident toward the end of his life and after it. His reformist agenda was systematically opposed to official architectural discourse in Egypt. Early in his career, he defied his own French Beaux-Arts education in a series of modernist designs reflecting affinities with contemporary European avant-garde trends, sharply contrasting with the so-called Islamic Style (an orientalization of Beaux-Arts rules applied in Cairo during the 1920s). After nearly ten years of experimentation, however, Fathy became an adamant foe of the International Style, which subsequently dominated architectural practice in Egypt. Fathy deplored the attempt of its adherents to alter what they saw as the decadent status quo of Muslim societies by enforcing universalizing modern technology and standardized architectural expression.
No viable reform, Fathy maintained, can result from forcing on the public an alien elitist taste and arbitrary innovations that disregard the local traditions and environment of a country like Egypt, the majority of whose population were poor peasants. To achieve an authentic and affordable architecture, Fathy advocated the regeneration and esthetic adaptation of indigenous building technologies and their associated traditional myths and rituals. This vision was partly inspired by his observing the impoverishment as well as the untapped traditional resources of villagers during visits to his father’s agricultural estates and Upper Egypt.
Fathy thus synthesized his formal language by borrowing from the rural mud architecture of Upper Egypt and the urban vernacular and high architecture of medieval Cairo, fusing rural folk practice with the monumental urban tradition. He applied sun-dried mud brick both as a harmonizing formal medium for his synthetic forms and as the structural core of an inexpensive vaulting technique transmitted to him by Nubian craftsmen, repeating this architectural syntax tirelessly throughout the rest of his career.
From 1945 to 1948, a government commission to design an entire town, New Gourna, to relocate villagers near Luxor in Upper Egypt, provided Fathy with an exceptional opportunity to implement his vision on a full urban scale. This experience was, however, marred by bureaucratic obstacles, which Fathy documented in his 1968 book, Architecture for the Poor, and was tragic in its consequences. The incomplete design met the resistance of the villagers, who were alienated not only by government coercion but also, ironically, by what they perceived as Fathy’s parochialism. The villagers would not tolerate visual/spatial segregation from their few precious animals, so they rejected the split-level arrangement of the basic house unit Fathy had designed out of concern for improving their hygiene. Ominous to them, too, were Fathy’s abrupt transportations of symbolic forms like domes – which villagers traditionally associate with burial places – to crown living spaces. Fathy’s frustration was compounded by the failure of the design to appeal to the internationally oriented architectural establishment in Egypt, who continued to perceive Fathy as a naïve reactionary.
After five years of self-imposed exile and practice in Greece (1957-1962), Fathy’s career was marked by a significant shift in social emphasis. Although he never relinquished the cause of sheltering the poor, Fathy’s clientele gradually shifted to be almost exclusively the upper-class elite. These patrons appreciated the romantic as well as environmental qualities of his style and hence its capacity to represent both their sophisticated taste and their cultural authenticity. The suburban villas Fathy designed for them during the 1970s and 1980s on the road to the Saqarra pyramids near Cairo and elsewhere in the Arab world represent fine, picturesque examples of his later work, in which he also applied more durable and expensive materials such as stone.
Fathy was internationally recognized late in his life after the English and French publication of his Architecture for the Poor in 1973, a time of considerable disenchantment in the Western world with the failure of International Modernism to communicate shared meanings. Fathy consequently received numerous honors and was invited in 1980 to transpose his utopia to the United States by designing Dar al-Islam, a settlement for converted Muslims in Abiquiu, New Mexico. Simultaneously, some of his disciples successfully marketed his design formula to Saudi royal patrons for re-building a series of important historic mosques. Driven by the concern to reinforce its own legitimacy, the Saudi monarchy apparently hoped that monumentalization of the traditional imagery of Fathy’s style would engage increasing pro-Islamic sentiments more successfully than the previously adopted, abstract International style. Indeed, the current influence of Fathy’s message and forms on many young Arab architects seeking authentic cultural expression cannot be underestimated. Fathy’s reform thus seems to have gone full circle, from representing an oppositional marginal culture, via the bourgeois elite, to an official state style. To what extent this transformation is a triumph for Fathy’s thought is open to debate.
Hassan Fathy see Fathy
Hasan Fathi see Fathy
Fathy (Hassan Fathy) (Hasan Fathi) (1900-1989). Egyptian architect, teacher, philosopher, and reformer. Born in Alexandria, Hassan Fathy pursued a prolific architectural career for more than a half century as a lonely reformer whose success was only evident toward the end of his life and after it. His reformist agenda was systematically opposed to official architectural discourse in Egypt. Early in his career, he defied his own French Beaux-Arts education in a series of modernist designs reflecting affinities with contemporary European avant-garde trends, sharply contrasting with the so-called Islamic Style (an orientalization of Beaux-Arts rules applied in Cairo during the 1920s). After nearly ten years of experimentation, however, Fathy became an adamant foe of the International Style, which subsequently dominated architectural practice in Egypt. Fathy deplored the attempt of its adherents to alter what they saw as the decadent status quo of Muslim societies by enforcing universalizing modern technology and standardized architectural expression.
No viable reform, Fathy maintained, can result from forcing on the public an alien elitist taste and arbitrary innovations that disregard the local traditions and environment of a country like Egypt, the majority of whose population were poor peasants. To achieve an authentic and affordable architecture, Fathy advocated the regeneration and esthetic adaptation of indigenous building technologies and their associated traditional myths and rituals. This vision was partly inspired by his observing the impoverishment as well as the untapped traditional resources of villagers during visits to his father’s agricultural estates and Upper Egypt.
Fathy thus synthesized his formal language by borrowing from the rural mud architecture of Upper Egypt and the urban vernacular and high architecture of medieval Cairo, fusing rural folk practice with the monumental urban tradition. He applied sun-dried mud brick both as a harmonizing formal medium for his synthetic forms and as the structural core of an inexpensive vaulting technique transmitted to him by Nubian craftsmen, repeating this architectural syntax tirelessly throughout the rest of his career.
From 1945 to 1948, a government commission to design an entire town, New Gourna, to relocate villagers near Luxor in Upper Egypt, provided Fathy with an exceptional opportunity to implement his vision on a full urban scale. This experience was, however, marred by bureaucratic obstacles, which Fathy documented in his 1968 book, Architecture for the Poor, and was tragic in its consequences. The incomplete design met the resistance of the villagers, who were alienated not only by government coercion but also, ironically, by what they perceived as Fathy’s parochialism. The villagers would not tolerate visual/spatial segregation from their few precious animals, so they rejected the split-level arrangement of the basic house unit Fathy had designed out of concern for improving their hygiene. Ominous to them, too, were Fathy’s abrupt transportations of symbolic forms like domes – which villagers traditionally associate with burial places – to crown living spaces. Fathy’s frustration was compounded by the failure of the design to appeal to the internationally oriented architectural establishment in Egypt, who continued to perceive Fathy as a naïve reactionary.
After five years of self-imposed exile and practice in Greece (1957-1962), Fathy’s career was marked by a significant shift in social emphasis. Although he never relinquished the cause of sheltering the poor, Fathy’s clientele gradually shifted to be almost exclusively the upper-class elite. These patrons appreciated the romantic as well as environmental qualities of his style and hence its capacity to represent both their sophisticated taste and their cultural authenticity. The suburban villas Fathy designed for them during the 1970s and 1980s on the road to the Saqarra pyramids near Cairo and elsewhere in the Arab world represent fine, picturesque examples of his later work, in which he also applied more durable and expensive materials such as stone.
Fathy was internationally recognized late in his life after the English and French publication of his Architecture for the Poor in 1973, a time of considerable disenchantment in the Western world with the failure of International Modernism to communicate shared meanings. Fathy consequently received numerous honors and was invited in 1980 to transpose his utopia to the United States by designing Dar al-Islam, a settlement for converted Muslims in Abiquiu, New Mexico. Simultaneously, some of his disciples successfully marketed his design formula to Saudi royal patrons for re-building a series of important historic mosques. Driven by the concern to reinforce its own legitimacy, the Saudi monarchy apparently hoped that monumentalization of the traditional imagery of Fathy’s style would engage increasing pro-Islamic sentiments more successfully than the previously adopted, abstract International style. Indeed, the current influence of Fathy’s message and forms on many young Arab architects seeking authentic cultural expression cannot be underestimated. Fathy’s reform thus seems to have gone full circle, from representing an oppositional marginal culture, via the bourgeois elite, to an official state style. To what extent this transformation is a triumph for Fathy’s thought is open to debate.
Hassan Fathy see Fathy
Hasan Fathi see Fathy
Fatima
Fatima (Fatimah) (c.605-c.633). Daughter of Muhammad by his first wife, Khadija, and the only child of Muhammad to bear offspring. Fatima was also the wife of the fourth caliph, 'Ali. Little is known of her life, most sources reflecting later tendential biases. She was the mother of two sons, Hasan and Husayn, born about five years after the hijra and two daughters. According to Shi‘a traditions, a third son, Muhassin, died as a child.
As the only child of Muhammad to have offspring, Fatima is considered to be the ancestral mother of the imams of Shi‘a Muslims, as well as being the ancestral mother of all claiming to be descended from Muhammad.
Little is reported from Fatima’s life, but she appears to have had bad health all through her life. Her relationship with Muhammad’s wife A’isha was one filled with hostility. When Abu Bakr became the first caliph, Fatima’s relations with him also became difficult, probably because Fatima had expected her husband ('Ali) to take over after Muhammad, and because Abu Bakr denied her the inheritance of the oasis of Fadak from her father.
Most of the other Shi‘a stories concerning Fatima are strongly religious. She is mentioned as having accompanied her father on only two expeditions, the one to take Mecca in year eight and the Farewell Pilgrimage in year ten. But she lived only a year after her father’s death.
While Sunni hadith collections mention Fatima only rarely, the Shi‘a regard her as a paradigm for womanhood, a devoted daughter and a perfect wife. Indeed, some call Fatima “the virgin” and “the mother of the two Jesuses”, reflecting an important influence from Christianity.
The Fatimids take their name from Fatima. Later Sunni literature reflects this same hagiographic tendency and becomes increasingly sympathetic to her. Today it is customary to add to her name the honorific title “the Shining One.” In Shi'a Islam, Fatima’s birthday and her marriage are two dates that are celebrated.
Fatimah see Fatima
Fatima (Fatimah) (c.605-c.633). Daughter of Muhammad by his first wife, Khadija, and the only child of Muhammad to bear offspring. Fatima was also the wife of the fourth caliph, 'Ali. Little is known of her life, most sources reflecting later tendential biases. She was the mother of two sons, Hasan and Husayn, born about five years after the hijra and two daughters. According to Shi‘a traditions, a third son, Muhassin, died as a child.
As the only child of Muhammad to have offspring, Fatima is considered to be the ancestral mother of the imams of Shi‘a Muslims, as well as being the ancestral mother of all claiming to be descended from Muhammad.
Little is reported from Fatima’s life, but she appears to have had bad health all through her life. Her relationship with Muhammad’s wife A’isha was one filled with hostility. When Abu Bakr became the first caliph, Fatima’s relations with him also became difficult, probably because Fatima had expected her husband ('Ali) to take over after Muhammad, and because Abu Bakr denied her the inheritance of the oasis of Fadak from her father.
Most of the other Shi‘a stories concerning Fatima are strongly religious. She is mentioned as having accompanied her father on only two expeditions, the one to take Mecca in year eight and the Farewell Pilgrimage in year ten. But she lived only a year after her father’s death.
While Sunni hadith collections mention Fatima only rarely, the Shi‘a regard her as a paradigm for womanhood, a devoted daughter and a perfect wife. Indeed, some call Fatima “the virgin” and “the mother of the two Jesuses”, reflecting an important influence from Christianity.
The Fatimids take their name from Fatima. Later Sunni literature reflects this same hagiographic tendency and becomes increasingly sympathetic to her. Today it is customary to add to her name the honorific title “the Shining One.” In Shi'a Islam, Fatima’s birthday and her marriage are two dates that are celebrated.
Fatimah see Fatima
Fatima bint Musa
Fatimah bint Musa (b. 1 Dhu al-Qi'dah 173 AH – d. 10 or 12 Rabi' al-Thani 201 AH, approximately March 22, 790 CC – November 7 or 9, 816 CC), commonly known as Fatimah al-Masumah or Fatemeh Masoumeh was the daughter of the seventh Twelver Shia Imam, Musa al-Kadim, and sister of the eighth Twelver Shia Imams, Ali al-Rida. Every year, millions of Shia Muslims travel to Qom to honor Fatima Masumeh at her shrine.
Fatemeh Masoumeh was the eldest daughter of Musa Kazem, and the Shia consider her to be the holiest child of Musa Kazem after her brother Ali al-Rida (Ali Reza).
Fatemeh Masoumeh was highly praised in the narrations and speeches of four Shiite Imams. Jafar Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam, in two narrations; Ali al-Rida, the eighth Shia Imam, in five narrations; and Mohammad Taqi, the ninth Shia Imam, pronounced that whoever visits Masoumeh in Qom will go to heaven.
Another prominent feature of Fatemeh Masoumeh is her position of intercession. According to the narration of Jafar Sadiq and Ali al-Rida, Fatemeh Masoumeh will intercede for the Shiites on the Day of Judgment so that all of them will enter Paradise.
Another prominent feature of Fatemeh Masoumeh, as Jafar Sadiq pointed out, is that the shrine of Fatemeh Masoumeh in Qom is the shrine of all Shia Imams. This means that all twelve Shia Imams are present in the shrine of Fatemeh Masoumeh and whoever visits Fatemeh Masoumeh in Qom is deemed to have visited all twelve Shia Imams.
Another very valuable feature of Fatemeh Masoumeh is the title -- Masoumeh -- given to her by Ali Reza. "Masoumeh" in Arabic means pure and innocent. Ali Reza's purpose in giving this name to his sister was to indicate that Fatemeh Masoumeh is a pure and innocent human being, which is very valuable for Shiites, and shows that Fatemeh Masoumeh has a degree of infallibility.
Lady Hamīdah was the mother of Fatima’s father as well as the owner of Fatima’s mother, Lady Najmah, a slave of African descent Lady Hamīdah had a dream that the Prophet told her that Najmah needed to become the wife of her son, so that she could birth “the best people in the world”. While Najmah was more focused on the son, Imam al-Ridā, she would also give birth to Fatima as a product of the marriage.
It is written that even before she was born, Shi'i Imams foretold Fatima Masumeh's holiness and piety. Fatima was born into Shi'i legacy, raised under the care of two Imams - her father and her brother - and she is said to have absorbed their knowledge and holiness. Fatima Masumeh was born in Medina in 173 AH and spent the first six years of her life learning alongside her father, Imam Musa al-Kadhim. She had a special gift of knowledge and spiritual awareness, even in childhood. When she was ten years old, Harun al-Rashid, the 5th caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate sent her father to prison. This separation was very difficult for Fatima, but her brother 'Ali was 25 years her senior and took care of her.
'Ali and Fatima are among Imam Musa al-Kadhim's 37 children, but they are the only two children from the Imam's marriage to Najmah Khatun. Their mother was a former slave from North Africa who became very learned in Islamic teachings under the guidance of Imam Musa al-Kadim's mother, Lady Hamidah. Ali would later become the 8th Imam and gain the title Imam 'Ali al-Rida. The historian al-Tabari states that 'Al-Rida' means "The One Well-pleasing [to God] from the House of Muhammad." He was appointed successor to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun, though he was hesitant in accepting this role. As 'Ali al-Rida gained the title of "Crowned Prince" , some people refused to accept his role amidst civil war. 'Ali al-Rida revealed the extent of this revolt to al-Mamun, stating that people considered him (al-Mamun) "bewitched and mentally deranged," were hiding reports from him, and had given their allegiance to his paternal uncle Ibrahim ibn al-Madhi instead of him.
In 200 AH, al-Mamun called for 'Ali al-Rida to leave for Khorasan. Fatima Masumeh was forced to live apart from her brother. After one year of separation from her brother, Fatima Masumeh decided to join him. She did not leave solely because of her wish to live near her brother; scholars also suggest that Fatima Masumeh's knowledge and religiosity would help her brother in his political office, especially in decisions regarding women. In 201 AH, she set off in a caravan with 23 family members and friends of Imam 'Ali al-Rida, alongside another caravan of 12,000 people traveling to Khorasan. The caravans never made it to Khorasan, though, and Fatima Masumeh never reached her brother. They were attacked by agents of the caliph while at Saveh. Some fled, but many were wounded, taken prisoner, or killed. Fatima Masumeh survived, but was forced to watch the murders of the 23 close family members and friends. It is written that Fatima Masumeh was then poisoned by a woman. Fatima became ill and asked to be taken to Qom, where she died and was buried in her host's land.
The Shrine of Fatima Masumeh is located in Qom, which is considered by Shia Muslims to be the second most sacred city in Iran after Mashhad.
Fatima Masumeh was the sister of the eighth Imam, Ali al-Rida, and the daughter of the seventh Imam, Musa al-Kadhim. In Shia Islam, women are often revered as saints if they are close relatives to one of the Twelver Imams. Fatima Masumeh is therefore honored as a saint, and her shrine in Qom is considered one of the most significant Shia shrines in Iran. Every year, thousands of Shia Muslims travel to Qom to honor Fatima Masumeh and ask her for blessings.
Also buried within the shrine are three daughters of the ninth Twelver Shī‘a Imām Muhammad al-Taqi.
The mosque consists of a burial chamber, three courtyards and three large prayer halls, totaling an area of 38,000 square meters (410,000 square feet). The three prayer halls are named: Tabātabā'ī, Bālā Sar, and A‘dham.
Although Shia theology formally states that the relatives of the Imams, the imamzadehs, hold a lower status than the Imams, popular Shi'ism still strongly venerates imamzadehs. In Iran, there are many more burial places of the Imams' relatives than there are for the Imams themselves. Imamzadehs are considered to be close to God and religiously pious because of their close relation to Imams. The Shi'a commonly travel on pilgrimages to shrines of imamzadehs, such as the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh, the sister of the 8th Imam 'Ali al-Rida, in Qom, Iran. Men and women seek cures to ailments, solutions to problems, and forgiveness of sins at these sites. Many hadiths, or teachings, are recorded from Shia Imams praising the veneration of Fatima Masumeh, and proclaiming that those who make a pilgrimage to her Shrine will "certainly be admitted to heaven."
Fatima Masumeh's Shrine in Qom is crowded every day of the year with Shia men, women, and children from all around the world. Some stay for hours or days praying at the mosque and circumambulating her tomb. The economy of Qom has become reliant on this pilgrimage for the tourism it brings. In turn, Qom has remained conservative and traditional to maintain a pious environment for pilgrims. Many miracles have been recorded as taking place at this shrine, and they are documented in a special office within the shrine complex. Some are published in the shrines monthly newspaper, the Payam-e Astan.
Pilgrims at the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh follow rituals that have been passed down for centuries. Imam Ali al-Rida, Fatima Masumeh's brother, outlined these ritual acts as he described the way he visited her Shrine. The prayer Imam al-Rida dictated to his sister continues to be part of the pilgrimage. Since the Safavid period, additional rituals have been added that are now typical for many Shia pilgrimages including ritual washing beforehand, dressing in perfumed clothing, and entering the site with one's right foot.
Since the beginning of Qom's history in the 7th century of the Christian calendar, the city has been associated with Shi'ism and set apart from the Sunni caliphate. Many Shia hadiths referred to Qom as a "place of refuge for believers," calling it a deeply religious place. After Fatima Masumeh's death in Qom and the construction of her Shrine, scholars began to gather in Qom and the city gained its reputation for religious learning. Today, Qom is still noted for its religious seminaries and organizations.
Fatima Masumeh died in Qom in 201 AH as she travelled to join her brother, Imam Ali al-Rida in Khorasan. The caravan she travelled in was attacked in Saveh by the Abbasid Sunnis, and 23 of Fatima Masumeh's family and friends were killed. Fatima Masumeh was then poisoned by a woman from the Sunni enemies, fell ill, and asked to be taken to Qom, where she died. Fatima Masumeh's host in Qom buried her in his plot of land.
The style of Fatima Masumeh's Shrine has developed over many centuries. At first, her tomb was covered with a bamboo canopy. Fifty years later, this was replaced by a more durable domed building, at the request of the daughter of Imam Muhammad at-Taqi, Sayyida Zaynab. The family of Sayyida Zainab later added a further two domes to the Shrine. These architectural projects marked the beginning of female patronage of the tomb of Fatima Masumeh.
From 1795–1796, Fath Ali Shah Qajar converted two Safavid sahn or courtyards into one large courtyard and, in 1803, fixed the golden dome. In 1883, Amin al-Sultan added the new sahn e-jadid or "New Court" to the Shrine complex.
During the Ayatollah Khomeini's 1979 Iranian Revolution, Qom was named "the birthplace" of this movement. Khomeini studied in Qom and lived there at the beginning and end of the Revolution. Aspects of the culture of Qom, including the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh, were used to unite the Iranian people over significant historical and mythical events. Khomeini used images of the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh in posters, money, and stamps created during the Revolution. Khomeini also constructed an addition to the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh and added more space for pilgrims. In addition, the tomb of Ayatollah Khomeini utilizes architectural elements that are similar to Fatima Masumeh's Shrine, such as the golden dome.
Fatimids
Fatimids. The Fatimid dynasty was comprised of the Arab family of Isma‘ili Shi‘is claiming descent from Ali and Fatima. Their main capitals were Kairouan; in 920, Mahdiya; and from 973, Cairo. The Fatimid dynasty ruled North Africa from 909 to 972 and Egypt from 969 to 1171. The Fatimid dynasty was also known for its competition with other Arab dynasties for the control of Syria, Hijaz and Yemen.
The Fatimid dynasty takes it name from Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (or perhaps from al-Husayn’s daughter, Fatima) and could trace their roots back through nine generations to the last imam, Isma‘il of the Seveners branch of the Shi‘a. The dynasty was founded by ‘Ubayd Allah who claimed to be the Mahdi, the expected messianic leader from among the descendants of al-Husayn.
‘Ubayd Allah (Ubaydallah al-Mahdi [909-934]), was helped to power by the Isma‘ili missionary Abu Abdallah a-Shii, as the future Mahdi and following the annihilation of the Aghlabid empire, conquered Tunisia, Libya, eastern Algeria, and Sicily, which remained under the rule of the Fatimids until 1061. In 969, al-Muizz (953-975) conquered Egypt and founded Cairo, ongoing conflicts emerged with the Abbasids in relation to Syria and with the Spanish Umayyads over northern Africa. Between 965 and 1070 the Fatimids had authority over Mecca. They achieved their political and cultural zenith under al-Aziz (975-996) and al-Hakim (996-1021), whose eccentricities, however, led to religious unrest (including the emergence of the religious community of the Druze). The long caliphate of al-Mustansir (1036-1094) was followed by religious division (Nizarites and Mustalites). Under al-Hafiz (1131-1149) the Fatimid rule was limited to Egypt. The last caliph was under the influence of various military rulers. The Ayyubid Saladin, vizier in Cairo from 1169, abolished Fatimid rule in 1171 and returned Egypt to Sunni control.
Although Syria was subdued, it was never a solidly Fatimid possession. Relations with North Africa were strained, and Sicily became virtually independent. With Byzantium, the Fatimids in general maintained good relations. In Baghdad, the ‘Abbasid caliph and the de facto rulers, the Ayyubids, contested the authenticity of the ‘Alid genealogy of the Fatimids, who sent missionaries as far as Sind. The Sunni Saljuqs had no sympathy for them either. In Yemen, however, they found fervent supporters in the Sunni Sulayhids. The Fatimids were less interested in the struggle against the Crusaders than were the Turkish amirs of Syria. In 1171, Saladin put an end to the Fatimid caliphate and re-established Sunnism and ‘Abbasid sovereignty in Egypt.
Under the Fatimids, the viziers occupied a place of gradually increasing importance while there was a progressive decline of the caliphs from power to impotence, causing disturbances, rebellions and revolutions. Sunni practices were, in general forbidden, but there were some periods of tolerance and some of strictness. On the other hand, Fatimid Egypt in general enjoyed great prosperity, industry and trade flourished and there was an intense intellectual, literary and artistic activity.
Fatima played a distinctly esoteric role in Isma‘iliyya, linking the Fatimid caliphs to Shi‘ite esoterism. This created a dynamic social and intellectual movement that led to the establishment of the Fatimids as a Shi‘ite caliphate under a legitimate “Commander of the Faithful,” and providing a position of leadership for the entire Islamic world.
The Fatimid caliph defined himself not only as caliph – leader of the Muslim world, but even as Mahdi, the promised leader of the Muslim world. According to old ideas of the caliph, the Fatimid caliphs defined themselves to be infallible and sinless, and divinely chosen perpetrators of the true form of Islam.
The ultimate goal of the Fatimids was to replace the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad with their own, thereby correcting what they considered to have been a grave error back in the 7th century, when the initial schism between Sunni and Shi'a Islam occurred.
The Fatimids were zealous missionaries, and managed to spread the religion into Yemen and large parts of Egypt. By military means they managed to widen their control over areas beyond the homeland of Tunisia, into large parts of North Africa, Sardinia and Sicily. Towards the end of the tenth century, the Fatimids made Egypt their center, and managed to extend control into the homelands of Islam. They also seized control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Fatimid missionaries were also sent to India and Central Asia.
Fatimid missionaries were well organized. They represented an organization within the state that came to exercise much power. The Fatimids established many libraries and colleges, where Isma'ili missionaries were trained. They were often secretly organized, and worked undercover in foreign states aiming at converting important individuals to Isma'ili Shi‘ism, so that the state eventually could turn away from the Sunni 'Abbasid caliph of Baghdad.
Despite their successes, the Fatimids and their missionaries met much opposition from other Muslim orientations, like Sunni and Khariji. There was also problems with missionaries who used means far more dramatic and violent than the core Isma'ili allowed.
In the early periods of Fatimid rule, the caliph was personally involved in the affairs of the government. However, over time, the importance of the army over state affairs grew increasingly important. There were also destructive frictions between the ethnic groups of Berber, Turkish, Sudanese and Nubian troops. From the eleventh century, the power in state affairs moved over to the hands of the vizier and the generals.
As part of their campaign against the caliph of Baghdad, the Fatimids established a new route for the important trade with Asia over the Red Sea, instead of the Persian Gulf, which had been dominating until then.
A brief history of the Fatimids would read as follows:
During the ninth century, Isma'ilis in Yemen dispatched missionaries to North Africa, and were able to form a base in Tunisia. There the Isma'ilis found many supporters and developed into a strong political force.
In 909, Ubayd Allah proclaimed himself caliph of the Muslim world, in opposition to the Sunni caliph in Baghdad.
In 913, Ubayd Allah launched a military campaign against Egypt, but was defeated.
In 919, a second military campaign was initiated against Egypt, and once again defeat followed.
In 920, a new Tunisian capital was founded and named Mahdia (Mahdiya).
In 925, a third campaign was launched against Egypt but without any more success than the two previous ones.
In 969, Fatimid troops conquered northern Egypt, and founded a new capital close to the old, al-Fustan, and called it Cairo.
In 970, the al-Azhar mosque was founded, and became the main learning institution of the Muslim world.
In 1016, Caliph al-Hakim declared himself the earthly incarnation of God.
In 1057, a rebel general in Iraq converted to Isma’ili Shi’ism, declared the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph over at first Mosul and later Baghdad.
In 1059, the rebel general was defeated by Seljuq Turks.
During the second half of the eleventh century of the Christian calendar, feuds between racial groups in the Fatimid army weakened its force, bringing forth the collapse of the Egyptian government.
In 1073, General Badr al-Jamali seized power and seized control over the government. This brought stability to the state, but he was not able to exercise power over Syria and the Arabian peninsula.
In 1094, Caliph al-Mustansir died, and a struggle broke out between supporters of the real heir and the caliph al-Musta’li, who had been appointed by vizier al-Afdal. Syria, Iraq, Persia and Central Asia broke free from the control of Cairo as did many Isma'ilis of Yemen. The leader of the Isma'ili mission in the Middle East, Hassan e-Sabbah, founded the Assassins in opposition to the regime of Cairo.
In 1130, the Isma’ilis of Yemen that still owed their allegiance to Cairo, broke following the death of caliph al-Amir, and the succession of al-Hafiz. This Yemeni group claimed that al-Amir had left a son who had become the hidden imam.
In 1171, with the death of caliph al-Adid, the strong man of Egypt, Saladin effectively seized control and, subsequently abolished the Cairene caliphate. The Fatimid dynasty was replaced by the Ayyubid.
The Fatimid caliphs were:
1. Abū Muḥammad ˤAbdu l-Lāh (ˤUbaydu l-Lāh) al-Mahdī bi'llāh (909-934) founder Fatimid dynasty
2. Abū l-Qāsim Muḥammad al-Qā'im bi-Amr Allāh (934-946)
3. Abū Ṭāhir Ismā'il al-Manṣūr bi-llāh (946-953)
4. Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mu'izz li-Dīn Allāh (953-975) Egypt is conquered during his reign
5. Abū Manṣūr Nizār al-'Azīz bi-llāh (975-996)
6. Abū 'Alī al-Manṣūr al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (996-1021) Founder of the Druze religion
7. Abū'l-Ḥasan 'Alī al-Ẓāhir li-I'zāz Dīn Allāh (1021-1036)
8. Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh (1036-1094)
9. al-Musta'lī bi-llāh (1094-1101) Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split.
10. al-Āmir bi-Aḥkām Allāh (1101-1130) The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali Taiyabi Ismailis.
11. 'Abd al-Majīd al-Ḥāfiẓ (1130-1149)
12. al-Ẓāfir (1149-1154)
13. al-Fā'iz (1154-1160)
14. al-'Āḍid (1160-1171).
Fatimids. The Fatimid dynasty was comprised of the Arab family of Isma‘ili Shi‘is claiming descent from Ali and Fatima. Their main capitals were Kairouan; in 920, Mahdiya; and from 973, Cairo. The Fatimid dynasty ruled North Africa from 909 to 972 and Egypt from 969 to 1171. The Fatimid dynasty was also known for its competition with other Arab dynasties for the control of Syria, Hijaz and Yemen.
The Fatimid dynasty takes it name from Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (or perhaps from al-Husayn’s daughter, Fatima) and could trace their roots back through nine generations to the last imam, Isma‘il of the Seveners branch of the Shi‘a. The dynasty was founded by ‘Ubayd Allah who claimed to be the Mahdi, the expected messianic leader from among the descendants of al-Husayn.
‘Ubayd Allah (Ubaydallah al-Mahdi [909-934]), was helped to power by the Isma‘ili missionary Abu Abdallah a-Shii, as the future Mahdi and following the annihilation of the Aghlabid empire, conquered Tunisia, Libya, eastern Algeria, and Sicily, which remained under the rule of the Fatimids until 1061. In 969, al-Muizz (953-975) conquered Egypt and founded Cairo, ongoing conflicts emerged with the Abbasids in relation to Syria and with the Spanish Umayyads over northern Africa. Between 965 and 1070 the Fatimids had authority over Mecca. They achieved their political and cultural zenith under al-Aziz (975-996) and al-Hakim (996-1021), whose eccentricities, however, led to religious unrest (including the emergence of the religious community of the Druze). The long caliphate of al-Mustansir (1036-1094) was followed by religious division (Nizarites and Mustalites). Under al-Hafiz (1131-1149) the Fatimid rule was limited to Egypt. The last caliph was under the influence of various military rulers. The Ayyubid Saladin, vizier in Cairo from 1169, abolished Fatimid rule in 1171 and returned Egypt to Sunni control.
Although Syria was subdued, it was never a solidly Fatimid possession. Relations with North Africa were strained, and Sicily became virtually independent. With Byzantium, the Fatimids in general maintained good relations. In Baghdad, the ‘Abbasid caliph and the de facto rulers, the Ayyubids, contested the authenticity of the ‘Alid genealogy of the Fatimids, who sent missionaries as far as Sind. The Sunni Saljuqs had no sympathy for them either. In Yemen, however, they found fervent supporters in the Sunni Sulayhids. The Fatimids were less interested in the struggle against the Crusaders than were the Turkish amirs of Syria. In 1171, Saladin put an end to the Fatimid caliphate and re-established Sunnism and ‘Abbasid sovereignty in Egypt.
Under the Fatimids, the viziers occupied a place of gradually increasing importance while there was a progressive decline of the caliphs from power to impotence, causing disturbances, rebellions and revolutions. Sunni practices were, in general forbidden, but there were some periods of tolerance and some of strictness. On the other hand, Fatimid Egypt in general enjoyed great prosperity, industry and trade flourished and there was an intense intellectual, literary and artistic activity.
Fatima played a distinctly esoteric role in Isma‘iliyya, linking the Fatimid caliphs to Shi‘ite esoterism. This created a dynamic social and intellectual movement that led to the establishment of the Fatimids as a Shi‘ite caliphate under a legitimate “Commander of the Faithful,” and providing a position of leadership for the entire Islamic world.
The Fatimid caliph defined himself not only as caliph – leader of the Muslim world, but even as Mahdi, the promised leader of the Muslim world. According to old ideas of the caliph, the Fatimid caliphs defined themselves to be infallible and sinless, and divinely chosen perpetrators of the true form of Islam.
The ultimate goal of the Fatimids was to replace the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad with their own, thereby correcting what they considered to have been a grave error back in the 7th century, when the initial schism between Sunni and Shi'a Islam occurred.
The Fatimids were zealous missionaries, and managed to spread the religion into Yemen and large parts of Egypt. By military means they managed to widen their control over areas beyond the homeland of Tunisia, into large parts of North Africa, Sardinia and Sicily. Towards the end of the tenth century, the Fatimids made Egypt their center, and managed to extend control into the homelands of Islam. They also seized control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Fatimid missionaries were also sent to India and Central Asia.
Fatimid missionaries were well organized. They represented an organization within the state that came to exercise much power. The Fatimids established many libraries and colleges, where Isma'ili missionaries were trained. They were often secretly organized, and worked undercover in foreign states aiming at converting important individuals to Isma'ili Shi‘ism, so that the state eventually could turn away from the Sunni 'Abbasid caliph of Baghdad.
Despite their successes, the Fatimids and their missionaries met much opposition from other Muslim orientations, like Sunni and Khariji. There was also problems with missionaries who used means far more dramatic and violent than the core Isma'ili allowed.
In the early periods of Fatimid rule, the caliph was personally involved in the affairs of the government. However, over time, the importance of the army over state affairs grew increasingly important. There were also destructive frictions between the ethnic groups of Berber, Turkish, Sudanese and Nubian troops. From the eleventh century, the power in state affairs moved over to the hands of the vizier and the generals.
As part of their campaign against the caliph of Baghdad, the Fatimids established a new route for the important trade with Asia over the Red Sea, instead of the Persian Gulf, which had been dominating until then.
A brief history of the Fatimids would read as follows:
During the ninth century, Isma'ilis in Yemen dispatched missionaries to North Africa, and were able to form a base in Tunisia. There the Isma'ilis found many supporters and developed into a strong political force.
In 909, Ubayd Allah proclaimed himself caliph of the Muslim world, in opposition to the Sunni caliph in Baghdad.
In 913, Ubayd Allah launched a military campaign against Egypt, but was defeated.
In 919, a second military campaign was initiated against Egypt, and once again defeat followed.
In 920, a new Tunisian capital was founded and named Mahdia (Mahdiya).
In 925, a third campaign was launched against Egypt but without any more success than the two previous ones.
In 969, Fatimid troops conquered northern Egypt, and founded a new capital close to the old, al-Fustan, and called it Cairo.
In 970, the al-Azhar mosque was founded, and became the main learning institution of the Muslim world.
In 1016, Caliph al-Hakim declared himself the earthly incarnation of God.
In 1057, a rebel general in Iraq converted to Isma’ili Shi’ism, declared the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph over at first Mosul and later Baghdad.
In 1059, the rebel general was defeated by Seljuq Turks.
During the second half of the eleventh century of the Christian calendar, feuds between racial groups in the Fatimid army weakened its force, bringing forth the collapse of the Egyptian government.
In 1073, General Badr al-Jamali seized power and seized control over the government. This brought stability to the state, but he was not able to exercise power over Syria and the Arabian peninsula.
In 1094, Caliph al-Mustansir died, and a struggle broke out between supporters of the real heir and the caliph al-Musta’li, who had been appointed by vizier al-Afdal. Syria, Iraq, Persia and Central Asia broke free from the control of Cairo as did many Isma'ilis of Yemen. The leader of the Isma'ili mission in the Middle East, Hassan e-Sabbah, founded the Assassins in opposition to the regime of Cairo.
In 1130, the Isma’ilis of Yemen that still owed their allegiance to Cairo, broke following the death of caliph al-Amir, and the succession of al-Hafiz. This Yemeni group claimed that al-Amir had left a son who had become the hidden imam.
In 1171, with the death of caliph al-Adid, the strong man of Egypt, Saladin effectively seized control and, subsequently abolished the Cairene caliphate. The Fatimid dynasty was replaced by the Ayyubid.
The Fatimid caliphs were:
1. Abū Muḥammad ˤAbdu l-Lāh (ˤUbaydu l-Lāh) al-Mahdī bi'llāh (909-934) founder Fatimid dynasty
2. Abū l-Qāsim Muḥammad al-Qā'im bi-Amr Allāh (934-946)
3. Abū Ṭāhir Ismā'il al-Manṣūr bi-llāh (946-953)
4. Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mu'izz li-Dīn Allāh (953-975) Egypt is conquered during his reign
5. Abū Manṣūr Nizār al-'Azīz bi-llāh (975-996)
6. Abū 'Alī al-Manṣūr al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (996-1021) Founder of the Druze religion
7. Abū'l-Ḥasan 'Alī al-Ẓāhir li-I'zāz Dīn Allāh (1021-1036)
8. Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh (1036-1094)
9. al-Musta'lī bi-llāh (1094-1101) Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split.
10. al-Āmir bi-Aḥkām Allāh (1101-1130) The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali Taiyabi Ismailis.
11. 'Abd al-Majīd al-Ḥāfiẓ (1130-1149)
12. al-Ẓāfir (1149-1154)
13. al-Fā'iz (1154-1160)
14. al-'Āḍid (1160-1171).
Fattahi
Fattahi (d.1448). Persian poet of the Timurid period. His most famous work is a mathnawi, entitled “The Rule of Lovers” or “Beauty and Heart.”
Fattahi (d.1448). Persian poet of the Timurid period. His most famous work is a mathnawi, entitled “The Rule of Lovers” or “Beauty and Heart.”
Fayed, Mohamed al-
Mohamed al-Fayed, original name Mohamed Fayed, (b. January 27, 1929, Alexandria, Egypt - d. August 30, 2023, London, England), was an Egyptian businessman who acquired a number of prestigious holdings throughout his career, including the Ritz Hotel in Paris and Harrods department store in London. He also was known for his clashes with the British establishment, which escalated after his son Dodi and Diana, Princess of Wales, were killed in a car crash in 1997.
Fayed was raised in Alexandria, Egypt. Although he later claimed to have been born in 1933, official documents give his birth year as 1929. In 1954, he wed (later divorced) Samira Khashoggi, the sister of Saudi Arabian businessman and international arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi, who subsequently employed him at his import-export business. Fayed moved to Genoa, Italy, in 1958 and then to London in 1964. Two years later he became an adviser to the sultan of Brunei and founded his own shipping company, Genevaco. In 1972 he launched the marine repair yard International Marine Services in Dubai.
In 1974, Fayed moved to Britain, where he added the al- to his name and acquired vast holdings, including the Ritz Hotel in Paris (1979). Fayed’s contentious relationship with the British establishment was well documented. In a rancorous takeover in 1985, he beat out mining giant Lonrho to purchase the House of Fraser, the holding company that controlled Harrods department store. Spurred on by Lonrho owner Roland (“Tiny”) Rowland, the government accused Fayed of having misrepresented his ability to finance the takeover. Though Fayed proved his solvency, his wealth continued to be suspect in some quarters. In 1986 he signed a 50-year lease on the Parisian villa of the duke and duchess of Windsor, which he promptly restored. Following the formal reopening of the villa in 1989, he received the Plaque de Paris, the city’s highest honor.
Despite receiving some honors, Fayed’s relationship with the British establishment was further strained by his involvement in the “cash-for-questions” scandal that arose in 1994 after Fayed named ministers who had accepted money from him in return for tabling parliamentary questions on his behalf. After the disclosures were made, two junior ministers resigned and a new committee was established to monitor standards at Westminster. Fayed’s 1995 attempt to buy London News Radio and his 1996 bid to buy The Observer also attracted considerable publicity, as did his relaunch of the venerable humor magazine Punch (1996–2002).
Although frustrated in his efforts to be accepted as a British citizen—his application was first denied in 1995, and subsequent attempts were also unsuccessful—Fayed continued to play an influential and highly controversial role in Great Britain. Fayed had numerous feuds with the British establishment and helped wreck the careers of several Conservative politicians. British royalty also became entangled with Fayed, when on August 31, 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, died in a car crash alongside Fayed’s son Emad (“Dodi”) Mohamed al-Fayed, with whom she was romantically linked. On the evening of August 31, 1997, the couple had dined at the Fayed-owned Ritz Hotel in Paris. Two months later Fayed launched a private investigation into the crash and hired a former French police chief to head it. Although a French court later faulted the driver of Diana’s car, Fayed continued to assert that the British royal family had ordered her execution. A 2008 British inquest later cleared the royals and the secret service of any wrongdoing.
In 1997 Fayed acquired a controlling interest in the Fulham Football Club, of which he became chairman, and his name first appeared on The Sunday Times’s annual list of Britain’s wealthiest individuals. In 2006 Fayed launched the luxury convenience store Harrods 102. Four years later it was announced that Harrods had been sold to Qatar Holding. In 2013 Fayed also sold Fulham.
Mohamed al-Fayed died of natural causes on August 30, 2023, in London, England, at the age of 94. He was buried on 1 September 1, 2023, after Friday prayers at the London Central Mosque.
Faysal I
Faysal I (Faisal I) (Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi) (Fayṣal ibn Ḥusayn) (May 20, 1883 – September 8, 1933). For a short time, King of Greater Syria in 1920 and King of Iraq from August 23, 1921 to 1933. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty, a descendant of the tribe of Muhammad.
Faysal was born on May 20, 1883, in Mecca, Arabia, as the third son of Hussein ibn Ali (Husayn ibn Ali), king of Hijaz. Around 1900, Faysal lived in Istanbul, where his father was kept under surveillance. In 1908, Faysal returned to Mecca with his father, who was appointed governor of Mecca. Faysal worked closely with his father in the administration.
In 1912, Faysal was elected to the Turkish parliament but, resentful of Turkish severity against Arab dissidents in Syria, he took command of the Mecca-based “Arab Revolt.”
In 1915, Faysal traveled to Damascus in order to secure support from Arab nationalists. In 1916, Faysal led an Arab revolt in Hijaz against the Ottomans, resulting in independence for Hijaz. His father then became king of Hijaz.
Later in 1917 and 1918, aided by the British adventurer and writer, T. E. Lawrence, Faysal seized control of Transjordan and participated in the capture of Damascus from the Turks. In 1917, together with British troops, Faysal took control over Transjordan. In 1918, after conquering Damascus, Faysal established an Arab government under the auspices of Allied forces. Faysal headed the provisional Arab government in Syria from 1918 to 1920.
In 1919, under the Paris Peace Conference, Faysal claimed the right to establish an Arab kingdom or a federation of Arab emirates, but had no success. Faysal, later, negotiated an agreement with the French, in which he allowed the French to take control over modern Lebanon and Syria.
In January 1920, Faysal returned to Damascus. In March, Faysal was declared king of greater Syria (today’s Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine) by a Syrian national congress. In April, the French authorities were given the mandate to administer Syria and Lebanon by the League of Nations. On July 14, 1920, battles between French troops and the troops of Faysal resulted in Faysal’s loss of Aleppo and Damascus. Faysal was deposed when the French entered the country under the terms of a League of Nations mandate. Faysal then left Damascus and ended up in exile in Great Britain.
In March 1921, as the British experienced opposition to its presence in Iraq, they forged an agreement with Faysal, whereby he would become king of the country, but with the British maintaining its mandate. The agreement, however, provided for the eventual independence of Iraq. In August 1921, at the urging of the British archaeologist Gertrude Bell, the British mandate in Iraq permitted a plebiscite. On August 23, 1921, Faysal was crowned king of Iraq, a country where he was enthusiastically received by the people, and in which he was chosen in an election with ninety-six percent (96%) of the votes.
The national assembly of Iraq conferred the title of constitutional monarch upon Faysal in 1923.
In 1930, Faysal signed an agreement with Great Britain, which was intended to lead to the independence of Iraq. The agreement secured that British troops could still be stationed in Iraq, and the agreement bound Faysal to coordinate his foreign policy with the British political line.
On October 3, 1932, Iraq became independent and entered the League of Nations.
On September 8, 1933, Faysal died in Bern, Switzerland.
He ruled in Iraq from 1921 to 1933 and his reign was marked by his ability to maintain a balance between British demands and local patriotism.
Faysal was succeeded by his son Ghazi I (1912-1939).
Faisal I see Faysal I
Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi see Faysal I
Faysal ibn Husayn see Faysal I
Faysal I (Faisal I) (Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi) (Fayṣal ibn Ḥusayn) (May 20, 1883 – September 8, 1933). For a short time, King of Greater Syria in 1920 and King of Iraq from August 23, 1921 to 1933. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty, a descendant of the tribe of Muhammad.
Faysal was born on May 20, 1883, in Mecca, Arabia, as the third son of Hussein ibn Ali (Husayn ibn Ali), king of Hijaz. Around 1900, Faysal lived in Istanbul, where his father was kept under surveillance. In 1908, Faysal returned to Mecca with his father, who was appointed governor of Mecca. Faysal worked closely with his father in the administration.
In 1912, Faysal was elected to the Turkish parliament but, resentful of Turkish severity against Arab dissidents in Syria, he took command of the Mecca-based “Arab Revolt.”
In 1915, Faysal traveled to Damascus in order to secure support from Arab nationalists. In 1916, Faysal led an Arab revolt in Hijaz against the Ottomans, resulting in independence for Hijaz. His father then became king of Hijaz.
Later in 1917 and 1918, aided by the British adventurer and writer, T. E. Lawrence, Faysal seized control of Transjordan and participated in the capture of Damascus from the Turks. In 1917, together with British troops, Faysal took control over Transjordan. In 1918, after conquering Damascus, Faysal established an Arab government under the auspices of Allied forces. Faysal headed the provisional Arab government in Syria from 1918 to 1920.
In 1919, under the Paris Peace Conference, Faysal claimed the right to establish an Arab kingdom or a federation of Arab emirates, but had no success. Faysal, later, negotiated an agreement with the French, in which he allowed the French to take control over modern Lebanon and Syria.
In January 1920, Faysal returned to Damascus. In March, Faysal was declared king of greater Syria (today’s Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine) by a Syrian national congress. In April, the French authorities were given the mandate to administer Syria and Lebanon by the League of Nations. On July 14, 1920, battles between French troops and the troops of Faysal resulted in Faysal’s loss of Aleppo and Damascus. Faysal was deposed when the French entered the country under the terms of a League of Nations mandate. Faysal then left Damascus and ended up in exile in Great Britain.
In March 1921, as the British experienced opposition to its presence in Iraq, they forged an agreement with Faysal, whereby he would become king of the country, but with the British maintaining its mandate. The agreement, however, provided for the eventual independence of Iraq. In August 1921, at the urging of the British archaeologist Gertrude Bell, the British mandate in Iraq permitted a plebiscite. On August 23, 1921, Faysal was crowned king of Iraq, a country where he was enthusiastically received by the people, and in which he was chosen in an election with ninety-six percent (96%) of the votes.
The national assembly of Iraq conferred the title of constitutional monarch upon Faysal in 1923.
In 1930, Faysal signed an agreement with Great Britain, which was intended to lead to the independence of Iraq. The agreement secured that British troops could still be stationed in Iraq, and the agreement bound Faysal to coordinate his foreign policy with the British political line.
On October 3, 1932, Iraq became independent and entered the League of Nations.
On September 8, 1933, Faysal died in Bern, Switzerland.
He ruled in Iraq from 1921 to 1933 and his reign was marked by his ability to maintain a balance between British demands and local patriotism.
Faysal was succeeded by his son Ghazi I (1912-1939).
Faisal I see Faysal I
Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi see Faysal I
Faysal ibn Husayn see Faysal I
Faysal II
Faysal II (Faysal II ibn Ghazi ibn Faysal I) (Faisal II) (May 2, 1935 – July 14, 1958). The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq's last King. He reigned from April 4, 1939 until July 1958, when he was killed during the "July 14 Revolution" together with several members of his family. His regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven year old Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, which became a republic.
Faysal II was born in Baghdad on May 2, 1935, as the only son of Ghazi and the grandson of Faysal I. During the 1940s, he was educated at Harrow School in England. He succeeded to the throne after his father, Ghazi I, died in an automobile accident in 1939. During Faysal’s long minority, his responsibilities were discharged by a regency. Faysal II formally assumed the throne on May 2, 1953, his 18th birthday. In February 1958, Faysal became the leader of the newly formed Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan. He was assassinated during the coup d’etat of July 1958. The coup came about as a protest from soldiers and officers who did not want to intervene against rebels in Lebanon and Jordan. Faysal II was the last king of Iraq and, arguably, the least powerful. This was attributable to the fact that, for most of his reign, he was under the strong influence of his uncle Abdul Ilahi ibn Ali, who had served as his regent while he was underage.
Faysal II ibn Ghazi ibn Faysal I see Faysal II
Faisal II see Faysal II
Faysal II (Faysal II ibn Ghazi ibn Faysal I) (Faisal II) (May 2, 1935 – July 14, 1958). The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq's last King. He reigned from April 4, 1939 until July 1958, when he was killed during the "July 14 Revolution" together with several members of his family. His regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven year old Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, which became a republic.
Faysal II was born in Baghdad on May 2, 1935, as the only son of Ghazi and the grandson of Faysal I. During the 1940s, he was educated at Harrow School in England. He succeeded to the throne after his father, Ghazi I, died in an automobile accident in 1939. During Faysal’s long minority, his responsibilities were discharged by a regency. Faysal II formally assumed the throne on May 2, 1953, his 18th birthday. In February 1958, Faysal became the leader of the newly formed Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan. He was assassinated during the coup d’etat of July 1958. The coup came about as a protest from soldiers and officers who did not want to intervene against rebels in Lebanon and Jordan. Faysal II was the last king of Iraq and, arguably, the least powerful. This was attributable to the fact that, for most of his reign, he was under the strong influence of his uncle Abdul Ilahi ibn Ali, who had served as his regent while he was underage.
Faysal II ibn Ghazi ibn Faysal I see Faysal II
Faisal II see Faysal II
Faysal ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa‘ud
Faysal ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa‘ud (Malik Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz) (Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz Al Saud) (1904 —March 25, 1975). King of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975. As king, he is credited with rescuing the country's finances and implementing a policy of modernization and reform, while his main foreign policy themes were pan-Islamism, anti-Communism, and anti-Zionism.
Faysal, son of King Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Sa‘ud), was born in Riyadh as the fourth son of 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Sa'ud and Tarba bint Abdullah Shaykh. He participated in the military campaigns of his father, and in 1925 he led the army to a decisive victory in the kingdom of Hejaz. Faysal became the viceroy of Hejaz the following year.
In 1932, he was named foreign secretary in the newly created kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In 1934, Faysal made an official visit to the Soviet Union, on behalf of Saudi Arabia, and later led a campaign against North Yemen.
In 1945, Faysal represented Saudi Arabia at the United Nations Conference. In 1953, when his elder brother Sa’ud became king, Faysal became crown prince and foreign minister of Saudi Arabia.
Upon the succession of his elder brother, Saud, in 1953, Faysal became premier. In 1958, Faysal was granted full executive powers following an economic crisis in Saudi Arabia. He resigned from his postion and relinquished his powers in 1960 following a long-standing dispute with his brother, but resumed the office two years later.
In March 1964, he was named regent and, eight months later, having forced Saud to abdicate, Faysal became king. Faysal abolished the office of premier and thereby made himself absolute ruler. He inaugurated long-range economic and social welfare projects throughout his country and provided much financial and moral support to the countries of Southwest Asia in their continued confrontation with Israel.
In June 1967, at Faysal’s behest, Saudi troops participated in the Six Day War against Israel. He also began in 1973 to increase the military power of Saudi Arabia.
During his reign, Faysal opposed Israel and communism, headed the conservative Muslim bloc, and maintained friendship with the United States. He was shot down (by his nephew Prince Faisali ibn Musad) during an assembly -- a majlis -- on March 25, 1975, and was succeeded by his half brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdul (b. 1913).
Faisal was internationally known as a strong leader, who was both critical to the acts of Israel in the region, and Soviet political presence and influence. Faisal provided much economical support for other countries in Southwest Asia.
Inside Saudi Arabia, Faisal conducted a politics of economic and educational reforms. He abolished slavery, reorganized the central government, and led the country into economic stability.
Faisal (Faysal) was King of Saudi Arabia during the crucial period between its unification and its transformation into one of the world’s most influential oil-producing powers. Faysal was born at a time when his father, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman Al Sa‘ud, was unifying the Najdi tribes. Because Faysal’s mother, Tarfah, died in 1912, the young prince’s education was entrusted to his maternal godfather, Shaykh ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Latif Al al-Shaykh. The latter, a grandson of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the Muwahhidun (Unitarian) movement that gave religious legitimacy to Saudi rule, was a leading ‘alim (religious scholar) who instilled in Faysal strong religious beliefs. At the age of fourteen, Faysal commanded his father’s forces in ‘Asir Province (he also distinguished himself militarily by leading an assault on Yemen in 1933). In 1930, Faysal became Saudi Arabia’s first foreign minister and held the office until his death in 1975, save for a two year period during King Sa‘ud’s rule. He led the Saudi delegation to the April 1945 San Francisco conference that established the United Nations, and signed the United Nations Charter of June 26, 1945, making Saudi Arabia a founding member of the world body.
Faysal shaped Saudi foreign policy by giving it an ideological base, insisting on a strict balance with internal developments and adopting a level of consistency unparalleled throughout the Arab and Muslim worlds. This consistency was amply visible throughout the 1960s and early 1970s when the kingdom faced the Nasserist challenge. Riyadh responded to the rising wave of Arab nationalism by emphasizing Islamic values. Rejecting both secularism and socialism, Faysal supported Yemeni tribes who favored the monarchy and, in the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, sought a rapprochement with Egypt to end the Arab Cold War (1957-1967). By early 1973, however, Faysal perceived the need to link the kingdom’s oil power to the unending Arab-Israeli conflict, especially as Washington failed to note Saudi pleas. Following the outbreak of the 1973 war, and the United States decision to create a weapons air bridge to Israel, Faysal authorized an oil embargo against both the United Statesand the Netherlands. But ever the astute statesman, the king rescinded his decision when Washington reactivated its moribund peace efforts. However, his lifelong wish to pray at Jerusalem’s al-Aqsa Mosque never materialized.
Although few members of the Al Sa‘ud ruling family challenged Faysal on foreign policy questions, his rule was not free from turmoil. The most significant conflict was the rivalry between then Crown Prince Faysal and King Sa‘ud (r. 1953-1964). The king was inward looking, and chiefly interested in tribal affairs, whereas Faysal was outward looking, aiming to enhance the kingdom’s position on both the regional as well as world scenes. Faysal perceived his brother’s accommodation with revolutionary Egypt to be ill advised and, at a time when regional upheavals -- including the 1956 Suez crisis, the Egyptian-Syrian union, the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy, and the civil war in Yemen -- threatened the kingdom, he considered Sa‘ud’s positions to be intolerable. Such policies, coupled with disastrous financial mismanagement, encouraged Faysal to take over. In November 1963, the Council of Senior Princes, supported by a fatwa (formal legal opinion) from the ‘ulama’, called on Sa‘ud to abdicate in favor of Faysal, who acceded to the throne on November 2, 1964. Faysal’s ten-point reform program to abolish slavery, modernize the administration, reorganize the country’s religious and judicial institutions, revamp labor and social laws, utilize natural resources soundly, build efficient infrastructures, and establish consultative as well as local councils, won him widespread praise. Many reforms were gradually introduced and others were implemented by successor rulers. When, for example, the grand mufti died in 1970, Faysal abolished the post, replacing it with two separate and less autonomous institutions. The Ministry of Justice was established to integrate the Saudi judiciary into the government, and the Council of Senior ‘Ulama’, comprising seventeen members appointed by the king, was created to provide the ruler with appropriate religious opinions and approvals. Significant socioeconomic reforms were embodied in the first five-year development plan, which was followed by a second, more ambitious, plan in 1975. Assassinated by a nephew on March 25, 1975, Faysal died before the actual implementation of his second plan, but he left his successors effective institutions to carry on his legacy.
Malik Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz see Faysal ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa‘ud
Faysal ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa‘ud (Malik Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz) (Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz Al Saud) (1904 —March 25, 1975). King of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975. As king, he is credited with rescuing the country's finances and implementing a policy of modernization and reform, while his main foreign policy themes were pan-Islamism, anti-Communism, and anti-Zionism.
Faysal, son of King Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Sa‘ud), was born in Riyadh as the fourth son of 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Sa'ud and Tarba bint Abdullah Shaykh. He participated in the military campaigns of his father, and in 1925 he led the army to a decisive victory in the kingdom of Hejaz. Faysal became the viceroy of Hejaz the following year.
In 1932, he was named foreign secretary in the newly created kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In 1934, Faysal made an official visit to the Soviet Union, on behalf of Saudi Arabia, and later led a campaign against North Yemen.
In 1945, Faysal represented Saudi Arabia at the United Nations Conference. In 1953, when his elder brother Sa’ud became king, Faysal became crown prince and foreign minister of Saudi Arabia.
Upon the succession of his elder brother, Saud, in 1953, Faysal became premier. In 1958, Faysal was granted full executive powers following an economic crisis in Saudi Arabia. He resigned from his postion and relinquished his powers in 1960 following a long-standing dispute with his brother, but resumed the office two years later.
In March 1964, he was named regent and, eight months later, having forced Saud to abdicate, Faysal became king. Faysal abolished the office of premier and thereby made himself absolute ruler. He inaugurated long-range economic and social welfare projects throughout his country and provided much financial and moral support to the countries of Southwest Asia in their continued confrontation with Israel.
In June 1967, at Faysal’s behest, Saudi troops participated in the Six Day War against Israel. He also began in 1973 to increase the military power of Saudi Arabia.
During his reign, Faysal opposed Israel and communism, headed the conservative Muslim bloc, and maintained friendship with the United States. He was shot down (by his nephew Prince Faisali ibn Musad) during an assembly -- a majlis -- on March 25, 1975, and was succeeded by his half brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdul (b. 1913).
Faisal was internationally known as a strong leader, who was both critical to the acts of Israel in the region, and Soviet political presence and influence. Faisal provided much economical support for other countries in Southwest Asia.
Inside Saudi Arabia, Faisal conducted a politics of economic and educational reforms. He abolished slavery, reorganized the central government, and led the country into economic stability.
Faisal (Faysal) was King of Saudi Arabia during the crucial period between its unification and its transformation into one of the world’s most influential oil-producing powers. Faysal was born at a time when his father, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman Al Sa‘ud, was unifying the Najdi tribes. Because Faysal’s mother, Tarfah, died in 1912, the young prince’s education was entrusted to his maternal godfather, Shaykh ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Latif Al al-Shaykh. The latter, a grandson of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the Muwahhidun (Unitarian) movement that gave religious legitimacy to Saudi rule, was a leading ‘alim (religious scholar) who instilled in Faysal strong religious beliefs. At the age of fourteen, Faysal commanded his father’s forces in ‘Asir Province (he also distinguished himself militarily by leading an assault on Yemen in 1933). In 1930, Faysal became Saudi Arabia’s first foreign minister and held the office until his death in 1975, save for a two year period during King Sa‘ud’s rule. He led the Saudi delegation to the April 1945 San Francisco conference that established the United Nations, and signed the United Nations Charter of June 26, 1945, making Saudi Arabia a founding member of the world body.
Faysal shaped Saudi foreign policy by giving it an ideological base, insisting on a strict balance with internal developments and adopting a level of consistency unparalleled throughout the Arab and Muslim worlds. This consistency was amply visible throughout the 1960s and early 1970s when the kingdom faced the Nasserist challenge. Riyadh responded to the rising wave of Arab nationalism by emphasizing Islamic values. Rejecting both secularism and socialism, Faysal supported Yemeni tribes who favored the monarchy and, in the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, sought a rapprochement with Egypt to end the Arab Cold War (1957-1967). By early 1973, however, Faysal perceived the need to link the kingdom’s oil power to the unending Arab-Israeli conflict, especially as Washington failed to note Saudi pleas. Following the outbreak of the 1973 war, and the United States decision to create a weapons air bridge to Israel, Faysal authorized an oil embargo against both the United Statesand the Netherlands. But ever the astute statesman, the king rescinded his decision when Washington reactivated its moribund peace efforts. However, his lifelong wish to pray at Jerusalem’s al-Aqsa Mosque never materialized.
Although few members of the Al Sa‘ud ruling family challenged Faysal on foreign policy questions, his rule was not free from turmoil. The most significant conflict was the rivalry between then Crown Prince Faysal and King Sa‘ud (r. 1953-1964). The king was inward looking, and chiefly interested in tribal affairs, whereas Faysal was outward looking, aiming to enhance the kingdom’s position on both the regional as well as world scenes. Faysal perceived his brother’s accommodation with revolutionary Egypt to be ill advised and, at a time when regional upheavals -- including the 1956 Suez crisis, the Egyptian-Syrian union, the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy, and the civil war in Yemen -- threatened the kingdom, he considered Sa‘ud’s positions to be intolerable. Such policies, coupled with disastrous financial mismanagement, encouraged Faysal to take over. In November 1963, the Council of Senior Princes, supported by a fatwa (formal legal opinion) from the ‘ulama’, called on Sa‘ud to abdicate in favor of Faysal, who acceded to the throne on November 2, 1964. Faysal’s ten-point reform program to abolish slavery, modernize the administration, reorganize the country’s religious and judicial institutions, revamp labor and social laws, utilize natural resources soundly, build efficient infrastructures, and establish consultative as well as local councils, won him widespread praise. Many reforms were gradually introduced and others were implemented by successor rulers. When, for example, the grand mufti died in 1970, Faysal abolished the post, replacing it with two separate and less autonomous institutions. The Ministry of Justice was established to integrate the Saudi judiciary into the government, and the Council of Senior ‘Ulama’, comprising seventeen members appointed by the king, was created to provide the ruler with appropriate religious opinions and approvals. Significant socioeconomic reforms were embodied in the first five-year development plan, which was followed by a second, more ambitious, plan in 1975. Assassinated by a nephew on March 25, 1975, Faysal died before the actual implementation of his second plan, but he left his successors effective institutions to carry on his legacy.
Malik Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz see Faysal ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Sa‘ud
Fazari (al-Fazari). Name of two noted mathematicians.
(Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulaiman ibn Samura ibn Jundab al-Fazari) 8th century Muslim mathematician and astronomer of either Arab or Persian background. He recorded the first known mention of the Ghana empire. Although he lived at the court of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, the fame of Ghana reached him, and he referred to Ghana as “the land of gold.”
Al-Fazari was the mathematician and astronomer at the Abbasid court of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. He is not to be confused with his son Muhammad al-Fazari, also an Astronomer. He composed various astronomical writings (on the astrolabe, on the armillary spheres, on the calendar).
The Caliph ordered him and his son to translate the Indian Astronomical text, The Sindhind along with Yaqub ibn Tāriq, which was completed in Baghdad about 750 C.C., and entitled Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab. This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam.
He died in 777 C.C.
Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari (d. 796 or 806) was a Muslim philosopher, mathematician and astronomer. He is not to be confused with his father Ibrahim al-Fazari, also an astronomer and mathematician.
While some sources refer to him as an Arab, other sources state that he was a Persian.
Al-Fazari translated many scientific books into Arabic and Persian. He is credited with having built the first astrolabe in the Islamic world.
Along with Yaqub ibn Tariq and his father he helped translate the Indian astronomical text by Brahmagupta (fl. 7th century), the Brahmasphutasiddhanta, into Arabic as Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab, or the Sindhind. This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam.
al-Fazari see Fazari
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulaiman ibn Samura ibn Jundab al-Fazari see Fazari
Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari
see Fazari
Fazli Hussain
Fazli Hussain (Mian Fazli Hussain) (1877-1936). Punjabi statesman. After the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1921, Indian politicians began to acquire substantial power in provincial governments. Operating as minister of education in the Punjab, Fazli Hussain was one of those who used his office most effectively. He generally displayed a preference for rural over urban interests in his province. For example, he used his department’s grants-in-aid to establish primary schools in the countryside, rather than sustaining secondary schools for the elite in the cities. When Muhammad Ali Jinnah returned to India in 1935 and set about reviving the Muslim League, Fazli Hussain ignored his efforts. Shortly before his death, Fazli Hussain resurrected the Punjab Unionist Party, which brought together Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu leaders. The elections of 1937 kept the Unionists in power with the Muslim League winning only two seats in the Punjab. Sikandar Hayat Khan (d. 1942), Hussain’s successor, worked out a loose alliance with the Muslim League in 1937, but the Unionists retained power until 1947.
Mian Fazli Hussain see Fazli Hussain Hussain, Fazli see Fazli Hussain Hussain, Mian Fazli see Fazli Hussain
Fazli Hussain (Mian Fazli Hussain) (1877-1936). Punjabi statesman. After the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1921, Indian politicians began to acquire substantial power in provincial governments. Operating as minister of education in the Punjab, Fazli Hussain was one of those who used his office most effectively. He generally displayed a preference for rural over urban interests in his province. For example, he used his department’s grants-in-aid to establish primary schools in the countryside, rather than sustaining secondary schools for the elite in the cities. When Muhammad Ali Jinnah returned to India in 1935 and set about reviving the Muslim League, Fazli Hussain ignored his efforts. Shortly before his death, Fazli Hussain resurrected the Punjab Unionist Party, which brought together Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu leaders. The elections of 1937 kept the Unionists in power with the Muslim League winning only two seats in the Punjab. Sikandar Hayat Khan (d. 1942), Hussain’s successor, worked out a loose alliance with the Muslim League in 1937, but the Unionists retained power until 1947.
Mian Fazli Hussain see Fazli Hussain Hussain, Fazli see Fazli Hussain Hussain, Mian Fazli see Fazli Hussain
Fazlul Huq
Fazlul Huq (Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq) (Abul Kashem Fazlul Huq) (Abul Kashem Fozlul Hôk) (October 26, 1873 — April 27, 1962). Often referred to as Sher-e-Bangla (Bengali: "Tiger of Bengal"). Fazlul Huq was a well-known Bengali statesman in the first half of the 20th century. He held different political posts including those of General Secretary of the Indian National Congress (1918-1919), Education Minister (1924), the first Muslim Mayor of Calcutta (1935), Chief Minister of undivided Bengal (1937-1943) and East Pakistan (1954), Home Minister of Pakistan (1955-56), Governor of East Pakistan (1956-58), Food and Agriculture Minister of Pakistan (1958-61).
Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq was enormously popular among the Muslims of Bengal. From the Bakarganj District, now in Bangladesh, he was trained as a lawyer at Calcutta University and first entered politics as a protégé of Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka. Once in politics, Huq made his own way and just after World War I was a member of the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress. Entering the Bengal Legislative Council in 1913, he gained a considerable following and could be elected from almost any Muslim seat. He served in the Legislative Council until 1936 and was briefly a minister in 1924.
One of the founders of the All-Bengal Praja Samiti (a peasant organization), Huq became the foremost leader of the Krishak Praja Party, which won one-third of the Muslim seats in the 1936-1937 elections for the Bengal Legislative Assembly. Rebuffed by the Congress, Huq formed an alliance with the Muslim League, joined the League, and became chief minister of Bengal from 1937 to 1943. He was also the proposer of the famous Lahore, or Pakistan, Resolution in 1940 calling for separate Muslim states in South Asia.
In 1941, however, Huq broke with the Muslim League, formed an alliance with the dissident wing of the Congress in Bengal called the Progressive Coalition, and formed a new government without the League. This lasted until 1943, when Huq fell before the machinations of the Raj and the rise of the Muslim League, which formed two cabinets without him.
Huq remained in East Pakistan after independence and eventually re-formed his party as the Krishak Sramik (Peasants and Workers) Party. This party joined the United Front, which won the 1954 elections, and Huq formed the ministry, but this was shortly dismissed. He served briefly as a central government minister and then as governor of East Pakistan from 1956 to 1958. A renowned speaker in Bengali and English, Huq was affectionately known as Sher-e-Bangla (“tiger of Bengal”) by his followers.
Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq see Fazlul Huq Sher-e-Bangla see Fazlul Huq “tiger of Bengal” see Fazlul Huq Huq, Fazlul see Fazlul Huq Huq, Abul Kasem Fazlul see Fazlul Huq
Fazlul Huq (Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq) (Abul Kashem Fazlul Huq) (Abul Kashem Fozlul Hôk) (October 26, 1873 — April 27, 1962). Often referred to as Sher-e-Bangla (Bengali: "Tiger of Bengal"). Fazlul Huq was a well-known Bengali statesman in the first half of the 20th century. He held different political posts including those of General Secretary of the Indian National Congress (1918-1919), Education Minister (1924), the first Muslim Mayor of Calcutta (1935), Chief Minister of undivided Bengal (1937-1943) and East Pakistan (1954), Home Minister of Pakistan (1955-56), Governor of East Pakistan (1956-58), Food and Agriculture Minister of Pakistan (1958-61).
Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq was enormously popular among the Muslims of Bengal. From the Bakarganj District, now in Bangladesh, he was trained as a lawyer at Calcutta University and first entered politics as a protégé of Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka. Once in politics, Huq made his own way and just after World War I was a member of the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress. Entering the Bengal Legislative Council in 1913, he gained a considerable following and could be elected from almost any Muslim seat. He served in the Legislative Council until 1936 and was briefly a minister in 1924.
One of the founders of the All-Bengal Praja Samiti (a peasant organization), Huq became the foremost leader of the Krishak Praja Party, which won one-third of the Muslim seats in the 1936-1937 elections for the Bengal Legislative Assembly. Rebuffed by the Congress, Huq formed an alliance with the Muslim League, joined the League, and became chief minister of Bengal from 1937 to 1943. He was also the proposer of the famous Lahore, or Pakistan, Resolution in 1940 calling for separate Muslim states in South Asia.
In 1941, however, Huq broke with the Muslim League, formed an alliance with the dissident wing of the Congress in Bengal called the Progressive Coalition, and formed a new government without the League. This lasted until 1943, when Huq fell before the machinations of the Raj and the rise of the Muslim League, which formed two cabinets without him.
Huq remained in East Pakistan after independence and eventually re-formed his party as the Krishak Sramik (Peasants and Workers) Party. This party joined the United Front, which won the 1954 elections, and Huq formed the ministry, but this was shortly dismissed. He served briefly as a central government minister and then as governor of East Pakistan from 1956 to 1958. A renowned speaker in Bengali and English, Huq was affectionately known as Sher-e-Bangla (“tiger of Bengal”) by his followers.
Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq see Fazlul Huq Sher-e-Bangla see Fazlul Huq “tiger of Bengal” see Fazlul Huq Huq, Fazlul see Fazlul Huq Huq, Abul Kasem Fazlul see Fazlul Huq
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